MODULE-1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs operations,displays results,

and stores the data or results as needed. It is a combination of hardware and software
resources that integrate together and provides various functionalities to the user. Hardware is
the physical components of a computer like a processor, memory devices, monitor, keyboard,
etc., while software is a set of programs or instructions that are required by the hardware
resources to
function properly.

Components of a Computer
There are basically three important components of a computer:
1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit(CPU)
3. Output Unit

1. Input Unit:
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take
input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the
common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick,scanner etc.
 The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a computer.
 A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, etc.
 The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.

2. Central Processing Unit:

Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor
processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of
the computer. It first fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to
know what is to be done. If required, data is fetched from memory or input device. Thereafter
CPU executes or performs the required computation, and then either stores the output or
displays it on the output device.
The CPU has three main components, which are responsible for different functions:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers.

A. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU, as its name suggests performs
mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical decisions involve the comparison
of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller or equal.
 Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU
 It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform
arithmetic and logical operations.

B. Control Unit: The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the
CPU, and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output
units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It
decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices
until the required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.
 The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer that directs
the operation of the processor.
 It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and output devices
on how to respond to the processor’s instructions.
 In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signals from the
control unit.
 It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.

C. Memory Registers:
A register is a temporary unit of memory in the [Link] are used to store the data, which
is directly used by the [Link] can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and
so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific function, like storing data, storing an
instruction, storing address of a location in memory etc.
Memory attached to the CPU is used for the storage of data and instructions,and is called
internal memory .The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which
can store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has an address.
With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory location easily without
having to search the entire memory. When a program is executed, its data is copied to the
internal memory and stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The internal
memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also called
RAM, i.e., Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is independent of its location
in memory, therefore, this memory is also called Random Access memory (RAM).
 Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
 It stores both data and instructions.
 Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are available
whenever required.
3. Output Unit :
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It converts the
binary data coming from the CPU to human understandable form.
The common output devices are monitor, printer, plotter, etc.
 The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
 The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
 The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-readable
form.
Characteristics of a Computer
1. Speed: Computers can perform millions of calculations per second. The computation
speed is extremely fast.
2. Accuracy: Because computers operate on pre-programmed software, there is no space for
human error.
3. Diligence: They can perform complex and long calculations at the same time and with the
same accuracy.
4. Versatile: Computers are designed to be versatile. They can carry out multiple operations
at the same time.
5. Storage: Computers can store a large amount of data/ instructions in its memory, which
can be retrieved at any point of time.

Introduction to memory and memory units

In order to save data and instructions, memory is required. Memory is divided into cells, and
they are stored in the storage space present in the computer. Every cell has its unique
location/address. Memory is very essential for a computer as this is the way it becomes
somewhat more similar to a human brain. Memory devices are digital systems that store data
either temporarily or for a long term. Digital computers to hard disks have built-in memory
devices that can store the data of users or manufacturers. The data either be in the form of
control programs or programs that boot the system. Hence, to store such a huge amount of
data the memory devices must have enormous capacity. The challenge is to build memory
devices that have large capacities but are cost - effective. The memory devices must be
capable of storing both permanent data and instantaneous data.
Memories are made up of registers. Each register in the memory is one storage location. The
storage location is also called a memory location. Memory locations are identified using
Address. The total number of bits a memory can store is its capacity. A storage element is
called a Cell. Each register is made up of a storage element in which one bit of data is stored.
The data in a memory are stored and retrieved by the process called writing and reading
respectively.

Types of Computer Memory

 Cache memory. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available
to the processor than the computer’s main memory source. It is also called CPU memory
because it is typically integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with
a bus interconnect with the CPU.
 RAM. It is one of the parts of the Main memory, also famously known as Read Write
Memory. Random Access memory is present on the motherboard and the computer’s data is
temporarily stored in RAM. As the name says, RAM can help in both Read and write.
 D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as a
charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of
charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
 S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are
capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory consists of the
number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is
faster.
 ROM: ROM full form is Read Only Memory. ROM is a non volatile memory and it is
used to store important information which is used to operate the system. We can only read the
programs and data stored on it and can not modify of delete it.
 MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection of data or
instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that works in
this way.
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable
once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the
required contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an extension to
PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly
40 minutes.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory): Here the written contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and
reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and
programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any area in an
EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.

NOTE: Steps in the Booting Process:- Booting. is a process of switching on the computer
and starting the operating system. Six steps of the booting process are BIOS and Setup
Program, The Power- On-Self-Test (POST), The Operating system Loads, System
Configuration, System Utility Loads and Users Authentication.

History of Computers

Before computers were developed people used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools. As
technology advanced and the human mind improved with time more computing devices were
developed like Abacus, Napier’s Bones, etc. These devices were used as computers for
performing mathematical computations but not very complex ones.

First Generation Computers

In the period of the year 1940-1956, it was referred to as the period of the first generation of
computers. These machines are slow, huge, and expensive. In this generation of computers,
vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. Also, they were
mainly dependent on the batch operating systems and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper
tape were used as output and input devices. For example ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, etc.

