Module 2: Solar Thermal Energy Collectors, Solar Cells

1. Define Solar Collectors. List the Advantages and Disadvantages

of Concentrating Collectors over Flat Plate Collectors
Solar collectors are devices that capture solar energy and convert it into thermal energy,
which can be used for heating purposes, such as water heating, space heating, or even
for industrial processes.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors over Flat Plate

Collectors

Advantages:

1. Higher Efficiency at High Temperatures: Concentrating collectors use reflectors

to focus sunlight onto a smaller absorber area to achieve higher temperatures
than flat plate collectors, making them more efficient for applications like
electricity generation.

2. Reduced Heat Losses: By concentrating sunlight on a smaller area, the

absorber’s size is reduced, which minimizes heat losses and increases overall
efficiency.

3. Cost-Effective Reflectors: Reflectors used in concentrating collectors can be

more affordable per unit area, potentially reducing the overall system cost.

4. Suitability for Specific Applications: They are ideal for high-temperature

applications, such as industrial processes, where flat plate collectors might not
be as effective.

Disadvantages:

1. Dependence on Clear Skies: Their efficiency decreases in cloudy or diffuse

sunlight conditions, making them less versatile in varied climates compared to flat
plate collectors.

2. Higher Complexity and Maintenance: The use of reflectors and other

components in concentrating collectors makes them more complex, requiring
regular maintenance and potentially higher operational costs compared to the
simpler design of flat plate collectors.

3. Limited Low-Temperature Use: They are not as efficient for low-temperature

applications, such as residential water heating, where flat plate collectors are
more suitable.

4. Space and Alignment Requirements: Concentrating collectors often require

more space and precise alignment with the sun to function efficiently, making
 installation more complex compared to the relatively straightforward setup of flat
plate collectors.

2. With a schematic diagram, explain working of a Stirling engine

(Parabolic Dish–Stirling Engine System).
Parabolic Dish–Stirling Engine System

The parabolic dish–Stirling engine system is an advanced solar energy conversion

technology that utilizes a parabolic dish concentrator to harness solar energy and
convert it into electricity through a Stirling engine.

Major Components

1. Solar Dish Concentrator:

1. Collects and focuses sunlight onto a thermal receiver.

2. Heat Transfer Fluid: A fluid (like oil or water) circulates through the system,
carrying heat to the power conversion unit.

2. Power Conversion Unit:

1. Thermal Receiver:

1. Absorbs concentrated solar energy and converts it to heat.

2. Often composed of tubes where a cooling fluid flows, or heat pipes

that use the principles of boiling and condensing to transfer heat.

2. Stirling Engine:

1. Utilizes the heated working fluid (often hydrogen or helium) to

produce mechanical power.

2. The engine includes components such as:

1. A receiver for absorbing sunlight and heating the working

fluid.

2. An alternator that converts mechanical work into electrical

energy.

3. A waste-heat exhaust system to release excess heat.

4. A control system to optimize engine performance based on

available solar energy.
 3. Tracking System:

1. A computer system adjusts the dish’s orientation, ensuring concentrated

sunlight is focused onto the receiver for maximum energy capture.

Working of the Stirling Engine

Stirling and Brayton Cycles:

1. Sunlight Concentration: An array of mirrors focuses sunlight onto the thermal

receiver, heating the working fluid to temperatures around 750°C.

2. Energy Conversion: This high-temperature fluid is used in a Stirling or Brayton

cycle to produce mechanical power, which is then converted into electricity.

• Brayton Cycle: Involves heating compressed air with concentrated sunlight,

which reduces the need for fuel combustion.

• Energy Generation: The hot compressed air expands through a turbine, creating
rotational energy, which is converted to electricity by an alternator.

• Efficiency: A recuperator captures waste heat from the turbine to preheat the
compressed air, making the process more efficient.

Schematic of solar electric generation

 3. With neat diagrams, explain solar water heating system
Solar Water Heating Systems

Most solar water heating systems consist of two main components: a solar
collector and a storage tank.

1. Solar Collector

The most common type is the flat plate collector, a rectangular box with a transparent
cover. It contains tubes that carry a heating fluid (water or antifreeze) attached to an
absorber plate, which maximizes heat absorption from sunlight.

2. Storage Tank

This insulated tank holds the heated water and is larger than conventional water heaters.
Heat is transferred from the fluid to the water through a coil of tubes.

3. Types of Solar Water Heating Systems

Solar water heating systems can be classified as either active or passive systems:

Active Systems: These systems rely on pumps to circulate the liquid between the
collector and the storage tank. Active systems are the most common in residential
applications.

Passive Systems: rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is
heated.

Active Solar Water Heating Systems

Active solar water heating systems are designed for domestic hot water and can also be
utilized for space heating applications. A typical active water heating system includes the
following major components:

Parts of Water Heating Systems

1. Collector(s): To capture solar energy.

2. Circulation System: To move fluid between the collectors and the storage tank.
3. Storage Tank: For holding heated water.
4. Backup Heating System: To provide additional heat when needed.
5. Control System: To regulate overall system operation.
 A typical active water heating system that exhibits effectiveness, reliability, and low
maintenance is shown in Figure.

This system primarily utilizes distilled water as the circulating fluid in the collector.

1. Collector Operation

• The collectors contain water only when the pump is operating.

