Routing

Routing controls how data packets move from source to destination, ensuring efficient and reliable
delivery.
Desirable Properties of Routing Algorithms:-
• Correctness and Simplicity
• Robustness: Ability of the network to deliver packets via some route even in the face of
failures.
• Stability: The algorithm should converge to equilibrium fast in the face of changing
conditions in the network.
• Fairness and Optimality
• Efficiency: Minimum overhead.
Design Parameters of Routing Algorithms :
• Performance Criteria: Number of hops, Cost (Send packet with high bandwidth path as the
cost is less), Delay (Size of Queue), Throughput time (Number of packets delivered/time).
• Decision Time: When to decide to route a packet? Per-Packet (Datagram) or Per-session
(Virtual-Circuit).
• Decision Place: Who will decide about routing? Each Node(distributed), Central Node
(centralized), Originated Node (source).
• Network Information Source: None, Local, Adjacent node, Nodes along the route, All nodes.
• Network Information Update Time: Continuous, Periodic, Major Load Change, Topology
Change.
It can be done in the following two ways, static and dynamic routing.
1. Static Routing
Static Routing is also known as non-adaptive routing, which doesn't change the routing table unless
the network administrator changes or modifies it manually.
• It does not use complex routing algorithms.
• Provides higher or more security than dynamic routing.

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Advantages
• No CPU overhead on routers, cheaper routers can be used.
• More secure, only the administrator controls the allowed routes.
• No bandwidth is consumed between routers.
Disadvantage
• Manually adding routes in large networks is time-consuming.
• It requires detailed knowledge of the network topology.
• New administrators must learn all routes to configure them correctly.
2. Dynamic Routing
This routing is also known as adaptive routing, which automatically updates the routing table
whenever there is a change in the network topology.
• It uses complex algorithms to calculate routes, but it is less secure compared to static routing.
• When a change occurs, routers exchange messages and recalculate the routes to ensure
updated routing information is shared across the network.

Advantages
• Automatic Route Updates: Routes are updated automatically when network topology
changes
• Efficient Path Selection: Chooses the best available path using metrics like hop count, cost,
or delay
• Scalability: Suitable for large and complex networks with multiple routers
• Reduced Manual Configuration: Eliminates the need to manually configure and update
routes
• Fault Tolerance: Automatically reroutes traffic if a link or router fails
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Disadvantages
• Higher Bandwidth Usage: Consumes bandwidth for exchanging routing information
between routers
• Less Secure: Vulnerable to attacks if routing updates are not properly secured
• Complex Configuration: Requires understanding of routing protocols and proper setup
• Slower Convergence: Takes time to update routes after a network change
• Resource Intensive: Uses more CPU and memory compared to static routing
Static vs Dynamic Routing

Static Routing Dynamic Routing

Routes are manually configured by the Routes are automatically updated based on network
administrator changes

Does not use routing algorithms Uses routing protocols and algorithms
More secure (no automatic updates) Less secure if not properly configured

Suitable for small networks Suitable for large and complex networks

Requires less bandwidth and resources Requires more bandwidth and processing power
No automatic rerouting on failure Automatically adapts to network failures

Also known as non-adaptive routing Also known as adaptive routing

Intradomain Routing Vs Interdomain Routing

Interdomain Routing
Interdomain Routing is the protocol in which the routing algorithm works both within and between
domains. Domains must be connected in some way, for hosts inside one domain to exchange data with
hosts in other domains. This connection within domains is governed by the interdomain routing
protocols. This is often done using the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). It is used in Path Vector
Routing using which interdomain routing is performed. In path vector routing, the routing depends on
the analysis of the path from the nodes in the current domain to the node in the other domain, and not
on the distance between nodes.
Intradomain Routing
Intradomain Routing is the routing protocol that operates only within a domain. In other words,
intradomain routing protocols are used to route packets within a specific domain, such as within an
institutional network for e-mail or web browsing. Unlike interdomain routing protocols, it doesn't
communicate with other domains. There are two types of protocols used for intradomain routing:
1. Distance Vector Routing (uses Routing Information Protocol or RIP
2. Link State Routing (uses Open Shortest Path First or OSPF)

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 Shortest Path Algorithm

Intradomain Routing Interdomain Routing

Routing algorithm works only within domains. Routing algorithm works within and between
domains.

