COMPREHENSIVE TRAINING NOTES

Human Resource Management & Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Based on: Noe (2020) | Aamodt | DeCenzo & Robbins (2006)

SECTION 1

Training: Steps and Process

Source: Raymond A. Noe — Employee Training & Development (2020) | Topic: Training Process /
ISD Model

1.1 What Is Training?

Training refers to a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees' learning of job-related
competencies, knowledge, skills, and behaviors. The goal is for employees to master the knowledge,
skills, and behaviors emphasized in training programs and to apply them in their day-to-day activities.

Noe distinguishes between two related activities:

• Employee Training: Present-oriented; focuses on individuals' current jobs. It is designed to
enhance specific skills and abilities required to immediately perform the current job.
• Employee Development: Future-oriented; focuses on employee personal growth and
preparing employees for future positions of greater responsibility.

1.2 The Training Design Process (7-Step ISD Model)

The training design process refers to a systematic approach for developing training programs. Noe
presents a seven-step model, grounded in principles of Instructional System Design (ISD). This is also
called the ADDIE model — Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation.

Key Principle: Training design is effective only if it helps employees reach instructional or
training goals and objectives. Measurable learning objectives must be identified before the
training program begins.

Step 1 — Conducting Needs Assessment

This is the foundational step. It determines whether training is needed by diagnosing performance
problems or identifying gaps between current and desired performance. Needs assessment involves
three levels of analysis:

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 • Organizational Analysis: Examines the organization's strategy, resources, and environment to
determine where training should be emphasized.
• Person Analysis: Identifies which employees need training and in which specific areas. It
determines whether performance deficiencies are due to a lack of knowledge/skills (training
problem) or motivation/situational factors (non-training problem).
• Task Analysis: Identifies the important tasks, knowledge, skills, and behaviors that need to be
emphasized in training to perform a job successfully.

Step 2 — Ensuring Employees' Readiness for Training

This step ensures that employees have the motivation and basic skills necessary to master the training
content. Two key elements must be present:
• Attitudes and Motivation: Employees must believe that they can learn the content and that
training will help them perform better. Self-efficacy — the belief that one can perform a task — is
particularly important.
• Basic Skills: Trainees must have the cognitive ability and literacy skills necessary to
understand and apply the training content.

Step 3 — Creating a Learning Environment

The learning environment must contain several features necessary for learning to occur. These include:
• Learning Objectives — clearly stating what trainees should know or do after training
• Meaningful Material — content that relates to trainees' current work experiences
• Practice — opportunities to rehearse and apply skills
• Feedback — information to trainees about their mastery of content
• Community of Learning — interaction and sharing among trainees
• Modeling — demonstrations of skills or behavior to be learned
• Program Administration — proper scheduling, facilities, and equipment

Step 4 — Ensuring Transfer of Training

Transfer of training refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they learned in training to
their jobs. This step involves managing factors that support or hinder the application of learning:
• Self-Management Strategies: Trainees learn to set goals, monitor progress, and reinforce their
own behavior on the job.
• Peer and Manager Support: Co-workers and supervisors must encourage and reward the use
of newly learned skills. Manager support is one of the strongest predictors of transfer.

Step 5 — Developing an Evaluation Plan

Before training occurs, an evaluation plan must be designed. This step identifies the types of outcomes
training is expected to influence and selects an evaluation design. It includes:
• Identifying learning outcomes (knowledge, skills, attitudes, behavior change, business results)
• Choosing an appropriate evaluation design (pre-test/post-test, control groups, etc.)
• Planning a cost-benefit analysis to determine the monetary value of training

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Step 6 — Selecting the Training Method
Based on the learning objectives and learning environment, the appropriate training method is chosen.
Methods fall into two broad categories:
• Traditional Methods: Lecture, case study, role play, simulation, behavior modeling,
apprenticeship, on-the-job training (OJT).
• E-Learning Methods: Web-based training, virtual classrooms, mobile learning (m-learning),
social media learning, MOOCs.

The choice of method depends on the learning objectives, cost, number of trainees, and the need for
practice and feedback.

