Measurement and Control

Engineering
Chapter 9:
Transfer Function
 Outline

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Transfer Function

9.3 System Transfer Functions

9.4 Block Manipulation

9.5 Multiple Inputs

9.6 Sensitivity

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 2

 Objective

• Understand why system identification is needed and what models represent.

• Know the difference between white-box, grey-box, and black-box modelling.
• Learn how to obtain system models from input–output experiments.
• Use step and sinusoidal tests to estimate system parameters
• Apply basic parameter estimation and data-fitting methods.
• Validate models using error checks and response comparison.
• Recognise noise, nonlinearity, and data-quality issues in identification.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 3

 9.1 INTRODUCTION

• The chapter introduces the Laplace transform as a tool to simplify system input–output relationships.
• It replaces differential equations with simpler algebraic expressions involving transformed variables.
• It allows dynamic systems to be described using simple gains instead of time-domain differential
equations.
• The chapter focuses on how to apply the Laplace transform in practice, not on proving the underlying
mathematics.
• Appendix C contains the mathematical justification for the transform.
• The analysis assumes linear systems, where the response to combined inputs equals the sum of
individual responses.
• Real systems only approximate linearity, but the assumption provides good practical accuracy and
simplifies analysis.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 4

 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

• When system inputs and outputs are expressed as time functions, their relationship is usually given by
differential equations. For systems made of multiple elements in series, combining these differential
equations is difficult. The Laplace transform overcomes this by converting time-domain differential
equations into algebraic equations that are easier to manipulate.
• The transformation follows rules:
• A time-domain variable such as v(t) becomes an s-domain variable V(s) after transformation.
The transform of a sum is the sum of the transforms:
𝑓₁(𝑡) + 𝑓₂(𝑡) → 𝐹₁(𝑠) + 𝐹₂(𝑠).
• Multiplying a time function by a constant keeps the constant:
𝑘 𝑣(𝑡) → 𝑘 𝑉(𝑠).
• For the first derivative, with zero initial value at t = 0:
𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 → 𝑠𝑉(𝑠).

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

• With an initial value v₀ at t = 0:

𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 → 𝑠𝑉(𝑠) − 𝑣₀.
• For the second derivative, with zero initial values at t = 0:
𝑑²𝑣/𝑑𝑡² → 𝑠²𝑉(𝑠).
• With initial values v₀ and (dv/dt)₀:
𝑑²𝑣/𝑑𝑡² → 𝑠²𝑉(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑣₀ − (𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡)₀.
• For an integral from 0 to t:
∫ ₀ᵗ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 → (1/𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠).
∫ ₀ᵗ 𝑘 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 → (𝑘/𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠).
• Initial conditions must be known when derivatives are present, since they appear explicitly in the s-domain
expressions.

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

• EXAMPLE
• Laplace Transform of the Equation (No Initial Values)
• Given the time-domain equation:
𝑣 = 𝑅 𝐶 (𝑑𝑣𝐶/𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝐶)
• Applying the Laplace transform (with zero initial conditions):
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑅 𝐶 [ 𝑠𝑉𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑉𝐶(𝑠) ]
• Here, V(s) is the Laplace transform of v(t), and VC(s) is the Laplace transform of vC(t).
• Rearranging to express the input–output relationship:
𝑉𝐶(𝑠) / 𝑉(𝑠) = 1 / (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)
• This expression represents the system transfer function.
• A first-order differential equation results in a Laplace transform equation containing only a first-power 𝑠
term.

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Function
• The transfer function G(s) relates the Laplace transforms of
the input and output when all initial conditions are zero:
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠) / 𝑋(𝑠)
• It generalizes the concept of gain (G = output/input) to
systems described in the s-domain.
• G(s) can be represented as a block diagram, where X(s) is
the input, Y(s) is the output, and the block containing G(s)
multiplies the input to produce the output.
• Using Laplace transforms, the transfer function acts as a
simple multiplication factor between input and output.

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

• Example: Transfer Function of an Electrical System

• For a system with the relationship:
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) / 𝑉(𝑠) = 1 / (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)
• The transfer function is:
𝐺(𝑠) = 1 / (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)
• To find the Laplace-transformed output VC(s), multiply the Laplace-transformed input V(s) by the transfer
function:
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) · 𝑉(𝑠) = [1 / (𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1)] · 𝑉(𝑠).

