ETHICS Realism - claims that the essence of an

Finals Reviewer object is embedded within itself.

EPISTEMOLOGY - branch of Philosophy

Introduction of Philosophy that deals with the study of knowledge. It
came from the Greek word Epistêmê, which
Philosophia (philo : love , sophia : wisdom) is often translated as knowledge.
- is the study of all beings in their ultimate
causes and principles known through Schools of Epistemology
human reason alone; aims to proceed to Empiricism - believes that knowledge is
truth derived from the senses alone. (experience
Causes: always produce effects that are and experimentation)
determined (sanhi) Rationalism - believes that knowledge is
Reason: refer as rationality, associated w/ derived from reason. (reason and logic)
thinking & intellect
Faith (fides): confidence/trust in LOGIC - systematic study of the form of
person/thing/concept valid inference and reason; it deals with the
ability to test arguments for logical
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY consistency and understanding the logical
METAPHYSICS - branch of philo. that deals consequences of certain assumptions. the
with the study of the first principles of being. study of the laws of thought or correct
Cosmology - concerned with the studies of reasoning. a system of principles that uses
the origin and evolution of the universe, reason to determine if a conclusion is true
from the Big Bang to today and on into the or untrue.
future; scientific study of the origin, AESTHETIC - the study of the nature of
evolution, and eventual fate of the universe; beauty, art, and taste, and the creation of
deals with the study of all the events within personal kinds of truth. It is also known as
the space and time continuum. Art Appreciation; color schemes are
Ontology - philosophical study of being. relatively powerful.
More broadly, it studies concepts that PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION - the
directly relate to being, in particular philosophical examination of the central
becoming, existence, reality, as well as the themes and concepts involved in religious
basic categories of being and their relations. traditions.
Rational Psych - also known as Philosophy
of the Mind, studies the nature of the mind, Schools of Philosophy of Religion
mental events, mental functions, mental Gnosticism - belief in the certainty of the
properties, consciousness, and their existence or non-existence of a god
relationship to the physical body, particularly Theism : doctrine of belief in the existence
the brain. of a god/gods
Polytheism - belief in multiple gods
Schools of Metaphysics Monotheism - belief in a single God
Idealism - claims that the essence of an Pantheism - belief that God is the universe
object is its reality and it is in fact mental or and its phenomena
spiritual.

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Atheism - belief in the non-existence of Ethical Principles
God or gods Virtue Ethics - looks at the virtue/moral
Agnosticism - pertains to the religious character of a person carrying out an action,
orientation of a doubt. It is the denial of rather than ethical duties and rules ; based
ultimate knowledge of the existence and the on the character
non-existence of God. It holds that you can Deontology - moral philosophy that judges
neither prove nor disprove God’s existence. an act as moral/good based on the
intentions of the individual committing acts
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY - study of & duties the person is obligated to uphold.
government and the relationship of Categorical Imperative: what is my duty in
individuals to communities including the this task?
state. It includes questions about justice, stays ethical if used; a rule
law, property, and the rights and obligations Consequentialism - the view that morality
of the citizen. is all about producing the right kinds of
overall consequences. Ethical theory that
Why is wisdom important to Philosophy? judges whether/not something is right by
Wisdom is a central component of a what its consequences are. Looking at the
well-lived life. It allows you to make better situation if good/not.
contributions to your community by Utilitarianism: considering others for good
balancing your needs and boundaries with consequences
those of others. Hedonism: prioritizing one’s pleasure over
●​ Intelligence - ability to acquire and common good
apply knowledge and skills Ethical Relativism - theory holds that
●​ Knowledge - facts, information, and morality is relative to the norms of one’s
skills acquired by a person through culture; used if the 3 principles are not
experience or education; the violated; will be penalized; prospecting of
theoretical or practical religion; coverage of Legal Ethics, Law,
understanding of a subject. Religion Ethics.
●​ Wisdom - the soundness of an
action or decision with regard to the Pillars of Ethics
application of experience, Autonomy - giving the patient the freedom
knowledge, and good judgment. to choose freely
Justice - ensuring fairness
Determinism (fixed) - all things are Non-maleficence - to do no harm
because of cause & effect. Beneficence - doing good
Indeterminism - foundation of ethics; life is Moral choices are not determinants, but
predetermined, make random thinking; only factors
theory that the will is free. Humanity : personality attributed only on
humans
ETHICS - the branch of Philosophy that Psychopath : anti-social, inborn, no
deals with the study of good and evil. It is conscience
the philosophical study of moral values and Sociopath : can be developed
rules.