Second Generation Computers

In the period of the year, 1957-1963 was referred to as the period of the second generation of
computers. It was the time of the transistor computers. In the second generation of computers,
transistors (which were cheap in cost) are used. Transistors are also compact and consume
less power. Transistor computers are faster than first-generation computers. For primary
memory, magnetic cores were used, and for secondary memory magnetic disc and tapes for
storage purposes. In second-generation computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are used as
Assembly language and programming languages, and Batch processing and
multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.
For example IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, etc.
Third Generation Computers
In the third generation of computers, integrated circuits (ICs) were used instead of
transistors(in the second generation). A single IC consists of many transistors which
increased the power of a computer and also reduced the cost. The third generation computers
are more reliable, efficient, and smaller in size. It used remote processing, time-sharing, and
multiprogramming as operating systems.
FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, and PASCAL PL/1 were used which are highlevel
programming languages.
For example IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, IBM-370/168, etc.
Fourth Generation Computers
The period of 1971-1980 was mainly the time of fourth generation [Link] used
VLSI(Very Large Scale Integrated) circuits. VLSI is a chip containing millions of transistors
and other circuit elements and because of these chips, the computers of this generation are
more compact, powerful, fast, and affordable(low in cost). Real-time, time-sharing and
distributed operating system are used by these computers. C and C++ are used as the
programming languages in this generation of [Link] example STAR 1000, PDP 11,
CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, etc.
Fifth Generation Computers
From 1980 – to till date these computers are used. The ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
technology is used in fifth-generation computers instead of the VLSI technology of fourth-
generation computers. Microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components are used
in these computers. Parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software are
also used in fifth-generation computers. The programming languages like C, C++, Java,
.Net, etc. are [Link] example Desktop, Laptop, NoteBook, UltraBook, etc.
Classification of Computers

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

1. On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of functionality.
3. On the basis of data handling.

Classification on the basis of size

1. Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-
purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is measured in FLOPS
instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based
operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the US, the EU,
Taiwan and Japan to build even faster, more high performing and more technologically
superior supercomputers. Supercomputers actually play an important role in the field of
computation, and are used for intensive computation tasks in various fields, including
quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration,
molecular modeling, and physical simulations. and also Throughout the history,
supercomputers have been essential in the field of the cryptanalysis.
eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.
2. Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used by
big organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher
processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers, most of these
mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and development worked
continuously over the years and the mainframes of today are far more better than the
earlier ones, in size, capacity and efficiency.
Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.

3. Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold at a
much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from
calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with
evolution.
In the 60s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of
transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less expensive
peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 [Link] usually took up one or a
few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill a room, there
was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined
Eg: Personal Laptop, PC etc.

4. Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a

microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal I/O
circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit [Link] previous to these computers,
mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively much larger, hard to maintain and
more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for present day microcomputers
and smart gadgets that we use in day to day life.
Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

Classification on the basis of functionality

1. Servers : Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some
services to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offered. Eg:
security server, database server.

2. Workstation : Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user at
a time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our
day to day personal / commercial work.

3. Information Appliances : They are the portable devices which are designed to perform a
limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing internet etc.
They are generally referred as the mobile devices. They have very limited memory and
flexibility and generally run on “as-is” basis.
4. Embedded computers : They are the computing devices which are used in other
machines to serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-
volatile memory and they are not required to execute reboot or reset. The processing units
used in such device work to those basic requirements only and are different from the ones
that are used in personal computers- better known as workstations.

Classification on the basis of data handling

1. Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-

changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities
to model the problem being solved. Any thing that is variable with respect to time and
continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures time by means of
the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the circular dial.
2. Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form. from
manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform mathematical
calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and
simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.
3. Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a
digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them
in digital form.

What is a Software?
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a
computer what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set
of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example
like MS-Word, MSExcel,
PowerPoint, etc.
Types of Software

It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart
below describes the types of software: Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we
will briefly describe each type and its subtypes:
1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software

System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the
basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in
other words, system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also
controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an
interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each
other because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications
are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software
converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice versa.

Types of System Software

It has two subtypes which are:

Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system
ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all
the resources such as computer memory,CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an
interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also
provides various services to other computer software. Examples of operating systems are
Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human readable
language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion
is done by the language processor. It converts programs written in high-level programming
languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source code),into sets of instructions that
are easily readable by machines(known as object code or machine code).
Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that
device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer,mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver
to connect with the computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your
computer system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating
system knows how to control or manage that device.

Features of System Software

Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 System Software is closer to the computer system.
 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to
application software.
Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are muchmore than the
basic operation of the computer is known as application [Link] in other words,
application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a
program that is designed only to fulfill endusers’ requirements. It includes word processors,
spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.

Types of Application Software

There are different types of application software and those are:

General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks
and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel,
PowerPoint, etc.
Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform
specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway
reservation system, airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc.
Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer
infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and
take care of its requirements as well. For example,antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester,
disk repair, disk cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.