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Functions of Common System Elements

• Gear train: Relates input speed to output speed.
• Transfer function = N, where N is the gear ratio.
• Amplifier: Relates input voltage to output voltage.
• Transfer function = G, where G is the amplifier gain.
• Potentiometer: Acts as a voltage divider.
• Transfer function = K, the ratio of output tapped resistance to total resistance.
• Armature-controlled DC motor:
• Relates input voltage to armature current, which is proportional to output torque.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 / (𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅) where L is armature inductance and R is resistance.
• Valve-controlled hydraulic actuator:
• Relates input valve shaft displacement to cylinder displacement.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾1 / [𝑠(𝐾2𝑠 + 𝐾3)], where K1, K2, K3 are constants.

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Functions of Common System Elements

• Heating system: Relates input to a heating element to resulting temperature.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 / (𝑠𝐶 + 1/𝑅),
• where C is thermal capacity and R is thermal resistance.
• Tachogenerator:
• Relates rotational speed to output voltage.
• Transfer function = 𝐾 (constant).
• Displacement and rotation system:
• Converts rotational input to linear displacement.
• Since speed is the rate of displacement, 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 = 1 / 𝑠.
• Liquid level in a container: Relates rate of liquid inflow to height of liquid.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 / (𝑠𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 / 𝑅)
• where A is cross-sectional area, ρ is liquid density, g is gravity, and R is hydraulic resistance.

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Functions and Systems

• The system consists of a differential amplifier, a motor, a gear train, and a tachogenerator for feedback.
Each element is described by a transfer function:
• Differential amplifier:
• Amplifies the error signal.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐾 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛).
• Motor armature circuit:
• Input voltage produces torque proportional to armature current.
• Modeled as series inductance L and resistance R.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1 / (𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅).
• Gear system:
• Converts motor torque to shaft rotation.
• Transfer function = N (gear ratio constant).

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 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Functions and Systems

• Transfer function = N (gear ratio constant).
• Tachogenerator:
• Provides feedback proportional to shaft speed.
• Transfer function = H (constant).
• Overall system: Input V(s) → Amplifier K → Motor 1/(sL + R) → Gears N
→ Output ω(s) with feedback H via tachogenerator..

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 13

 9.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer Functions and Systems

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 14

 9.3 SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION

Systems in Series
• For two subsystems connected in series: Input X(s), output Y1(s).
• Transfer function 𝐺1(𝑠) = 𝑌1(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠)
• Second subsystem: Input Y1(s), output Y(s).
• Transfer function 𝐺2(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠)/𝑌1(𝑠)
• Overall output: 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺2(𝑠) · 𝑌1(𝑠) = 𝐺2(𝑠) · 𝐺1(𝑠) · 𝑋(𝑠)
• Overall transfer function: 𝐺_𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐺1(𝑠) · 𝐺2(𝑠)
• The transfer function of a series system is the product of the individual transfer functions.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 15

 9.3 SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION

Systems with Feedback

• Negative Feedback:
• Output Y(s) is fed back through H(s) and subtracted
from the input X(s).
• Error signal:
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝑠) = 𝑋(𝑠) − 𝐻(𝑠) · 𝑌(𝑠)
• Output:
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) · 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟(𝑠)
• Overall transfer function:
𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) / [1 + 𝐺(𝑠) · 𝐻(𝑠)]

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 9.3 SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION

Systems with Feedback

• Positive Feedback:
• Feedback signal H(s)·Y(s) is added to
input X(s)
• Overall transfer function: 𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) =
𝐺(𝑠) / [1 − 𝐺(𝑠) · 𝐻(𝑠)]
• Negative feedback: forward path divided by
(1 + product of forward and feedback paths)
• Positive feedback: forward path divided by
(1 − product of forward and feedback
paths).