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Narcissism : pattern of toxic traits that Inderminism - It is the contrary of
should be avoided; Showing lack of determinism.
empathy ●​ If a single event is undetermined,
then indeterminism would be "true",
Ethics - choosing right & avoid wrong they say,
Morality - person’s choices of right & wrong determinism is false, and this would
Ethical - morally right & acceptable undermine the very possibility of certain
Moral - sense of right or wrong knowledge.
●​ It is the view that at least some
ETHICAL VS. MORAL events in the universe have no
Ethical - the good and evil is based on deterministic cause but occur
principles already established by a randomly, or by chance.
philosophical system; “always” relative to an
existing ethical principle Existentialism - Regarding human choices
Moral - “always” relative to a personal (behavior) “existence precedes essence.”
standard of an individual Answer this simple, yet complex question in
bullet form:“Who are you?”
RELIGION VS. ETHICS VS. MORALITY ●​ It is a philosophical theory that
Religion - the belief in and worship of a people are free agents who have
superhuman controlling power, especially a control over their choices and
personal God or gods actions.
Ethics - the branch of philosophy that deals ●​ It is the belief that society should not
with the study of good and evil restrict an individual's life or actions
Morality - a particular system of values and and that these restrictions inhibit free
principles of conduct that an individual hold will and the development of that
person's potential.
“Since they all borrow their principles from ●​ It acknowledges facticity, or the
philosophy, I judged that nothing solid could "factuality" and "contingency" to the
have been built on such insecure intractable conditions of human
foundations.”​ - Rene Descartes existence.

HUMAN ACTS
HUMAN FREEDOM ●​ Existential ethics realizes one’s
Determinism - It was developed by the freedom, and any act that hinders it
Greek philosophers during the 7th and 6th is unethical.
centuries BC by the PreSocratic ●​ Freedom always entails
philosophers Heraclitus and Leucippus, responsibility, and failure of its
later Aristotle, and mainly by the Stoics. acknowledgment is unethical.
●​ It is the theory that all events are ●​ Actions based on ethical relativism,
completely determined by previously a principle that promotes individual
existing causes. and social freedom, are only
●​ It includes moral choices consistent with existential ethics if it
will not violate anybody else’s
freedom.

Janella Ishi BS Psychology

 ●​ In addition to, existential ethics sees ●​ Fear can be lead to a voluntary act.
society and culture as a product of If you do an act with fear or out of
human convention, hence may be a fear, either small or big, it is a
hindrance to freedom. voluntary.
●​ Ethical relativism should only act as Grave Fear
supplementary, and under no ●​ when being aroused by the
circumstance that it may override presence of a danger
other principles that promote one’s ●​ can be regarded by most people as
intrinsic value, other rights, and dangerous or can be counted as
freedom. If ethical relativism would serious by the person concerned
be absolute (or without exception), ●​ the doer’s first impulse out of the
then there can be no common circumstance is not free and
framework for resolving moral consequently not imputable to him or
disputes or for reaching agreement her
on ethical matters among members Slight Fear
of different societies ●​ When aroused by a sense of danger
and is not serious

HUMAN ACTS VS ACTS OF MAN Violence

Human Acts - Actions done with ●​ The key here is the presence of
knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness physical force
Acts of Man - involuntary actions; actions Perfect violence
that are a product of instinct/reflex actions ●​ where the victim gives complete
without the intervention of the will resistance (Physically Perfect
Violence)
Ignorance ●​ when all powers resistance should
●​ Ignorance of the law be used but not employed for a good
●​ Ignorance of the fact reason (Morally Perfect Violence)
●​ Vincible ignorance ●​ External or commanded actions
●​ Invincible ignorance (Innocence) performed by a person subjected to
violence are considered involuntary
Concupiscence Imperfect violence
Antecedent Passion ●​ when the victim only gives a partial
●​ that which precedes an act resistance
●​ this first impulse is not free provided
that the circumstances set forth a HABITS
very stronger and violent force, and ●​ Habits are an inclination to
consequently not imputable to us perform some specific action
Consequent Passion acquired by repetition, and
●​ that which is intentionally being characterized by decreased power
aroused and kept of resistance and increased facility
●​ raises accountability of performance.
●​ It is at times called Second
Fear Nature—it being embedded in an