Step 7 — Monitoring and Evaluating the Program

After the program is delivered, it is evaluated and revised as needed. This step involves:
• Conducting the evaluation using the plan developed in Step 5
• Measuring outcomes at multiple levels — reaction, learning, behavior change, and results
• Making changes to improve the program based on evaluation findings
• Revisiting earlier steps in the process when problems are identified

1.3 The ISD / ADDIE Model — Mapping

The seven-step process maps onto the ADDIE framework as follows:

ADDIE Phase Steps in Noe's Model Key Activity

Analysis Steps 1 & 2 — Needs Assessment + Diagnose gaps; assess employee
Readiness motivation
Design Steps 3, 4 & 5 — Learning Env., Design environment, objectives,
Transfer, Evaluation Plan and evaluation
Development (Embedded in design steps) Create content, materials, and
activities
Implementation Step 6 — Selecting & Using Training Deliver training via appropriate
Method method
Evaluation Step 7 — Monitoring & Evaluating Measure outcomes; revise the
program

1.4 Key Assumptions of ISD

• Training design is only effective when it helps employees reach instructional goals.
• Measurable learning objectives must be identified before training begins.
• Evaluation plays a critical role in planning, monitoring, and improving training.
• The process should be systematic yet flexible enough to adapt to business needs.
• Different steps may be completed simultaneously depending on organizational needs.

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1.5 Critiques and Overcoming Flaws of the ISD Model
While widely used, training professionals have raised several critiques:
• Not always linear: In practice, the design process rarely follows a neat, orderly step-by-step
approach.
• Over-documentation: Some organizations require excessive documentation of each step,
adding time and cost.
• No true end point: Good instructional design is iterative — evaluation should feed back into
redesign continuously, not serve as a final endpoint.
• Diluted application: Organizations may assume training is the best solution without
investigating other causes for performance gaps.

Despite these critiques, the ISD process remains the best available framework for ensuring training
effectiveness. Lean adaptations (like Suffolk Construction's lean ADDIE) improve speed and reduce
costs while maintaining rigor.

SECTION 2

Training Needs Assessment

Source: Michael G. Aamodt — Industrial-Organizational Psychology | Topic: Training Needs
Analysis

2.1 What Is Needs Assessment?

A needs analysis (or needs assessment) is the first step in developing any employee training system.
Its purpose is to determine the types of training, if any, that are needed in an organization, as well as
the extent to which training is a practical means of achieving organizational goals.

Research Support: A meta-analysis found better-than-normal training effectiveness when a

needs assessment was conducted prior to program creation (Arthur, Bennett, Edens, & Bell).
This confirms that skipping needs assessment leads to less effective training.

According to Aamodt and Goldstein & Ford, there are three types of needs analysis:
1. Organizational Analysis
2. Task Analysis
3. Person Analysis

2.2 Level 1 — Organizational Analysis

The purpose of organizational analysis is to determine those organizational factors that either facilitate
or inhibit training effectiveness. It examines:
• The goals the organization wants to achieve
• The extent to which training will help achieve those goals
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 • The organization's ability to conduct training (finances, physical space, time)
• The extent to which employees are willing and able to be trained (ability, commitment,
motivation, stress)

Key dimensions examined in organizational analysis include:

• Establish Goals and Objectives: What does the organization want to accomplish? Training
goals must align with organizational goals.
• Economic Analysis: Can the organization afford training? Is there a return on investment?
• Personpower Analysis and Planning: How many people need training? What is the workforce
composition?
• Climate and Attitude Surveys: Are employees open to training? Is there organizational
support for learning?
• Resource Analysis: Does the organization have the physical resources (space, equipment,
trainers) necessary?

Example: At AT&T, employees needed training due to new technology. However, because
of recent layoffs and increased business, managers refused to release employees for
training. As a result, expensive newly developed training programs sat on the shelf unused.