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 9.3 SYSTEM TRANSFER FUNCTION

Systems with Feedback

Example – Negative Feedback System
• System: Forward path G(s) = 2 / (s + 2), Feedback H(s) = 4
• Overall transfer function formula (negative feedback):
𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠) / [1 + 𝐺(𝑠) · 𝐻(𝑠)]
• Substitute values:
𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) = [2 / (𝑠 + 2)] / [1 + (2 / (𝑠 + 2)) · 4]
• Simplify:
𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) = [2 / (𝑠 + 2)] / [(𝑠 + 2 + 8)/(𝑠 + 2)]
𝑌(𝑠)/𝑋(𝑠) = 2 / (𝑠 + 10)

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 18

 9.4 BLOCK MANIPULATION

• In complex systems with multiple elements and sometimes more than one input, block diagrams can be
reorganized to simplify analysis while keeping the same overall transfer function.
• Blocks can be moved, combined, or split to simplify the diagram.
• The Laplace variable (s) is assumed for all dynamic elements, even if omitted in diagrams.
• Simplification helps to calculate overall transfer functions more efficiently.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 19

 9.4 BLOCK MANIPULATION

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 20

 9.4 BLOCK MANIPULATION

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 21

 9.4 BLOCK MANIPULATION

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 22

 9.4 BLOCK MANIPULATION

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 23

 9.4 BLOCK MANIPULATION

EXAMPLE
Use block simplification techniques to simplify the system.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 24

 9.5 MULTIPLE INPUTS

• For systems with more than one input, the superposition principle applies: the response to multiple
simultaneous inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.
• Procedure for a Multiple Input Single Output (MISO) system:
• Set all inputs except one to zero.
• Determine the output due to the single non-zero input.
• Repeat for each input in turn.
• Sum all individual outputs algebraically to obtain the total system output.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 25

 9.5 MULTIPLE INPUTS

• EXAMPLE Determine the output Y(s) of the system when there is an input X(s) to the system as a
whole and a disturbance signal D(s) at the point indicated.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 26

 9.5 MULTIPLE INPUTS

For a system with an input 𝑋 𝑠 and a disturbance 𝐷 𝑠 :

Set 𝐷 𝑠 = 0to consider only the main input. The output is:

𝑌 𝑠 2
=
𝑋 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠+1 2 𝑠+2
Set 𝑋 𝑠 = 0to consider only the disturbance input. The system has a forward path 2/𝑠and positive
𝑠+1
feedback ,giving:
𝑠+3

𝑌 𝑠 2 𝑠+3
=
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠+1 2 𝑠+1
Using superposition, the total output is the sum of outputs due to each input:

2 2 𝑠+3
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐷 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠+1 2 𝑠+2 𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠+1 2 𝑠+1

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 27

 9.6 SENSITIVITY

Sensitivity measures how changes in system element gains or inputs affect the overall system gain.
Sensitivity to Changes in Parameters
In a closed-loop system with negative feedback (Figure 9.27), the overall transfer function is:

𝐺 𝑠
𝐺overall 𝑠 =
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
If 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ≫ 1 ,then:

1
𝐺overall 𝑠 ≈
𝐻 𝑠
This implies the system is relatively insensitive to variations in the forward path 𝐺 𝑠 but sensitive to
variations in the feedback path 𝐻 𝑠 .
Example: A 10% increase in 𝐻 𝑠 )𝐻 𝑠 → 1.1𝐻 𝑠 (changes the overall gain approximately 10% (1/𝐻 𝑠
→ 1/1.1𝐻 𝑠

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 28

 9.6 SENSITIVITY

Sensitivity to Forward Path Changes:

• Defined as the fractional change in overall gain relative to the fractional change in the forward element:

Δ𝐺overall /𝐺overall 𝑑𝐺overall 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠

Sensitivity = =
Δ𝐺/𝐺 𝑑𝐺 𝑠 𝐺overall 𝑠

• Differentiating 𝐺overall 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 / 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 gives:

𝑑𝐺overall 𝑠 1
=
𝑑𝐺 𝑠 ቀ1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 )2
1
• Therefore, the sensitivity is: Sensitivity = 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠

• The larger the product 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ,the lower the sensitivity to forward path changes.
• Application: For a feedback op-amp with a very large forward gain 𝐺 𝑠 ,the system has low sensitivity
to variations in the op-amp gain. The overall system gain is effectively determined by the feedback loop

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 29

•.

Summary: Chapter 9 Transfer Function

• Introduces Laplace transform as a method to convert differential equations into algebraic relationships for
easier system analysis.

• Defines transfer functions as input–output models describing linear dynamic systems in the s-domain.

• Explains system transfer functions through examples such as motors, amplifiers, gears, and feedback
elements.

• Shows block-diagram manipulation techniques to simplify complex control systems.

• Describes analysis of systems with multiple inputs using the superposition principle.

• Discusses sensitivity and how parameter variations affect overall system performance.

Chapter 9 : Transfer Function 30