It need to know only about other routers within It need to know only about other routers within
their domain. and between their domain.

Protocols used in intradomain routing are Protocols used in interdomain routing are known
known as Interior-gateway protocols. as Exterior-gateway protocols.

In this Routing, routing takes place within an In this Routing, routing takes place between the
autonomous network. autonomous networks.

Intradomain routing protocols ignores the Interdomain routing protocol assumes that the
internet outside the AS(autonomous system). internet contains the collection of interconnected
AS(autonomous systems).

Some Popular Protocols of this routing are Popular Protocols of this routing is BGP(Border
RIP(routing information protocol) and Gateway Protocol) used to connect two or more
OSPF(open shortest path first). AS(autonomous system).

In between sending and receiving data packets from the sender to the receiver, it will go through many
routers and subnets. So as a part of increasing the efficiency in routing the data packets and decreasing
the traffic, we must find the shortest path. In this article, we are discussing the shortest path
algorithms.
What is Shortest Path Routing?
It refers to the algorithms that help to find the shortest path between a sender and receiver for routing
the data packets through the network in terms of shortest distance, minimum cost, and minimum time.
• It is mainly for building a graph or subnet containing routers as nodes and edges as
communication lines connecting the nodes.
• Hop count is one of the parameters that is used to measure the distance.
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 • Hop count: It is the number that indicates how many routers are covered. If the hop count is
6, there are 6 routers/nodes and the edges connecting them.
• Another metric is a geographic distance like kilometers.
• We can find the label on the arc as the function of bandwidth, average traffic, distance,
communication cost, measured delay, mean queue length, etc.
Common Shortest Path Algorithms
• Dijkstra’s Algorithm
• Bellman Ford’s Algorithm
• Floyd Warshall’s Algorithm

Dijkstra’s Algorithm

The Dijkstra’s Algorithm is a greedy algorithm that is used to find the minimum distance
between a node and all other nodes in a given graph. Here we can consider node as a router
and graph as a network. It uses weight of edge .ie, distance between the nodes to find a
minimum distance route.

Algorithm:
• Initialize:
Set distance of source = 0, all others = ∞.
Mark all nodes unvisited.
Set predecessor of each node = null.
• Select Current Node:
Among all unvisited nodes, choose the node with the smallest current distance.
• Update Neighbors:
For each unvisited neighbor N of the current node:
• Compute:
newDist = distance[current] + weight(current, N)
• If newDist < distance[N] then:
o Update distance[N] = newDist
o Update predecessor[N] = current
• Mark Visited:
Mark the current node as visited (it will never be checked again).
• Repeat:
If unvisited nodes still exist, go back to Step 2.
• End:
Distances now contain shortest path costs; predecessors can be used to reconstruct paths.

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Consider the graph G:

Graph G
Now, we will start normalising graph one by one starting from node 0.

step 1
Nearest neighbour of 0 are 2 and 1 so we will normalize them first .

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step 3

Similarly we will normalize other node considering it should not form a cycle and will keep track in
visited nodes.

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 Flooding Algorithm
• Requires no network information like topology, load condition, cost of diff. paths
• Every incoming packet to a node is sent out on every outgoing like except the one it arrived
on.