Janella Ishi BS Psychology

 individual but ingrained by being ●​ Ethical principles are part of a
acquired not being inborn. normative theory that justifies or
●​ They are simply repeated actions defends moral rules and/or moral
performed by the agent. judgments; they are not dependent
●​ Unless a considerable effort is on one's subjective viewpoints. The
made to counteract the habitual four major principles are;
inclination, habits do not modify 1.​ Virtue Ethics - character
human acts. 2.​ Deontology - action; duty
(deon)
FINAL TOPIC 3.​ Consequentialism - action;
MORAL COURAGE consequence
Ethics, Etiquette, or Morality? 4.​ Ethical Relativism - action;
●​ Ethics (branch of Philosophy); the culture
basis of good and evil is at all times
relative to the ethical principles) Virtue Ethics
●​ Etiquette (conventional rules of Virtue ethics is a broad term for
proper behavior relative to society theories that emphasize the role of
and culture) character and virtue in moral
●​ Morality (one’s standard of good philosophy rather than either doing
and evil; always relative to the one’s duty or acting in order to bring
subjec about good consequences.
●​ One has to act the way a
Moral courage is the commitment to virtuous person would act.
standing up for and acting upon ●​ Examples of Virtue Ethics:
one's ethical beliefs (Miller, 2005). Platonistic Virtue Ethics
(Plato) Eudemian and
Nicomachean Ethic(Aristotle)

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

●​ The Nicomachean Ethics is the
name normally given to Aristotle's
best-known work on ethics.
●​ Humans ought to develop virtues
because they contribute to
PRINCIPLES Eudaimonia (happiness).
Present your bodies as a living sacrifice,
holy and acceptable to God.” (Romans
12:1) “Let us cleanse ourselves of every
defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting
holiness in the fear of God.” (2 Corinthians
7:1) “Let each one keep seeking, not his
own advantage, but that of the other
person.”—1 Corinthians 10:24.

Normative Ethical Principles

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 make moral judgments; not a
command to perform specific actions
Act as if the maxim of your action
were to become through your will a
universal law of nature. - I. Kant

Deontology
is an ethical theory that says actions are
good or bad according to a clear set of
rules. Rawl’s Theory of Justice
●​ Its name comes from the Greek 1.​ Every citizen should be
word deon, meaning duty. equally entitled to a set of
●​ Actions that align with these rules basic rights and liberties; this
are ethical, while actions that don't was derived from human’s
aren't. Original Position. i.e.,
●​ One ought to do his duty. humans before being born as
Examples of Deontological Ethics: imagined in a conscious
●​ Stoicism (Zeno of Citium) state;
●​ Natural Law (Thomas Aquinas) 2.​ He mentions of the
●​ Categorical Imperative (Immanuel Difference Principle. It says
Kant) that inequality is allowed only
●​ Justice Theory (John Rawls) if it benefits the least
fortunate.
Deontology: Aquinas’ Natural Law 3.​ The system should be
●​ Natural Law is the system of right or merit-based.
justice held to be common to all
humans and derived from nature
rather than from the rules of society
(positive law).

Kant’s Categorical Imperative

●​ Categorical Imperative is an ethical
orientation that holds that one’s
actions should be undertaken as if
s/he had the power to make them
universally applicable. Consequentialism
●​ •It is supposed to provide a way for holds that the consequences of
us to evaluate moral actions and to one's conduct are the ultimate basis
for judgment about the rightness or

Janella Ishi BS Psychology

 wrongness of that conduct. The end Taxation - is the inherent power of the
justifies the means. government to raise revenues to cover the
expenses of the government.
Examples of Consequentialist Ethics:
●​ Buddhist Ethics (Gautama Buddha)
●​ Hedonism (Epicurus, etc.)
●​ Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham,
Jean Stuart Mill)
●​ Machiavellianism(Niccolo
Machiavelli)

Consequentialism: Hedonism
●​ Hedonism is the belief that pleasure
or happiness is the highest good in
life.
●​ It includes pleasure of the entire
mind, not just pleasure of the
senses.

Mill’s Utilitarian
●​ Utilitarianism holds that we should
give equal moral consideration to the
wellbeing of all individuals,
regardless of characteristics such as
their gender, race, nationality, or
even species.
●​ Act for the greatest amount of good
for the greatest number of people

Ethical Relativism
is the theory that holds that morality is
relative to the norms of one's culture [or
conventional background.
Ex. of Ethical relativist principles:
●​ Political, business, religious ethics

Ethics in Taxation

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