BCO601(Microcontrollers and Embedded System)

Module-3
 Embedded System Components

What is Embedded System?

An embedded system is a combination of 3 types of components: a. Hardware b. Software
c. Mechanical Components and it is supposed to do one specific task only.
Or
An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to perform a specific function
and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (Software)

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive
Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player etc…

Embedded System & General-Purpose Computing system

➢ The Embedded System and the General-purpose computing system are at two extremes.
➢ The embedded system is designed to perform a specific task whereas as per definition
the general-purpose computer is meant for general use. It can be used for playing
games, watching movies, creating software, work on documents or spreadsheets etc.
➢ Following are certain specific points that differentiates between embedded systems
and general-purpose computers:
History of Embedded Systems

Classification of Embedded Systems

It is possible to have classifications for embedded systems, based on different criteria.

Some of the criteria used in the classification of embedded systems are:

• Complexity & performance requirements

 • Based on generation
• Based on deterministic behavior
• Based on triggering
Based on generation

First Generation:
➢ The early embedded systems built around 8bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80 and
4bit microcontrollers.
➢ Examples: Digital telephone keypads.

Second Generation:
➢ Embedded Systems built around 16 bit microprocessors and 8 or 16bit
microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems.
➢ Examples: SCADA systems

Third Generation:
➢ Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32
bit Microprocessors/controllers.
➢ Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital Signal Processors (DSPs),
and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).
➢ Examples: Robotics, Media, etc.

Fourth Generation:
➢ Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoCs), Re configurable processors
and multicore processors.
➢ Highly complex & very powerful.
➢ Examples: Smart P
Based on Complexity & performance requirements

Small-scale:

➢ Simple in application need

➢ Performance not time-critical.
➢ Built around low performance& low cost 8 or 16 bit µp/µc. Example: an
electronic toy

Medium-scale
➢ Slightly complex in hardware & firmware requirement.
➢ Built around medium performance & low cost 16 or 32 bit µp/µc.
➢ Usually contain operating system.
➢ Examples: Industrial machines
Large-scale:
➢ Highly complex hardware & firmware.
➢ Built around 32 or 64 bit RISC µp/µc or PLDs or Multicore-Processors.
➢ Response is time-critic

Based on deterministic behaviour

This classification is applicable for “Real Time” systems.
➢ The task execution behaviour for an embedded system may be deterministic or
non- deterministic.
➢ Based on execution behaviour Real Time embedded systems are divided into
Hard and Soft.
Based on triggering
Embedded systems which are “Reactive” in nature can be classify based on triggering.
Reactive systems can be:
➢ Event triggered
➢ Time triggered
Application Area of Embedded System

We are living in a world where embedded systems play a vital role in our day-to-day life,
starting from home to the computer industry, where most of the people found their job for a
livelihood.

The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of the
important domains and products are listed below:

1. Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras.

2. Household appliances: Washing machine, Refrigerator.
3. Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking system(ABS), engine control.
4. Home automation & security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, fire alarms.
5. Telecom: Cellular phones, telephone switches.
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners.
7. Computer networking systems: Network routers and switches.
8. Healthcare: EEG, ECG machines.
9. Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines, point of sales.
10. Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers.

Purpose of Embedded System

Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.

1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (Signal) Processing
4. Monitoring
5. Control
6. Application Specific User Interface
Data Collection/Storage/Representation

➢ Embedded system designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of
data from the external world.
➢ Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
➢ Data can be analog or digital.
➢ Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data directly in the
form of analog signal whereas embedded systems with digital data collection
mechanism converts the analog signal to the digital signal using analog to digital
converters.
➢ If the data is digital it can be directly captured by digital embedded system.
➢ A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded System with data
collection/storage/representation of data.
➢ Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the memory of the
camera. The captured image can also be presented to the user through a graphic LCD
unit.
Data communication
➢ Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications from complex
➢ satellite communication to simple home networking systems.
➢ The transmission of data is achieved either by a wire-lin medium or by a wire-less
➢ medium. Data can either be transmitted by analog means or by digital means.
➢ Wireless modules-Bluetooth, Wi-Fi.
➢ Wire-line modules-USB, TCP/IP.
➢ Network hubs, routers, switches are examples of dedicated data transmission
➢ embedded systems.