Features of Application Software

 An important feature of application software is it performs more

specialized tasks like word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

Difference between Free Software and Open Source Software

Free Software and Open Source Software are two philosophies in software engineering. Free
Software and Open Source Software both have common goals
of collaboration and innovation but they are distinct in terms of why they are doing it and
prioritize different aspects of software development and distribution.
What is Free Software?
“Free software” means software that respects users’ freedom and community. Roughly, it
means that the users have the freedom to run, copy, distribute, study, change, and improve the
software. The term “free software” is sometimes misunderstood—it has nothing to do with
price. It is about freedom.
Advantages of Free Software
 Cost: Free software is typically free to use, modify, and distribute.
 Freedom: Free software is often accompanied by a set of ethical principles that promote
users’ freedom to use, study, modify, and share the software.
 Collaboration: Free software often encourages collaboration among
developers and users, leading to faster development and better quality
software.
 Transparency: Free software is often developed in a transparent way, with the source
code and development process available for public scrutiny.
 Flexibility: Free software can be used on a wide range of platforms and devices.
Disadvantages of Free Software
 Support: While free software does have a community of developers and users, it may not
always have the same level of professional support as
commercial software.
 Compatibility: Free software may not always be compatible with other software
applications and hardware devices.
 Security: Because free software is available for everyone to use and modify, it may be
easier for malicious actors to identify and exploit vulnerabilities.
 Complexity: Free software can be more complex and difficult to use than commercial
software, especially for non-technical users.
 Documentation: Free software may not always have the same level of documentation and
user guides as commercial software.

What is Open Source Software?

Open Source Software is something that you can modify as per your needs, and share with
others without any licensing violation burden. When we say Open Source, the source code of
the software is available publicly with Open Source licenses like GNU (GPL) which allows
you to edit the source code and distribute it.

Advantages of Open Source Software

 Cost: Open source software is typically free to use, modify and distribute.
 Customization: The source code of open source software is available to everyone,
allowing users to modify and customize it to suit their needs.
 Community support: Open source software often has a large community of developers
and users who contribute to its development and provide support.
 Transparency: The source code of open source software is open for everyone to see,
making it easier to identify and fix bugs and vulnerabilities.
 Flexibility: Open source software can be used on a wide range of platforms and devices.

Disadvantages of open Source Software

 Support: While open source software does have a large community of developers and
users, it may not always have the same level of professional support as commercial software.
 Compatibility: Open source software may not always be compatible with other software
applications and hardware devices.
 Security: Because the source code of open source software is available to everyone, it may
be easier for malicious actors to identify and exploit
vulnerabilities.
 Complexity: Open source software can be more complex and difficult to use than
commercial software, especially for non-technical users.
 Documentation: Open source software may not always have the same level of
documentation and user guides as commercial software.

Similarities between Free Software and Open Software

 Both free software and open source software have access to the source code, allowing
users to modify and improve the software.
 Both types of software often rely on a community of users and developers to provide
support and contribute to the development of the software.
 Both free software and open source software are often distributed under open licenses,
allowing users to use, modify, and distribute the software without restrictions.

Difference between Open source Software and Proprietary Software

1. Open source Software: Open source software is computer software whosesource code is
available openly on the internet and programmers can modify itto add new features and
capabilities without any cost. Here the software isdeveloped and tested through open
collaboration. This software is managed by an open-source community of developers. It
provides community support, as well as commercial support, which is available for
maintenance. We can get it for free of cost. This software also sometimes comes with a
license and sometimes does not. This license provides some rights to users.
 The software can be used for any purpose
 Allows to study how the software works
 Freedom to modify and improve the program
 No restrictions on redistribution
Some examples of Open source software include Android, Ubuntu, Firefox, Open Office, etc.

2. Proprietary Software: Proprietary software is computer software where the source codes
are publicly not available only the company that has created them can modify it. Here the
software is developed and tested by the individual or organization by which it is owned not
by the public. This software is managed by a closed team of individuals or groups that
developed it. We have to pay to this software and its commercial support is available for
maintenance. The company gives a valid and authenticated license to the users to use this
software.
But this license puts some restrictions on users also like.
 Number of installations of this software into computers
 Restrictions on sharing of software illegally
 Time period up to which software will operate
 Number of features allowed to use
Some examples of Proprietary software include Windows, macOS, Internet Explorer, Google
Earth, Microsoft Office, etc.

Software Freedom in FOSS (Free and open-source software)

Free Software or Libre (Libre is the most common Spanish adjective for “free”) software are
the softwares that allows user to do to any kind of work he/she wants as well as he can
modify, add new features and he has freedom to distribute the changed version also. A
software is said to be free if it gives user ultimate freedom to do things the way he wants.
The term “free software” is sometimes misunderstood—it has nothing to do with price. It is
about freedom. Here, therefore, is the definition of free software: a program is free software,
for you, a particular user, if:

Freedom-0:
You have the freedom to execute the program, the way you want and to serve any kind of
purpose.

Freedom-1:
You have the freedom to study how the program works and you are free to modify the
program to suit your needs
Freedom-2:
You have the freedom to redistribute copies, either gratis or for a fee. So that you can help
others and also you can earn profit too.

Freedom-3:
You have the freedom to distribute modified versions of the program, so that the community
can benefit from your improvements.

What is Digital Education?

Digital education is the innovative incorporation of modern technology and digital tools to
assist the progress of teaching and learning. It is also known as Technology Enhanced
Learning (TEL), digital learning, or e-learning. Digital education is the way forward to
seeking education through the means of technology and digital devices.
Digital Learning is "learning facilitated by technology that gives students some element of
control over time, place, path and/or pace.“

Time: Learning is no longer restricted to the school day or the school year.
Place: Learning is no longer restricted within the walls of a classroom.
Path: Learning is no longer restricted to the pedagogy used by the teacher.
Pace: Learning is no longer restricted to the pace of an entire classroom of students.

Digital learning requires a combination of technology, digital content andinstruction.

Technology: Technology is the mechanism that delivers content. It facilitateshow students
receive content.
Digital Content: Digital content is the high quality academic material which is delivered
through technology. It is what students learn.
Instruction: Educators are essential to digital learning. Technology may change the role of
the teacher but it will never eliminate the need for a teacher.