Training will only be effective if:

• The organization provides a supportive climate for training
• It can afford an effective program
• Employees want to learn
• Program goals are consistent with organizational goals

2.3 Level 2 — Task Analysis

If organizational analysis confirms a positive climate for training, the next step is task analysis. The
purpose is to identify:
• The tasks performed by each employee
• The conditions under which these tasks are performed
• The competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities) needed to perform those tasks under the
identified conditions

Common job analysis methods used for task analysis include:

• Task Inventories: Comprehensive lists of tasks rated for frequency, importance, or difficulty.
• Interviews: In-depth discussions with workers and supervisors about job demands.
• Observations: Direct observation of employees performing their work.
• Performance Appraisals: Review of existing performance data.
• Job Descriptions: Review of existing formal job descriptions (if detailed and current).

The task analysis process typically involves two columns:

• Column 1: List of tasks for a given job
• Column 2: How each task is learned (selection, on-the-job, training programs, etc.)

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Tasks not covered by selection criteria or existing training programs represent training gaps that need
to be addressed through new training development.

Bank Teller Example: Tasks like 'Calm irate customers' and 'Ask customers about Visa
applications' were identified as having no associated training — representing critical training
needs for a bank's teller workforce.

2.4 Level 3 — Person Analysis

Person analysis is the third and final step. It determines which specific employees need training and in
which areas, recognizing that not every employee needs training for every task.

Person analysis uses the following five methods:

Method 1: Performance Appraisal Scores

The easiest method. Low ratings on a dimension for most employees indicate training needs in that
area; high ratings indicate proficiency. However, three problems exist:
• Rating errors (leniency/strictness) can distort conclusions
• Only a few employees may score low, making averages misleading
• The current appraisal system may not capture the specific data needed

Method 2: Surveys
Surveys ask employees to identify knowledge and skills they feel they need. Advantages:
• Avoids the problem of rating errors
• Employees often know their own strengths and weaknesses best
• Can be used even when no formal appraisal system exists

Best practice: provide a list of job-related tasks and have employees rate training need for each.
Supervisors then validate the results to align perceptions and prioritize needs.

Method 3: Interviews
Structured or semi-structured interviews with a selected number of employees. Advantages:
• Yields more in-depth and nuanced answers than surveys
• Reveals employee feelings and attitudes more clearly

Disadvantages: data is often difficult to quantify and analyze; not as commonly used as surveys.

Method 4: Skill and Knowledge Tests

Objective tests measure employee competence in specific areas. Examples include knowledge tests for
lending laws, company policy tests, or skill demonstrations.
• If all employees score poorly: organization-wide training is indicated
• If only a few score poorly: targeted individual training is needed

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Main limitation: few ready-made tests exist for specific jobs, so organizations often must develop
custom tests — a time-consuming and costly process.

Method 5: Critical Incidents

Uses the critical-incident technique. Incidents are sorted by dimension and separated into examples of
good and poor performance. Dimensions with many examples of poor performance signal areas where
additional training is needed.
• Useful when a prior job analysis is available
• Relatively easy to implement compared to other methods
• Provides behavioral anchors grounded in actual performance

2.5 Summary Comparison — Person Analysis Methods

Method Strengths Limitations
Performance Easy, existing data, identifies group Affected by rating errors; may lack
Appraisals needs specificity
Surveys Employee-driven, flexible, avoids Self-report bias; organization may
rater errors not afford suggestions
Interviews In-depth, reveals attitudes & feelings Hard to quantify; not commonly used
at scale
Skill/Knowledge Objective, precise, targets individuals Few ready-made tests; custom
Tests development costly
Critical Incidents Behaviorally grounded, easy if job Not widely used; requires existing job
analysis exists analysis

SECTION 3

Techniques of Training
Source: DeCenzo & Robbins — Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8th ed. (2006) |
Topic: Training & Development Methods (Chapter 8)

3.1 Employee Training vs. Employee Development

• Employee Training: Present-oriented training focused on individuals' current jobs. Designed to
enhance specific skills and abilities needed to immediately perform the current job. Example: a
new marketing representative learning company policies and selling practices.

• Employee Development: Future-oriented training focused on employee personal growth.

Prepares employees for future positions and broader organizational roles. Example: a sales rep
being groomed for a territory manager role, learning broader management competencies.