Data signal processing

➢ Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in
applications demanding signal processing like speech coding, audio video codec,
transmission applications etc.
➢ A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system employing
data processing. Digital hearing aid improves the hearing capacity of hearing
impaired person.

Monitoring
➢ All embedded products coming under the medical domain are with monitoring
functions. Electro cardiogram machine is intended to do the monitoring of the
heartbeat of a patient but it cannot impose control over the heartbeat.
➢ Other examples with monitoring function are digital CRO, digital multi-meters,
and logic analysers.
Control
➢ Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control over
some variables according to the changes in input variables.
➢ A system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators
➢ Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental
variable and the actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to
the changes in the input variable.
➢ Air conditioner system used to control the room temperature to a specified limit is a
typical example for control purpose.

Application specific user interface

➢ Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application
➢ Buttons, switches, keypad, lights, bells, display units etc. are application specific
user interfaces.
➢ Mobile phone, Control units in industry applications are example of application
specific user interface.
➢ In mobile phone the user interface is provided through the keypad, system
speaker, vibration alert etc.
‘Smart’ running shoes from Adidas – The Innovative bonding of Life Style with Embedded
Technology

➢ Shoe developed by Adidas, which constantly adapts its shock-absorbing

characteristics to customize its value to the individual runner, depending on
running style, pace, body weight, and running surface
➢ It contains sensors, actuators and a microprocessor unit which runs the
algorithm for adapting the shock-absorbing characteristics of the shoe
➢ A ‘Hall effect sensor’ placed at the top of the “cushioning element” senses the
compression and passes it to the Microprocessor

➢ A micro motor actuator controls the cushioning as per the commands from the
MPU, based on the compression sensed by the ‘Hall effect sensor’
Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable (such Microwave
Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending some signals to the actuators or
devices connected to the output port system (such as temperature in Air Conditioner), in
response to the input signal provided by the end users or sensors which are connected to the
input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive system.

The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the sensors and user
interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable. Keyboards,
push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices and LEDs,
LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface output devices
for a typical
embedded system. The requirement of type of user interface changes from application to
application based on domain.

Some embedded systems do not require any manual intervention for their operation. They
automatically sense the input parameters from real world through sensors which are
connected at input port. The sensor information is passed to the processor after signal
conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some predefined operations
on input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating
signals to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the system.

The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and other
important configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any embedded
system. Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user cannot change
the firmware in this type of memory. The most common types of memories used in embedded
systems for control algorithm storage are OTP, PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH.
An embedded system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented memory has all
the peripherals but is not capable of making decisions depending on the situational as well as
real world changes.

Memory for implementing the code may be present on the processor or may be implemented
as a separate chip interfacing the processor. In a controller based embedded system, the
controller may contain internal memory for storing code such controllers are called Micro-
controllers with on- chip ROM, eg. Atmel AT89C51.

Core of Embedded Systems

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.

1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

1.1. Microprocessors
1.2. Microcontrollers
1.3. Digital Signal Processors
2. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
3. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
4. Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)
General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

➢ Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.

➢ The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal
processor, depending on the domain and application.

Microprocessor:

➢ A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of

performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer.
➢ In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit and
Working registers Microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination
of other hardware like Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc for proper
functioning.

➢ Intel claims the credit for developing the first Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4
bit processor which was released in Nov 1971
➢ Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4-bit)
Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April 1974(8-bit).
Motorola – Motorola 6800.
Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
Zilog - Z80 – July 1976

General Purpose Processor (GPP) Vs Application Specific Instruction Set Processor

(ASIP)
➢ General Purpose Processor or GPP is a processor designed for general computational
tasks
➢ GPPs are produced in large volumes and targeting the general market. Due to the
high volume production, the per unit cost for a chip is low compared to ASIC or other
other specific Ics
 ➢ A typical general purpose processor contains an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
and Control Unit (CU)
➢ Application Specific Instruction Set processors (ASIPs) are processors with
architecture and instruction set optimized to specific domain/application
requirements like Network processing, Automotive, Telecom, media applications,
digital signal processing, control applications etc.
➢ ASIPs fill the architectural spectrum between General Purpose Processors and
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).
➢ The need for an ASIP arises when the traditional general purpose processor are
unable to meet the increasing application needs.
➢ Some Microcontrollers (like Automotive AVR, USB AVR from Atmel), System on
Chips, Digital Signal Processors etc are examples of Application Specific Instruction
Set Processors (ASIPs)
➢ ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals, demanded by the application
requirement, program and data memory