• For Example in the above figure

o An incoming packet to (1) is sent out to (2),(3)
o from (2) is sent to (6),(4), and from (3) it is sent to (4),(5)
o from (4) it is sent to (6),(5),(3), from (6) it is sent to (2),(4),(5), from (5) it is sent to
(4),(3)
Characteristics -
• All possible routes between Source and Destination are tried. A packet will always get
through if the path exists
• As all routes are tried, there will be at least one route which is the shortest
• All nodes directly or indirectly connected are visited
Limitations -
• Flooding generates a vast number of duplicate packets
• Suitable damping mechanism must be used
Hop-Count -
• A hop counter may be contained in the packet header which is decremented at each hop.
with the packet being discarded when the counter becomes zero
• The sender initializes the hop counter. If no estimate is known, it is set to the full diameter of
the subnet.
• Keep track of the packets which are responsible for flooding using a sequence number. Avoid
sending them out a second time.
Selective Flooding: Routers do not send every incoming packet out on every line, only on those lines
that go in approximately in the direction of the destination.

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Advantages of Flooding :
• Highly Robust, emergency or immediate messages can be sent (eg military applications)
• Set up the route in virtual circuit
• Flooding always chooses the shortest path
• Broadcast messages to all the nodes
Disadvantages of Flooding :
• Network congestion: Flooding can cause a significant amount of traffic in the network, leading
to congestion. This can result in slower network speeds and delays in delivering data packets.
• Wastage of network resources: Flooding uses a lot of network resources, including bandwidth
and processing power, to deliver packets. This can result in the wastage of valuable network
resources and reduce the overall efficiency of the network.
• Security risks: Flooding can be used as a tool for launching various types of attacks, including
denial of service (DoS) attacks. Attackers can flood the network with data packets, which can
overload the network and cause it to crash.
• Inefficient use of energy: Flooding can result in an inefficient use of energy in wireless
networks. Since all nodes receive every packet, even if they are not the intended recipient, they
will still need to process it, which can waste energy and reduce the overall battery life of mobile
devices.
• Difficulty in network troubleshooting: Flooding can make it difficult to troubleshoot network
issues. Since packets are sent to all nodes, it can be challenging to isolate the cause of a problem
when it arises.

Distance Vector Routing (DVR) Protocol

Step-01:
Each router prepares its routing table. By their local knowledge. each router knows about-
• All the routers present in the network
• Distance to its neighboring routers
Step-02:
Each router exchanges its distance vector with its neighboring routers.
• Each router prepares a new routing table using the distance vectors it has obtained from its
neighbors.
• This step is repeated for (n-2) times if there are n routers in the network.
• After this, routing tables converge / become stable.
Distance Vector Routing Example-
Consider-

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 • There is a network consisting of 4 routers.
• The weights are mentioned on the edges.
• Weights could be distances or costs or delays.

Step-01:
Each router prepares its routing table using its local knowledge.
Routing table prepared by each router is shown below-
At Router A-
Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A

B 2 B

C ∞ –

D 1 D

At Router B-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A

B 0 B

C 3 C

D 7 D

At Router C-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A ∞ –

B 3 B
C 0 C

D 11 D

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At Router D-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 1 A

B 7 B

C 11 C
D 0 D

Step-02:
• Each router exchanges its distance vector obtained in Step-01 with its neighbors.
• After exchanging the distance vectors, each router prepares a new routing table.
This is shown below-
At Router A-
• Router A receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.
• Router A prepares a new routing table as-

• Cost of reaching destination B from router A = min { 2+0 , 1+7 } = 2 via B.

• Cost of reaching destination C from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+11 } = 5 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router A = min { 2+7 , 1+0 } = 1 via D.

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 Explanation For Destination B

• Router A can reach the destination router B via its neighbor B or neighbor D.
• It chooses the path which gives the minimum cost.
• Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor B = Cost (A→B) + Cost (B→B)= 2 + 0 = 2
• Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor D = Cost (A→D) + Cost (D→B) = 1 + 7 = 8
• Since the cost is minimum via neighbor B, so router A chooses the path via B.
• It creates an entry (2, B) for destination B in its new routing table.
• Similarly, we calculate the shortest path distance to each destination router at every router.