Digital learning in the classroom offers immediate feedback for both the learner and the
[Link] learning atmosphere given by digital classroom solution help teachers to
convey lessons in more thorough way through slide shows documentaries and sound.

Advantages of the Digital Education System:

Individualized Learning Experience: A major drawback of the traditional education system

is that many students experience a lack of interest when they are not able to catch up with the
rest of the class. The contemporary digital format allows teachers to customize the study
material based on an individual’s learning speed and ability. The impact of educational
programs is uplifting with the digitalization of the education system.
Students become Smarter: When exposed to new learning tools and
technology students develop effective self-directed learning skills. The digital education
system enables students to analyze what they need to know to be able to search and utilize
online resources. It plays a significant role in magnifying their efficiency, learning ability,
and productivity.
Unlimited Information: The world of the internet is vast and loaded with information, most
of which is freely accessible. The emergence of digital education has made it possible for
students to explore and use this treasure of knowledge. Earlier, students would rely on limited
sources of information, but now thanks to the growing popularity of the digital education
system, unavailability of the required information is no longer a barrier in seeking
knowledge.
Smart Classrooms: The chalk and talk method is now a thing of the past, and teachers are
making use of more tech-savvy methods to help students understand that learning can be
innovative and fun. The modern-day classrooms are equipped with a TV or a projector which
makes it is easy to shift from a regular classroom session to an interactive digital session.
This can make students pay more attention as they are extensively acquainted with the digital
world.
Digitally Updated: In a world that is ever-evolving in terms of technology, practices and
information can easily become outdated, as there is always something new transpiring.
Equipping students with updated information and other subject-related topics is no longer a
matter of choice, but a mandatory process. Students spend most of their time on their phones
and laptops, so they must be sound technology-wise.
High Engagement Learning: The traditional education system provides limited scope for
engagement as its forces at work include limited factors like textbooks, an instructor, and
hand-written notes, whereas the digitized education system offers a wide range of choices to
learn from. The unlimited availability of resources makes every session extremely innovative
and engaging. The interactive and game-based learning sessions gain higher engagement
from students.
Ease of Sharing: The traditional education system would heavily rely on students
maintaining thick notebooks of hand-written notes containing information provided by
teachers in the classroom or acquired through extensive research in the library, but the
modern digital education system changes everything. Now preserving and sharing
information is just a click away which saves students a lot of time and physical labor.

Accountability in Students: The digital education system incorporates realtime evaluation

and system-generated performance reports which increases the transparency of assessment. It
enables students to analyze their performance and come up with required solutions on their
own. The digital education system brings students out of their shells and makes them
independent thinkers who know what to study, when to study and how to study. They no
longer remain dependent on their teachers and parents to spoon-feed them with information.

What is the Full Form of ICT?

ICT Stands for Information and Communication Technology. It is a broad term that refers to
the use of technology to manage, store, process, and transmit information. It is a field that is
fast growing, and new technologies are constantly being created and embraced. It is seen as a
significant contributor to economic expansion and a crucial tool for businesses to use in
achieving their goals. This covers a broad range of gadgets and technology, such as laptops,
smartphones, the Internet, and software programs.

Components of the ICT System

It refers to all the technologies that enable individuals, and organizations to connect to the
digital world together.
 Computer hardware and software: Personal computers, servers, storage devices,
networking equipment, and software applications.
 Internet and web technologies: Web browsers, search engines, email,
instant messaging, and social media.
  Telecommunications: Telephone systems, mobile phones, and satellite communications.
 Data & Multimedia: Video, audio, and graphics.
 Cybersecurity: Firewalls, antivirus software, and intrusion detection systems.

ICT classroom, integrates digital technologies to enhance learning and teaching processes.
Its rise has transformed education significantly by providing access to vast resources,
interactive learning platforms, andpersonalized learning experiences.

An online learning platform is a webspace or portal for educational content and resources
that offers a student everything they need in one place: lectures, resources, opportunities to
meet and chat with other students, and more. It is also an excellent way for the student and
the teacher to monitor student progress.

Online learning offers a wide range of benefits:

 The comfort of working from home

 Self-paced learning
 Improved technical, communication, and critical thinking skills
 Lower costs
 Better time management skills and more

Open educational resources are somewhat different from open learning, in that they
are primarily content, while open learning includes both content and educational services,
such as specially designed online materials, in-built learner support and assessment. Open
educational resources cover a wide range of online formats, including online textbooks, video
recorded lectures, YouTube clips, web-based textual materials designed for independent
study, animations and simulations, digital diagrams and graphics, some MOOCs, or
even assessment materials such as tests with automated answers. OER can also include
Powerpoint slides or pdf files of lecture notes. In order to be open educational resources,
though, they must be freely available for at least educational use.

Principles of OER

David Wiley is one of the pioneers of OER. He and colleagues have suggested (Hilton et al.,
2010) that there are five core principles of open publishing:

 re-use: The most basic level of openness. People are allowed to use all or part of the work for
their own purposes (for example, download an educational video to watch at a later time);
 re-distribute: People can share the work with others (for example, send a digital article by-
email to a colleague);
 revise: People can adapt, modify, translate, or change the work (for example, take a book
written in English and turn it into a Spanish audio book);
 re-mix: People can take two or more existing resources and combine them to create a new
resource (for example, take audio lectures from one course and combine them with slides
from another course to create a new derivative work);
 retain: No digital rights management restrictions (DRM); the content is yours to keep,
whether you’re the author, an instructor using the material, or a student.