Microcontroller:

➢ A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General- purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH memory for program
storage, Timer and Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
➢ Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors
➢ Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel 8051, designed for generic
applications and domains) or application specific (Like Automotive AVR from
Atmel Corporation. Designed specifically for automotive applications)
➢ Since a microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent
working, they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of
microprocessors
➢ Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market
➢ Texas Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the world’s first microcontroller
Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller

Digital Signal Processors

➢ DSP are powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessor designed to meet
the computational demands and power constraints of today’s embedded audio,
video and communication applications. DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general
purpose microprocessors in signal processing applications.
➢ This is because of the architectural difference between DSP and general
purpose microprocessors.
➢ DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas
general purpose processor implement the algorithm in software and the speed of
execution depends primarily on the clock for the processors.
➢ DSP includes following key units:
i. Program memory: It is a memory for storing the program required by DSP to
process the data. ii. Data memory: It is a working memory for storing temporary
variables and data/signal to be processed. iii. Computational engine: It performs the
signal processing in accordance with the stored program memory computational
engine incorporated many specialized arithmetic units and each of them operates
simultaneously to increase the execution speed. It also includes multiple hardware
 shifting operands and saves execution time. iv. I/O unit: It acts as an interface
between the outside world and DSP. It is responsible for capturing signals to be
processed and delivering the processed [Link] for
➢ Examples: Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia
applications. SOP(Sum of Products) calculation, convolution, FFT(Fast Fourier
Transform), DFT(Discrete Fourier Transform), etc are some of the operation
performed by DSP.

RISC Vs CISC Processors/Controllers

Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller Architecture

➢ Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture shares a single

common bus for fetching both instructions and data. Program instructions and data
are stored in a common main memory
➢ Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate
data bus and instruction bus. This allows the data transfer and program fetching to
occur simultaneously on both buses
➢ With Harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and written while the
program memory is being accessed. These separated data memory and code memory
buses allow one instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched (“Pre-
fetching”)

Program
Memory

Single shared Bus

Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:

➢ Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by
processor operations in a multi byte system (Processors whose word size is greater
than one byte). Suppose the word length is two byte then data can be stored in
memory in two different ways

• Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte
at location just below the higher memory
• Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte
at location just below the higher memory

➢ Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the
lowest address, and the higher-order byte at the highest address. (The little end
comes first)
➢ Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.)
Load Store Operation & Instruction Pipelining:

➢ The RISC processor instruction set is orthogonal and it operates on registers. The
memory access related operations are performed by the special instructions load and
store. If the operand is specified as memory location, the content of it is loaded to a
register using the load instruction.
➢ The instruction store stores data from a specified register to a specified memory location

R1 R2 R3
1 3 3 1
load R1, x
2
x 00 load R2, y
3
y 7F ALU 3 add R3, R1, R2 4
z 23
store R3, z

➢ The conventional instruction execution by the processor follows the Fetch-

Decode- Execute sequence
➢ During the decode operation the memory address bus is available and it is
possible to effectively utilize it for an instruction fetch, the processing speed can
be increased
➢ In its simplest form instruction pipelining refers to the overlapped
execution of instructions

Clock Pulses Clock Pulses Clock Pulses

Machine Cycle 1 Machine Cycle 2 Machine Cycle 3

Fetch (PC)
 Execute (PC - 1) Fetch (PC+1)
Execute (PC) Fetch (PC+2)
PC : Program Counter Execute (PC+1)

The Single stage pipelining concept

Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

➢ A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as

replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.
➢ ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost
➢ Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very
small area in the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with
high capabilities/functionalities

➢ ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated

by using the components from a re-usable „building block‟ library of components for
a particular customer application
➢ Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment (Non Recurring
Engineering (NRE) charges) for the process technology and configuration expenses
➢ If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the
market, the ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)
➢ The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but
to a smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