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3.2 Determining Training Needs
Before selecting training techniques, managers must identify training needs by asking:
• What deficiencies, if any, do incumbents have in the skills, knowledge, or abilities required to
exhibit the necessary job behaviors?
• What behaviors are necessary for each job incumbent to complete the tasks assigned?
• What are the organization's goals?
• What tasks must be completed to achieve its goals?
• Is there a need for training?

Training should be judged by its contribution to performance — where performance is a function of

skills, abilities, motivation, and the opportunity to perform. Training may not be needed if deficiencies
are due to motivational or environmental factors, not skill gaps.

3.3 Training Methods — Classification

DeCenzo classifies training methods into two broad categories based on where the training takes
place:

A. On-the-Job Training (OJT) Methods

On-the-job training methods take place at the worksite, using actual equipment and tasks. They are
cost-effective and offer immediate relevance.

• 1. Job Rotation: Involves lateral transfers that allow employees to work at different jobs within
the organization. Employees gain good exposure to a variety of tasks, reducing boredom and
building a broad skill set.
• Can be horizontal (same level, different function) or vertical (promotion)
• Broadens the employee's understanding of organizational operations
• Turns specialists into generalists
• Can also provide more comprehensive evaluation data for supervisors

• 2. Understudy Assignments: Working with a seasoned veteran, coach, or mentor who

provides support and encouragement. In the trades industry, this may be called an
apprenticeship.
• Employee works alongside and learns from an experienced worker
• Develops judgment, tacit knowledge, and professional standards
• Common in managerial development and skilled trades

B. Off-the-Job Training Methods

Off-the-job training takes place away from the actual worksite, using a range of instructional techniques.

• 1. Classroom Lectures: Lectures convey specific technical, interpersonal, or problem-solving

skills. This is the most traditional training format.
• Can reach many trainees simultaneously at low cost

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 • Distance learning and digital delivery are extending this model significantly
• Growing trend: seminar delivery via fiber-optic video or online platforms
• Many organizations now send employees to colleges for continuing education credits

• 2. Films and Videos: Media productions that explicitly demonstrate technical skills not easily
presented by other training methods.
• Clear economic advantage over live lecture when training sessions are repeated many times
• Most videotapes can be purchased for $150-$300; a consultant charges $50-$200/hour
• Custom video production costs $1,000-$3,000 per finished minute
• Best used when training will be repeated frequently across many employees

• 3. Simulation Exercises: Learning a job by actually performing the work (or a close
simulation). May include:
◦ Case analyses — study real or hypothetical organizational problems, analyze causes,
develop solutions
◦ Experiential exercises — hands-on activities that recreate job conditions
◦ Role playing — participants act out supervisory or customer interaction scenarios
◦ Group interaction/decision games — simulated competitive environments

The advantage of simulations is the ability to create environments similar to those managers will face,
without the costs of poor decisions in the real workplace. Airlines use flight simulators because
mistakes in a real aircraft could be fatal. The disadvantage is that it is difficult to fully replicate the
pressures and complexities of actual decision making.

• 4. Vestibule Training: Trainees learn tasks on the same equipment they will actually use on
the job, but in a simulated work environment — not the real worksite.
• Combines the advantages of OJT (realistic equipment) with off-job training (no production
pressure)
• Widely used in flight simulators and manufacturing settings
• Computer programming allows trainers to present scenarios that could be dangerous or difficult
to replicate in real aircraft

3.4 Employee Development Methods

Beyond basic training, organizations invest in longer-term employee development. DeCenzo identifies
both on-the-job and off-the-job development methods.

On-the-Job Development Techniques

• Job Rotation (Development Version): Moving employees horizontally or vertically to expand
their skills, knowledge, and abilities. Turns specialists into generalists by broadening
organizational exposure.
• Assistant-to Positions: High-potential employees work under a seasoned and successful
manager, performing a wide variety of management activities. They are groomed for the next
higher level of responsibility.
• Committee Assignments: Employees participate in temporary or permanent committees,
sharing in decision making, learning by watching others, and investigating specific
organizational problems. Provides exposure to a broader set of organizational perspectives.