David Wiley’s 5R Framework.

This open textbook you are reading meets all five criteria (it has a CC BY-NC license). Users
of OER though need to check with the actual license for re-use, because sometimes there are
limitations, as with this book, which cannot be reproduced without permission for
commercial reasons. For example, it cannot be turned into a book for profit by a commercial
publisher, at least without written permission from the author. To protect your rights as an
author of OER usually means publishing under a Creative Commons or other open license.

Creative Commons licenses

This seemingly simple idea, of an ‘author’ creating a license enabling people to freely access
and adapt copyright material, without charge or special permission, is one of the great ideas
of the 21st century. This does not take away someone’s copyright, but enables that copyright
holder to give permission automatically for different kinds of use of their material without
charge or any bureaucracy.
 The spectrum of Creative Commons licenses

The are now several possible Creative Commons licenses:

 CC BY Attribution: lets others distribute, remix, tweak, and build upon your work, even
commercially, as long as they credit you for the original creation. This is the most
accommodating of licenses offered. Recommended for maximum dissemination and use of
licensed materials;
 CC BY-SA: lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work even for commercial
purposes, as long as they credit you and license their new creations under the identical terms.
This is particularly important if your work also includes other people’s materials licensed
through the Creative Commons;
 CC BY-ND: allows for redistribution, commercial and non-commercial, as long as it is
passed along unchanged and in whole, with credit to you;
 CC BY-NC: lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-commercially, and
although their new works must also acknowledge you and be non-commercial, they don’t
have to license their derivative works on the same terms;
 CC BY-NC-SA: lets others remix, tweak, and build upon your work non-commercially, as
long as they credit you and license their new creations under the identical terms;
 CC BY-NC-ND: the most restrictive of the six main licenses, only allowing others to
download your works and share them with others as long as they credit you, but they can’t
change them in any way or use them commercially.

Sources of OER

There are many ‘repositories’ of open educational resources (see for instance, for post-
secondary education, MERLOT, OER Commons, and for k-12, Edutopia).The Open
Professionals Education Network has an excellent guide to finding and using OER.
However, when searching for possible open educational resources on the web, check to see
whether or not the resource has a Creative Commons license or a statement giving permission
for re-use. It may be common practice to use free (no cost) resources without worrying
unduly about copyright, but there are risks without a clear license or permission for re-
use. For instance, many sites, such as OpenLearn, allow only individual, personal use for
non-commercial purposes, which means providing a link to the site for students rather than
integrating the materials directly into your own teaching. If in any doubt about the right to re-
use, check with your library or intellectual property department.

Limitations of OER

The take-up of OER by instructors is still minimal, other than by those who created the
original version. The main criticism is of the poor quality of many of the OER available at the
moment – reams of text with no interaction, often available in PDFs that cannot easily be
changed or adapted, crude simulation, poorly produced graphics, and designs that fail to
make clear what academic concepts they are meant to illustrate.

OER Commons (OER for open educational resources) is a freely accessible online library
that allows teachers and others to search and discover open educational resources (OER) and
other freely available instructional materials.
OER Commons, created by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in
Education, was developed to serve curriculum experts and educators in discovering open
educational resources (OER) and collaborating around the use, evaluation, and improvement
of those materials. Resources on the site can be searched and filtered using an expanded set
of descriptive data, including conditions of use. Teachers, students, and others enrich this
"metadata" when they tag, rate, and review materials, and share what works for them.
OER Commons opened as a digital library and intermediary for openly licensed and freely
available content. By aggregating resources and standardizing metadata from OER content
providers, the site supports knowledge sharing and access to teaching and learning materials,
strategies, and curricula online. Individual educators submit their own contributions which
are curated. Materials are reviewed for quality and alignment to standards and shared
primarily using Creative Commons licenses.

Open educational resources (OER) are publicly accessible materials that are licensed as
public domain or in such a way that they can be used, re-mixed, improved upon, and
redistributed. OERs can be full courses, lesson plans, open textbooks, openly licensed
videos, software, images, or other materials that can be used to support education and
increase knowledge.
OER Commons is a website that contains a digital library of open educational resources
(OER). It was created by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education
(ISKME) to help educators discover and create open educational resources. These
resources can be download for free and educators can modify them as they are needed.
Currently there are over 50,000 educational resources available on the site with new
resources being created by the member community daily.
In addition to the plethora of resources, with can be searched and filtered by a multitude of
fields, OER Commons contains modules which will allow you to align a resource to the
common core or state standard, evaluate resources using the Achieve OER rubrics, or add to
the collection by creating your own open educational content.

Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg, a nonprofit organization (since 2000) that maintains an electronic library
of public domain works that have been digitized, or converted into e-books, by volunteers
and archived for download from the organization’s website, [Link]. Project
Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to
"encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." It was founded in 1971 by American
writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library. Most of the items in its collection are
the full texts of books or individual stories in the public domain. All files can be accessed for
free under an open format layout, available on almost any computer. As of 13 February 2024,
Project Gutenberg had reached 70,000 items in its collection of free eBooks. The releases are
available in plain text as well as other formats, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, and
Plucker wherever possible. Most releases are in the English language, but many non-English
works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that provide additional content,
including region- and language-specific works. Project Gutenberg is closely affiliated with
Distributed Proof readers, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts.
Project Gutenberg is named after the inventor Johannes Gutenberg, whose works in
developing printing technology led to an increase in the mass availability of books and other
text.E-book, digital file containing a body of text and images suitable for distributing
electronically and displaying on-screen in a manner similar to a printed book. E-books can be
created by converting a printer’s source files to formats optimized for easy downloading and
on-screen reading, or they can be drawn from a database or a set of text files that were not
created solely for print.