Thus, the new routing table at router A is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A
B 2 B

C 5 B
D 1 D

At Router B-
• Router B receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, C and D.
• Router B prepares a new routing table as-

• Cost of reaching destination A from router B = min { 2+0 , 3+∞ , 7+1 } = 2 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router B = min { 2+∞ , 3+0 , 7+11 } = 3 via C.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router B = min { 2+1 , 3+11 , 7+0 } = 3 via A.
Thus, the new routing table at router B is-

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 Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A

B 0 B

C 3 C

D 3 A

At Router C-
• Router C receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.
• Router C prepares a new routing table as-

• Cost of reaching destination A from router C = min { 3+2 , 11+1 } = 5 via B.

• Cost of reaching destination B from router C = min { 3+0 , 11+7 } = 3 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router C = min { 3+7 , 11+0 } = 10 via B.
Thus, the new routing table at router C is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 5 B

B 3 B

C 0 C

D 10 B

At Router D-
• Router D receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, B and C.
• Router D prepares a new routing table as-

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 • Cost of reaching destination A from router D = min { 1+0 , 7+2 , 11+∞ } = 1 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination B from router D = min { 1+2 , 7+0 , 11+3 } = 3 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router D = min { 1+∞ , 7+3 , 11+0 } = 10 via B.
Thus, the new routing table at router D is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 1 A
B 3 A

C 10 B

D 0 D

Step-03:

• Each router exchanges its distance vector obtained in Step-02 with its neighboring routers.
• After exchanging the distance vectors, each router prepares a new routing table.
This is shown below-
At Router A-
• Router A receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.
• Router A prepares a new routing table as-

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 • Cost of reaching destination B from router A = min { 2+0 , 1+3 } = 2 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+10 } = 5 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+0 } = 1 via D.

Thus, the new routing table at router A is-

Destination Distance Next Hop
A 0 A
B 2 B
C 5 B
D 1 D

At Router B-

• Router B receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, C and D.

• Router B prepares a new routing table as-

• Cost of reaching destination A from router B = min { 2+0 , 3+5 , 3+1 } = 2 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router B = min { 2+5 , 3+0 , 3+10 } = 3 via C.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router B = min { 2+1 , 3+10 , 3+0 } = 3 via A.

Thus, the new routing table at router B is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A
B 0 B
C 3 C
D 3 A

At Router C-
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 • Router C receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.
• Router C prepares a new routing table as-

• Cost of reaching destination A from router C = min { 3+2 , 10+1 } = 5 via B.

• Cost of reaching destination B from router C = min { 3+0 , 10+3 } = 3 via B.
• Cost of reaching destination D from router C = min { 3+3 , 10+0 } = 6 via B.

Thus, the new routing table at router C is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 5 B
B 3 B
C 0 C
D 6 B

At Router D-

• Router D receives distance vectors from its neighbors A, B and C.

• Router D prepares a new routing table as-

• Cost of reaching destination A from router D = min { 1+0 , 3+2 , 10+5 } = 1 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination B from router D = min { 1+2 , 3+0 , 10+3 } = 3 via A.
• Cost of reaching destination C from router D = min { 1+5 , 3+3 , 10+0 } = 6 via A.

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Thus, the new routing table at router D is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 1 A
B 3 A
C 6 A
D 0 D

These will be the final routing tables at each router.