➢ Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data

communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and
almost every other function a system must perform.
➢ Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and Programmable.
The circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of
functions
- once manufactured, they cannot be changed
➢ Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic capacity,
features, speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-configured
to perform any number of functions at any time
➢ Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed into
a device, and immediately tested in a live circuit
➢ PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed
to change the design
➢ Two major types of programmable logic devices

Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and

Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs)

FPGAs:

➢ FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the highest
performance.
➢ These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired
processors (such as the IBM Power PC), substantial amounts of memory, clock
management systems, and support for many of the latest, very fast device-to-device
signaling technologies
➢ FPGAs are used in a wide variety of applications ranging from data processing and
storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and digital signal processing

CPLDs:
 ➢ CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000 gates
➢ CPLDs offer very predictable timing characteristics and are therefore ideal for
critical control applications
➢ CPLDs such as the Xilinx CoolRunner series also require extremely low amounts of
power and are very inexpensive, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-
operated, portable applications such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants

Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS)

➢ A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used ‘as-is’.

➢ COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components
➢ Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy Car control
unit including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high frequency microwave
electronics (2 to 200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-digital converters, Devices
and components for operation at very high temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging
arrays, UV/IR Detectors etc.
➢ A COTS component in turn contains a GPP / ASIP / ASIC / ASSP / PLD
➢ Advantages: Readily available in the market, cheap and cuts down development time

Memory

➢ Memory is an important part of an embedded system. The memory used in

embedded system can be either
1. Program Storage Memory (ROM)
2. Data memory (RAM)
➢ Certain Embedded processors/controllers contain built in program memory and
data memory and this memory is known as on-chip memory
Program Storage Memory(ROM)

➢ Stores the program instructions (CODE)

➢ Retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off. It is generally
known as Nonvolatile storage memory
➢ Depending on the fabrication, erasing and programming techniques they are classified into

Masked ROM (MROM)

➢ One-time programmable memory. Uses hardwired technology for storing data. The
device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process according to the
data provided by the end user
➢ The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume production. They are
the least expensive type of solid-state memory
➢ Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like

• Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor through channel implant

• By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high
threshold transistor. In the high threshold mode, the supply voltage required to
turn ON the transistor is above the normal ROM IC operating voltage. This
ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores always
logic 0.
➢ The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the device
firmware against firmware upgrades.
PROM / OTP
➢ Unlike MROM it is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer
➢ PROM/OTP has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix, these wires
can be functionally viewed as fuses
➢ It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses
according to the bit pattern to be stored
➢ Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1” where as fuses which are
blown/burned represents a logic “0”. The default state is logic “1”
➢ OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose proto-
typed versions are proven and the code is finalized
➢ It is a low-cost solution for commercial production.
➢ OTPs cannot be reprogrammed

EPROM
➢ Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip
➢ EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET
➢ Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high
voltage to charge the floating gate
➢ EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information. If
the window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire
memory will be erased
➢ Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs
to be taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser device for
20 to 30 minutes

EEPROM

➢ Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip using electrical signals
➢ The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using
electrical signals at the register/Byte level
➢ They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit
➢ These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a
 few milliseconds
➢ It provides greater flexibility for system design
➢ The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard
ROM (A few kilobytes).

FLASH
➢ FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology
➢ It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard ROMs
➢ FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages
➢ FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors
➢ The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages
➢ Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming

Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM)

➢ RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor

➢ RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off, all the contents are destroyed
➢ RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory
location directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations
to reach the desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location)
➢
Static RAM (SRAM)

➢ Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage. They are made up of flip-flops
➢ In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using 6 transistors (or 6
MOSFETs). Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop) part of
the memory cell and 2 for controlling the access.
➢ Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available. SRAM is fast in operation due to

its resistive networking and switching capabilities

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

➢ Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are made up of MOS
transistor gates
➢ The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to SRAM
➢ The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it gets leaked off
with time and to prevent this, they need to be refreshed periodically
➢ Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation.
The refresh operation is done periodically in milliseconds inter

+
-
Non Volatile RAM (NVRAM)
➢ Random access memory with battery backup
➢ It contains Static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to
the memory in the absence of external power supply
➢ The memory and battery are packed together in a single package
➢ NVRAM is used for the non volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up
of flags etc
➢ The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years
➢ DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for 32KB NVRAM