SWAYAM – MOOC

o The full form of MOOC is Massive open online courses.

o The term ‘MOOC’ was coined by Dave Cormier in 2008.
o India has two major public MOOC platforms – NPTEL and SWAYAM.
o The SWAYAM MOOC Platform was developed indigenously by the All India Council
for Technical Education (AICTE) in 2016 to facilitate the hosting of online learning
courses.
o These courses can be accessed by anyone from any place and at any time.
o The SWAYAM MOOC courses are free of cost for everyone.
o The MOOC platform of SWAYAM is among the world’s largest platforms.
o Some famous worldwide MOOC platforms are – Coursera, edX, FutureLearn, etc.
SWAYAM

Motto of SWAYAM “Shikshit Bharat, Unnat Bharat” (Educated India, Advanced India)

The SWAYAM MOOC Platform was developed indigenously by the All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE) in 2016 to facilitate the hosting of online learning courses.
These courses can be accessed by anyone from any place and at any time. The SWAYAM
MOOC courses are free of cost for everyone. The full form of SWAYAM is Study Webs of
Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds. The SWAYAM portal is launched to achieve
three education principles – access, equity, and quality. The Ministry of Education (formerly
the Ministry of Human Resource & Development) launched the SWAYAM program on 9th
July 2017. It aims to provide millions of students with a quality education through e-learning
courses.
In order to ensure that best quality content is produced and delivered, nine National
Coordinators have been appointed. They are:

1. AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education) for self-paced and international
courses
2. NPTEL (National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning) for Engineering
3. UGC (University Grants Commission) for non technical post-graduation education
4. CEC (Consortium for Educational Communication) for under-graduate education
5. NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training) for school
education
6. NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) for school education
7. IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) for out-of-school students
8. IIMB (Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore) for management studies
9. NITTTR (National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research) for
Teacher Training programme

It is aimed at offering free and high-quality e-learning education to students ranging from
Class 9th to post-graduation. The platform employs cutting-edge pedagogy and upgraded
audio-visual and multimedia tools to deliver courses. It covers a wide range of subjects in
higher education and provides skill development courses for the skill sector. As of December
2022, there are over 2000 courses available on the platform, all taught by experienced
instructors. These courses are carefully curated, produced, and delivered by nine National
Coordinators. It includes NPTEL, AICTE, UGC, NCERT, NIOS, IGNOU, IIM-B, CEC, and
NITTTR. Accessing SWAYAM MOOC courses for learning is completely free of charge,
without any fees. Moreover, upon completing the course and passing the exam at designated
centers, participants can obtain a SWAYAM certificate. A nominal exam fee is required to
enroll in the exam.

The objective of the SWAYAM initiative is to make top-quality educational resources

accessible to everyone, especially those who have been underserved. This includes:
 o Closing the digital gap for students who have not yet benefited from the digital
revolution and couldn't participate in the knowledge economy.
o Offering a comprehensive web and mobile platform with interactive e-content for all
educational levels, from High School to University.
o Delivering a high-quality learning experience through multimedia, available at any
time and from anywhere.
o Establishing an advanced system for easy access, monitoring, and certification.
o Creating opportunities for peer interaction and discussion forums to address questions
and concerns

Some of the important features of the SWAYAM platform are given below –

o Accessible Mobile learning – Mobile learning means learning which can be easily
accessible from anywhere through any device connected to the internet. SWAYAM is
a hub for interactive e-content.
o Audio-Visual Content – The courses on the platform are available in the audio-visual
multimedia format. It would be easily accessible to learners and would enhance their
learning.
o Certificate Courses – It will keep track of the progress and issue a certificate for the
students after an online exam.
o Doubt Solving – It also has the feature of an Interaction forum where learners can
clear up any doubts.
o Quality Assurance – Renowned and expert professors and faculties of Universities
design the SWAYAM courses. Hence, the quality of classroom teaching has not been
affected.
o Proctored Platform – The SWAYAM platform provides the certificate after
completing the course. The exam for the certificate is conducted in a proctoring
manner to stop any malpractice and to maintain the integrity of the exam.
o Free of Cost – All the courses on the SWAYAM platform are available free of cost
with no hidden charges.
o Transfer of Credit – The UGC has notified the UGC (credit framework for online
learning courses through SWAYAM) Regulation 2016 to allow the transfer of credits
earned from SWAYAM courses into the student's academic record in their parent
institutions or universities.

The SWAYAM portal implements a four-quadrant-based approach for the betterment of the
children and students. The four quadrants of SWAYAM are –

o Video lectures (e-tutorial)– Under this initiative, the government targets to deliver
free education to all individuals who require it through interactive video lectures.
Expert mentors will deliver these lectures, and they will be of high quality.
o Specially prepared reading material(e-content) – The easily downloadable and
printable e-material through pdf, ppt, etc. will be provided. It will help in learning and
revision through self-reading.
o Self-assessment tests – The portal will also hold regular tests and quizzes to assess
learning properly and to check performance.
o Online discussion forum – Learning becomes complete by clearing all subject-related
doubts. So, there will be discussion forums that will solve the doubts of the learners.