Identifying Unused Links-
After routing tables converge (becomes stable),
• Some of the links connecting the routers may never be used.
• In the above example, we can identify the unused links as-
We have-
• The value of next hop in the final routing table of router A suggests that only edges AB and
AD are used.
• The value of next hop in the final routing table of router B suggests that only edges BA and
BC are used.
• The value of next hop in the final routing table of router C suggests that only edge CB is used.
• The value of next hop in the final routing table of router D suggests that only edge DA is
used.
Thus, edges BD and CD are never used.
Important Notes-
Note-01:
In Distance Vector Routing,
• Only distance vectors are exchanged.
• “Next hop”values are not exchanged.
• This is because it results in exchanging the large amount of data which consumes more
bandwidth.
Note-02:
While preparing a new routing table-
• A router takes into consideration only the distance vectors it has obtained from its
neighboring routers.
• It does not take into consideration its old routing table.
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Note-03:
The algorithm is called so because-
• It involves exchanging of distance vectors between the routers.
• Distance vector is nothing but an array of distances.
Note-04:
• The algorithm keeps on repeating periodically and never stops.
• This is to update the shortest path in case any link goes down or topology changes.
Note-05:
• Routing tables are prepared total (n-1) times if there are n routers in the given network.
• This is because shortest path between any 2 nodes contains at most n-1 edges if there are n
nodes in the graph.
Note-06:
• Distance Vector Routing suffers from count to infinity problem.
• Distance Vector Routing uses UDP at transport layer.

Link State Routing Algorithm

The Link State Routing Algorithm is an interior protocol used by every router to share information or
knowledge about the rest of the routers on the network. The link state routing algorithm is distributed
by which every router computes its routing table. With the knowledge of the network topology, a router
can make its routing table. The routing table created by each router is exchanged with the rest of the
routers present in the network which helps in faster and more reliable delivery of data. This information
exchange only occurs when there is a change in the information. Hence, the link state routing algorithm
is effective.

Routing is a process of establishing the routes that data packets must follow to reach the destination. In
this process, a routing table is created, which contains the information regarding routes that data packets
follow. Now, various routing algorithms are there which are used to decide the best optimal route that
the incoming data packet must be transmitted.

The best or optimal path is the path from the source to the destination router, having the least connection
cost. For example, refer to the routers shown in the image below.

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If a packet needs to be transmitted from Router-1 to Router-2, then it can follow two paths.

1. Directly from Router-1 to Router-2, the cost of this traveling is 6.

2. It can also go from Router-1 to Router-2, via path: Router-1 --> Router-3 --> Router-2. The cost
of this traveling is (2 + 3) = 5.

So, the data packet will be sent from the second path i.e. Router-1 --> Router-3 --> Router-2.

The Link State Routing Algorithm is an interior protocol used by every router to share information or
knowledge about the rest of the routers on the network. The link state routing algorithm is distributed
by which every router computes its routing table.

With the knowledge of the network topology, a router can make its routing table. Now, for developing
the routing table, a router uses a shortest path computation algorithm like Dijkstra's algorithm along
with the knowledge of the topology. The routing table created by each router is exchanged with the rest
of the routers present in the network, which helps in faster and more reliable delivery of data.

A router does not send its entire routing table with the rest of the routers in the inter-network. It only
sends the information of its neighbors. A router broadcasts this information and contains information
about all of its directly connected routers and the connection cost.

Now, the process of transferring the information about a router's neighbors is termed flooding. A router
transfers the information to all the inter-network routers except its neighbors. Every router that receives
the information sends the information copies to all its neighbors. In this way, all the routers of the inter-
connected network have the same copy of the information.

This information exchange only occurs when there is a change in the information. Hence, the link state
routing algorithm is effective. Refer to the image below for the basic overview of the router and updation
done by the link state routing algorithm.

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Note: Dynamic routers use the link state routing algorithm and maintain a database of the entire
topology. The database is updated once there is a change in the connection.
Important Points Related to the Link State Routing Algorithm
• The link state routing algorithm exchanges information only when there is a change in the
connection.
• It requires large memory as it maintains a routing database.
• It requires the computation of the shortest path, which is an overhead for the CPU.
• The information of each router needs to be transmitted all over the network.
• A routing protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path from the source to the
destination.
• In the link state routing protocol, a router transmits its IP address, MAC address,
and signature to its neighboring routers. Now, using the information (i.e. IP address, MAC
address, and signature), the neighboring routers create a record by combining the IP address
and the MAC. This information helps the router to transmit the data packet through the optimal
path. It also tells a router about the various possible paths.