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Off-the-Job Development Techniques
• Lecture Courses and Seminars: Traditional forms of instruction — formal lectures, college
courses, and professional seminars — that help individuals acquire knowledge and develop
conceptual and analytical abilities. Many organizations offer these in-house, through outside
vendors, or through distance learning platforms.
• Simulations: More popular for development than for basic training. The most widely used
include case studies, decision games, and role plays. Case study analysis — popularized by
Harvard Business School — asks trainees to identify problems, analyze causes, develop
alternative solutions, and recommend the best one. Case studies provide stimulating
discussions and excellent opportunities to practice analytical skills.
• Outdoor Training: A trend in employee development that uses outdoor (wilderness or survival)
training. The primary goal is to teach trainees the importance of teamwork and working together.
Activities include white-water rafting, mountain climbing, and paintball games. Employees react
to the challenges of nature to see whether they work as a team or fall apart individually.

3.5 Organization Development (OD)

Beyond individual training, DeCenzo discusses Organization Development (OD) — the part of HRM
that addresses systemwide change in the organization. OD is facilitated by a change agent — an
individual responsible for fostering the change effort and assisting employees in adapting to change.

Lewin's Three-Step Change Model underpins OD:

• Step 1 — Unfreeze: Destabilize the status quo. This is achieved by increasing driving forces
(pressure for change) or decreasing restraining forces (resistance to change), or both.
• Step 2 — Change (Freeze): Implement the change. Introduce the new state of affairs.
• Step 3 — Refreeze: Stabilize the new change. Without this step, employees revert to the
previous equilibrium. The objective is to balance driving and restraining forces.

3.6 Evaluating Training Programs

DeCenzo identifies several criteria for evaluating whether training programs are successful:
• Reaction Criteria — did trainees like the program?
• Learning Criteria — did trainees acquire the knowledge and skills taught?
• Behavioral Criteria — are trainees applying what they learned on the job?
• Results Criteria — has the training improved organizational performance (productivity, quality,
turnover, costs)?

Once training goals are established, management should explicitly state its desired results for each
employee. Goals should be tangible, verifiable, timely, and measurable so both supervisor and
employee know what is expected.

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Integrated Summary & Key Comparisons
The three texts approach training from complementary angles. Here is a consolidated overview:

Dimension Noe (2020) Aamodt DeCenzo & Robbins

Focus Systematic design Diagnosing training Training & development
process (7-step needs (3-level analysis) techniques
ISD/ADDIE)
Primary Model ISD / ADDIE 7-step Organizational-Task- On-job vs. Off-job
model Person framework classification
Needs Analysis Organizational, Person, 3-level: Org → Task → Training needs from
Task (Step 1) Person analysis performance gaps
Training Methods Traditional + e-learning Classroom + OJT + OJT (rotation,
taxonomy simulation understudy) + Off-job
(lecture, sim, vestibule)
Transfer Strong focus — Step 4 Manager support, goal Goal-setting,
Emphasis dedicated to transfer setting, opportunity to management
apply reinforcement
Evaluation Detailed (Step 5 & 7); Pre/post, control groups, 4-level criteria: reaction,
multiple outcome levels ROI learning, behavior,
results
Development Employee development Skill-based pay as Job rotation, assistant-
vs. training distinction development incentive to, committee, OD
methods

Key Takeaways Across All Three Sources

• Training is strategic: All three authors position training as directly linked to organizational
goals and performance outcomes, not a standalone HR activity.
• Needs assessment is non-negotiable: Training without a proper needs assessment risks
wasted resources and ineffective programs. Both Noe and Aamodt are emphatic on this.
• No single technique fits all: Different jobs, objectives, and organizational contexts require
different training methods. Effective programs often combine multiple techniques.
• Transfer of learning is the real goal: Having employees learn in training is not enough — they
must apply it on the job. Supervisory support is consistently identified as the most powerful
enabler of transfer.
• Evaluation closes the loop: Without systematic measurement of outcomes, organizations
cannot know whether training was effective or how to improve it.

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