➢ Memory selection for Embedded Systems: Selection of suitable memory is very much
essential step-in high-performance applications, because the challenges and
limitations of the system performance are often decided upon the type of memory
architecture.
➢ Systems memory requirement depend primarily on the nature of the application that
is planned to run on the system.
➢ Memory performance and capacity requirement for low cost systems are small,
whereas memory throughput can be the most critical requirement in a complex, high
performance system.
➢ Following are the factors that are to be considered while selecting the memory devices,
• Speed
• Data storage size and capacity
• Bus width
• Power consumption
• Cost
Sensors & Actuators:

➢ Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world

➢ Controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded system is achieved
in accordance with the changes happening to the Real World.
➢ The changes in the system environment or variables are detected by the sensors
connected to the input port of the embedded system.
➢ If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will
produce some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the
desired value.
➢ It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.

Sensor:
➢ A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose. Sensors acts as input device Eg. Hall Effect Sensor
which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet in the Smart Running
shoes from adidas
➢ Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic , piezoelectric , smoke sensors

Actuator:
➢ A form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts
signals to corresponding physical action (motion).
➢ Actuator acts as an output device
➢ Example: Micro motor actuator which adjusts the position of the cushioning element
in the Smart Running shoes from adidas.

➢
The I/O Subsystem:

➢ The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with external world
➢ The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the Input and
output ports respectively of the embedded system
➢ The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead they may be
interfaced through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC.
1) I/O Devices - Light Emitting Diode (LED):

➢ LED is a p-n junction diode and contains a CATHODE and ANODE For
functioning the anode is connected to +ve end of power supply and cathode is
connected to –ve end of power supply.
➢ The maximum current flowing through the LED is limited by connecting a
RESISTOR in series between the power supply and LED as shown in the figure
below

There are two ways to interface an LED to a microprocessor/microcontroller:

➢ The Anode of LED is connected to the port pin and cathode to Ground : In this
approach the port pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high(ie. 1).
➢ The Cathode of LED is connected to the port pin and Anode to Vcc : In this
approach the port pin sources the current to the LED when it is at logic high (ie. 1).
Here the port pin sinks the current and the LED is turned ON when the port pin is at
Logic low (ie. 0)

2) I/O Devices – 7-Segment LED Display

➢ The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters
➢ It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form. Out of
the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters
➢ The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named
as DP
➢ The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters
➢ The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
Common anode and Common cathode
➢ In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments
share a common cathode line
 Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or
cathode is connected to the Port of the processor/controller in the order, A‟ segment
to the Least significant port Pin and DP segment to the most significant Port Pin.
➢ The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the
maximum value supported by the LED display unit

3) I/O Devices – Stepper Motor:

➢ Stepper motor is an electro mechanical device which generates discrete displacement

(motion) in response to dc electrical signals LED O/P interface
➢ It differs from the normal dc motor in its operation. The dc motor produces
continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor produces
discrete rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it
➢ Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded applications, consumer
electronic products and robotics control systems
➢ The paper feed mechanism of a printer/fax makes use of stepper motors for its
functioning.
➢ Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two phase stepper motor is classified into
➢ Unipolar
➢ Bipolar
 A C B D

M
S
GND

GND

Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase. The direction of
rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by changing the
direction of current flow. Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the opposite
direction flows through the other coil. It is easy to shift the direction of rotation by just
switching the terminals to which the coils are connected.

Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase. For reversing the
motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed dynamically. It requires
complex circuitry for current flow reversal.

2 Phase Unipolar Stepper Motor – Stepping Sequence

2 Phase Unipolar Stepper Motor – Interfacing
➢ Depending on the current and voltage requirements, special driving circuits are
required to interface the stepper motor with microcontroller.
➢ Stepper motor driving ICs like ULN2803 or simple transistor based driving circuit
can be used for interfacing stepper motors with processor/controller

Port Pins A
M

Driver IC C
Microcontroller
ULN2803 B D

Vcc
GND Vcc

4)I/O Devices – Push button switch:

4) I/O Devices: Keyboard
➢ If the number of keys required is very limited, push button switches can be used and
they can be directly interfaced to the port pins for reading.
➢ Matrix keyboard is an optimum solution for handling large number of key requirements