Link state routing protocol.

• OSPF or Open Shortest Path First is a routing protocol that uses the link state routing algorithm
to exchange information (about neighbouring routers, cost of the route, etc.) among the inter-
network routers.
• The OLSR or Optimized Link State Routing Protocol is an optimized link state routing
protocol that is used in mobile ad hoc networks and wireless ad hoc networks. The OLSR sends
a hello message to identify the connected neighboring routers and the connection cost. Along
with the hello message, it also uses the Topology Control messages.
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RIP (Routing Information Protocol): RIP is a Distance Vector routing protocol that employs hop
count as its metric. It is suitable for small networks or networks with simple topologies. However, its
slow convergence and lack of support for advanced features limit its usage in larger networks. An
example of a use case for RIP is a small office network with a single router connecting multiple subnets.

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): OSPF is a Link-State routing protocol that calculates the shortest
path based on cost, typically determined by bandwidth. It offers fast convergence, scalability, and
supports advanced features such as VLSM and authentication. OSPF is commonly used in enterprise
networks with multiple routers and diverse topologies. For instance, a university campus network with
multiple interconnected buildings and subnets can benefit from OSPF.

EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): EIGRP is an Advanced Distance Vector
protocol developed by Cisco. It combines the best aspects of Distance Vector and Link-State protocols,
providing fast convergence, scalability, and advanced features like load balancing and route
summarization. EIGRP is often deployed in medium to large networks with multiple routers. A typical
example is a corporate network with multiple branch offices interconnected via routers using EIGRP.

Difference between RIP, OSPF, IGRP and EIGRP

RIP OSPF IGRP EIGRP

RIP stands for OSPF stands for Open IGRP stands for Interior EIGRP stands for
Routing Information Shortest Path First Gateway Routing Protocol Enhanced Interior
Protocol Gateway Routing
Protocol

RIP is a distance OSPF is a link state IGRP is a distance vector EIGRP Is derived from
vector protocol protocol protocol Integrated Gateway
Routing Protocol

The metrics used The metrics used are The metrics used are The metrics used are
Is hop. bandwidth and delay. bandwidth, load, delay, MTU, bandwidth, delay, load
and reliability. and reliability

RIP uses Distance OSPF uses the SPF IGRP uses the distance vector EIGRP uses Diffusing
vector algorithm to algorithm to calculate algorithm to calculate the best update algorithm to
calculate the best the best path. path and the variance calculate the best path.
path mechanism to support
unequal-cost load balancing.

In RIP, networks are Routing with OSPF is IGRP does not support areas Routing with EIGRP is
not divided into done in Autonomous or tables but supports multi- done in Neighbour
areas or tables. System, Areas, Stub part routing. Tables, Topology
Areas and Backbone tables, and Routing
areas. tables.

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 Maximum hop count No hop count. Maximum hop count for Maximum hop count is
is 15. IGRP-routed packets is 255 255.
and the default is 100.

Route
Route Summarization is Route Summarization is Route Summarization is
Summarization is
Automatic Automatic Automatic
Manual

Comparison of Use Cases:

1. Small Home or Office Network:
• RIP can be used in a small network with a few routers and subnets, where simplicity
is more important than advanced features.
2. Enterprise Network:
• OSPF is well-suited for larger networks with multiple routers and complex
topologies, such as corporate networks, universities, or large organizations.
3. Cisco-centric Network:
• EIGRP is commonly deployed in Cisco-centric networks, taking advantage of its
advanced features and compatibility with Cisco devices.
4. Hybrid Networks:
• Networks with a mixture of routers from different vendors can use OSPF as it is a
widely supported industry-standard protocol.
5. Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
• ISPs often use OSPF to manage their network backbone, enabling efficient routing
across a large number of routers.

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