Roles And Responsibilities of SWAYAM

 o Develop SWAYAM Platform for collaborative education with expertise from various
fields and advanced pedagogy/technology.
o Procure necessary resources for smooth operation of SWAYAM.
o Transform India's education outcomes by expanding access to quality education cost-
effectively.
o Offer a wide range of free online courses from Class IX to Post Graduate levels, with a
small certification fee.
o Host 10,000 online courses for 30 million learners.
o Create e-content for courses from School Secondary level to Post Graduation.
o Develop interdisciplinary courses for self-paced learning, including Yoga, GST,
Economic Survey, etc.
o Offer curriculum-based courses in new disciplines.
o Focus on making students employable in the industry or prepared for higher education.
o Embrace technology-based online learning for flexible, accessible education.
o SWAYAM brings together education and technology partners for knowledge sharing
and democratizing education in India.

SWAYAM and SWAYAM Prabha

o The SWAYAM PRABHA is a group of educational DTH channels started in 2017.

o As of December 2022, there are 34 channels under the SWAYAM Prabha initiative.
o These channels telecast high-quality educational programs on a 24X7 basis i.e
throughout the day.
o GSAT-15 satellite of ISRO facilitates the telecast of the SWAYAM Prabha app and
channels.
o The content and programs on these channels are prepared by NPTEL, IITs, UGC,
CEC, IGNOU, NCERT, and NIOS.
o The learners can watch the SWAYAM Prabha tv channels on free or paid dish
service, SWAYAM Prabha app.
o These SWAYAM Prabha channels provide curriculum-based course content for
school education, professional courses, and college education.
o They also telecast courses for the students preparing for competitive exams like IIT,
NEET, etc.
o They cover programs in multiple languages such as English, Hindi, Urdu, French,
German, Russian, Spanish, and other major foreign languages.

e-PG Pathshala

e-PG Pathshala is an initiative of the MHRD under its National Mission on

Education through ICT (NME-ICT) being executed by the [Link] content and
its quality being the key component of education system, high quality,
curriculum-based, interactive e-content in 70 subjects across all disciplines of
social sciences, arts, fine arts and humanities, natural & mathematical sciences.

All these contents can be accessed by any one from anywhere without paying
anything. This initiative fulfills the gap of the teachers in the various institutions
and helps to the students for the imparting education and advancement of the
knowledge of the particular subject. It enhances self-learning process,
assessment and update with other courses for all postgraduate courses. It
provides a separate platform for the students and separate platform for the
content writers. The students can download a module for study and learning.e-
Pathya is one the verticals of e-PG Pathshala which is software driven course /
content package that facilitates students pursuing higher education (PG level) in
distance learning as well as campus learning mode. it also facilitate offline
access. ePathshala also allows users to download and carry as many books as their device
supports. Features of these books allow users to read offline, select, zoom, bookmark,
highlight, navigate, search, read in day/night mode and make notes digitally.

In the course of the multiple technology platforms, e-PG Pathshala is most useful for
Teachers, Students, Parents and Educators and can access online Book through smart phones
and tablets and also from the web through laptops and PC. Some of the following parts of
these online books allow users to underline, bold, pinch, select, zoom, bookmark,
highlight, navigate, share and make notes digitally.

Following are the points denote the e-PG Pathshala are useful for the learners which are
as follows:

 All the learners can access digital course book for all classes  Learners can contribute to
periodicals & journals to the users

 Learners can also access online resources like audios, videos lecture, images, question
booklet, notes etc,  It can help children accomplish predictable learning result

 All the learners can also access teaching information and source books

 It can access Committees Report, Policy Documents Policy, Syllabus, NCFs to support
user learning.
INFILIBNET

The Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) Centre was established as a project of
IUCAA in 1991 and was recognized and as an independent, autonomous Inter-University
Centre (IUC) of the University Grants Commission (UGC) in May 1996. Major activities and
services of the Centre include automation of academic libraries and information centres,
creation of union databases of resources (IndCat) available in academic libraries, promote
resource sharing among academic libraries, promote information access and transfer, support
scholarship, learning and academic pursuits. The Centre acts as a nodal agency for
networking of libraries and information centres in universities, institutions of higher learning
and R & D institutions in India with an aim to promote scholarly communication.

The technology being a driving force in the contemporary education system, the UGC has
taken-up a major initiative for the benefit of academic community in universities under its
purview. The initiative called “UGC-Infonet Digital Library Consortium” provides access to
selected scholarly electronic journals and databases in different disciplines. The Centre is
responsible for execution and monitoring of this initiative. The Centre also extends access to
e-resources to all Govt. / Govt.-aided colleges under a project entitled “National Library and
Information Infrastructure for Scholarly Content (N-LIST)” funded by the MHRD under its
National Mission on Education through ICT.

The Centre, on behalf of the UGC, has taken-up a number of new initiatives for the benefit of
the academic community. These initiatives include:

i)Shodhganga: a reservoir of Indian Theses and Dissertations;

ii) Shodhgangotri: a repository of synopsis submitted to the universities for registration under
Ph.D. programme;

iii) OJAS@INFLIBNET: An open access journal publishing platform;

iv) Shibboleth-based access management system;

v) Open source software R & D;

vi)InfoPortal: A comprehensive gateway to all Indian electronic scholarly content;

vii) e-PG Pathshala: e-Content for PG Courses and viii) Measuring Research Output of
Indian Universities.

The objectives of the Centre, as per the Memorandum of Association (MoA), are as follows:

o To promote and establish communication facilities to improve capability in information

transfer and access that provide support to scholarship, learning, research and academic
pursuits through cooperation and involvement of concerned agencies;
o To establish information and library network - a computer communication network for
linking libraries and information centres in universities, deemed to be universities,
 colleges, UGC information centres, institutions of national importance and R&D
institutions, etc. avoiding duplication of efforts;
o To facilitate academic communication amongst scientists, engineers, social scientists,
academicians, faculty, researchers and students through electronic mail, file transfer,
computer /audio/video conferencing, etc;
o To undertake system design and studies in the field of communications, computer
networking, information handling and data management;
o To establish appropriate control and monitoring system for the communication network
and organize maintenance;
o To collaborate with institutions, libraries, information centres and other organizations in
India and abroad in the field relevant to the objectives of the Centre;
o To promote R&D and develop necessary facilities to create technical positions for
realizing the objectives of the Centre;
o To generate revenue by providing consultancies and information services; and

Khan Academy

Khan Academy is an American non-profit educational organization created in 2006 by Sal

Khan. Its goal is to create a set of online tools that help educate students. The organization
produces short video lessons. Its website also includes supplementary practice exercises and
materials for educators. It has produced over 10,000 video lessons teaching a wide spectrum
of academic subjects, including mathematics, sciences, literature, history, and computer
science. All resources are available for free to users of the website and application.

Khan Academy's website aims to provide a free high-quality education to anyone, built on
videos hosted on YouTube. The website is meant to be used as a supplement to the videos,
because it includes other features such as progress tracking, practice exercises, and teaching
tools. The material can also be accessed through mobile applications. The videos enable
students to acquire knowledge at their own learning speed according to the concept
of mastery learning. They are therefore used by teachers to teach according to the principle
of Flipped Classroom. The videos display a recording of drawings on an electronic
blackboard, which are similar to the style of a teacher giving a lecture. The narrator describes
each drawing and how they relate to the material being taught. Furthermore, throughout the
lessons, users can earn badges and energy points, which can be displayed on their profiles.
Non-profit groups have distributed offline versions of the videos to rural areas in Asia, Latin
America, and Africa. Videos range from all subjects covered in school and for all grades
from kindergarten up through high school. The Khan Academy website also hosts content
from educational YouTube channels and organizations such as Crash Course and
the Museum of Modern [Link] Academy has been one of the official SAT (Scholastic
Assessment Test) preparation websites. According to reports, studying for the SAT for at
least 20 hours at Khan Academy is associated with a 115-point average score increase
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE IN EDUCATION

Presentation Software allows you to display information in the form of an electronic slide
show. Slides in a slideshow, can contain text, images, clipart, graphical representations of
data (charts), audio, animation and video as well as links to external sources and other items.
Presentation skills help create innovative ideas when students come up with creative and
interesting slides to illustrate their talk. The use of presentation aids makes for a much more
interesting talk, and the creation of such aids can help develop students' confidence.
Educational presentations provide engaging learning experiences, improve information
retention, enhance understanding of complex topics, and allow for questions and feedback.
They also develop critical thinking, encourage collaboration, and inspire creativity.

Using presentation software in academic settings has several specific benefits.

 it enhances students' engagement and confidence in learning
 it increases interest in learning, attendance, and academic performance

Tips for Effective PowerPoint Presentations

Fonts

 Use font size no smaller than 24 point.

 Clearly label each screen. Use a larger font (35-45 points) or different color for the
title.
 Avoid italicized fonts as they are difficult to read quickly.
 No more than 6-8 words per line
 For bullet points, use the “6 x 6 Rule.” One thought per line, with no more than 6
words per line and no more than 6 lines per slide
 Use dark text on light background or light text on dark background. However,dark
backgrounds sometimes make it difficult for some people to read the text.
 Do not use all caps (except for titles).

To test the font, stand back six feet from the monitor and see if you can read the slide.

Graphics and Design

 Keep the background consistent and subtle.

 Use only enough text when using charts or graphs to explain the concept.
 Clearly label the graphic.
 Keep the design clean and uncluttered. Leave empty space around the text and
graphics.
 Use quality clipart and use it sparingly. The graphic should relate to and enhance the
topic of the slide.
 Try to use the same style graphics throughout the presentation (e.g., cartoons,
photographs)
 Limit the number of graphics on each slide.
 Avoid flashy graphics and noisy animation effects unless they relate directly to the
slide.
Color

 Limit the number of colors on a single screen.

 Use no more than four colors on one chart.
 Check all colors on a projection screen before the actual presentation. They may
project differently than what appears on the monitor.

General Presentation

Check the spelling and grammar.

 Do not read the presentation. Practice the presentation so you can speak from bullet
points. The text should be a cue for the presenter rather than a message for the viewer.
 It is often more effective to have bulleted points appear one at a time so the audience
listens to the presenter rather than reading the screen.
 Use a wireless mouse, or pick up the wired mouse, so you can move around as you
speak.
 If the content is complex, print out the slides so the audience can take notes.
 Do not turn your back on the audience. Try to position the monitor so you can speak
from it.