• In cases of power failure or during the night, the absence of fluid in the collector
prevents freezing or cooling down, ensuring efficient startup when sunlight
returns.

2. System Reliability

• This design is widely used due to its reliability.

• Collector Positioning: The collectors must be mounted higher than the drain-
back tank or heat exchanger, which may pose challenges if collectors are
ground-mounted.

3. Heat Exchanger Function

• A double-walled heat exchanger separates the fluids circulated through the

collectors from the household water. This design prevents contamination of the
potable water.
• The heat exchanger transfers heat from the circulating fluids to the water used in
the home.

4. Circulating Fluids: The circulating fluids can include: Water, Oil, Antifreeze
solution, Refrigerant

5. Control System: The system’s controller activates the pumps for the collectors and
heat exchanger when the designated temperature differences are reached.
The heat exchanger can be:

• Separated from the storage tank

• Integrated into the tank

6. Maintenance Considerations

• Systems using antifreeze solutions require inspection every two years to verify the
solution’s effectiveness.
 • Oil or refrigerant systems are typically sealed, requiring less maintenance.
• Refrigerant systems can be more costly and need careful handling to avoid leaks.

7. Applications

• This hot water system is versatile and can be used for heating swimming pools and
spas.
• Lower-cost unglazed collectors (without a glass cover) are available for specific
applications.

4. Explain the applications of solar water heating system

The following are a few industrial applications of solar water heaters.

1. Hotels: bathing, kitchen, washing, laundry applications

2. Dairies: ghee (clarified butter) production, cleaning and sterilizing, pasteurization

3. Textiles: bleaching, boiling, printing, dyeing, curing, ageing, and finishing

4. Breweries and distilleries: bottle washing, work preparation, boiler feed heating

5. Chemical/bulk drugs units: fermentation of mixes, boiler feed applications

6. Electroplating or galvanizing units: heating of plating baths, cleaning,

degreasing applications

6. Pulp and paper industries: boiler feed applications, soaking of pulp

 5. With neat diagrams, explain solar pond power generation

Solar Pond
A solar pond is an innovative method for harnessing solar energy, designed to
collect and store solar energy effectively. This system utilizes layers of salt
solutions with varying concentrations, which create different densities, enabling
the pond to capture and retain heat.

Structure of a Solar Pond

A solar pond is composed of three distinct layers:
1. Top Layer:
o This layer is cold and has a relatively low salt concentration.
o It is characterized by lower density compared to the other layers.
2. Intermediate Layer:
o Contains a salt gradient that maintains a density gradient.
o This layer acts as an insulating barrier, preventing heat exchange due to
natural convection currents.
3. Bottom Layer:
o This layer is hot, reaching temperatures up to 100°C, and has a high salt
concentration.
o The high density in this layer traps heat effectively, preventing it from
escaping to the surface.

How Solar Ponds Work

• The variation in salt concentration creates a stratification effect, which inhibits
convection currents that would normally transfer heat to the surface.
• Heat is trapped in the salty bottom layer, allowing it to be utilized for various
applications, including heating buildings, industrial processes, and generating
electricity.
• Solar ponds can also facilitate water desalination and serve as thermal energy
storage systems.
Performance Characteristics
• Solar ponds can achieve temperatures at the bottom layer of around 90°C, which
is sufficient to operate a vapor cycle engine.
• The temperature at the surface can reach about 30°C.
• While the solar-to-electricity conversion efficiency is relatively low (under 15%
when the ambient temperature is 20°C and the storage heat is 80°C), the ability to
store heat allows these systems to operate continuously, day and night.
Advantages of Solar Ponds
Solar ponds offer numerous benefits, making them an attractive option for energy
generation:

1. Cost-Effective:
o Low cost per unit area of collection.
o Suitable for large-scale construction, allowing for concentrated solar
resource diffusion.
2. Environmental Benefits:
o Generates heat energy without burning fossil fuels, thereby reducing
pollution.
o Conserves conventional energy resources by providing an alternative
energy source.
3. Desalination Capability:
o Can be integrated with desalination units to purify contaminated water,
making it beneficial for water treatment.
4. Simplicity and Accessibility:
o Easy to construct, particularly in rural areas of developing countries,
promoting local energy solutions.

Solar ponds are a low-tech, environmentally friendly method of harnessing solar energy,
offering significant advantages in cost, energy efficiency, and reduced environmental
impact.
 6. Discuss about different solar cell materials and Factors Limiting
the Efficiency of the Cell
Solar Cell Materials
Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, are devices that convert sunlight
directly into electricity. Various materials and fabrication methods are used to create
these cells, with silicon being the most widely used material due to its abundance and
suitability for photovoltaic applications.

• More than 80% of solar cells currently produced are crystalline silicon solar cells.
• Nearly all of the other 20% are developed as amorphous silicon solar cells.

Silicon-Based Solar Cells

• Monocrystalline Silicon: High efficiency, made from a single crystal structure,
but more expensive to produce.
• Multi-crystalline or Polycrystalline Silicon: Made by casting molten silicon,
cheaper but less efficient due to crystal imperfections.
• Amorphous Silicon: A type of thin-film solar cell, created by depositing silicon on
substrates like glass or plastic. It is less efficient but cheaper and versatile in
application.

Thin-Film Solar Cells

Thin-film solar cells use very thin layers of semiconductor materials, which makes
them lightweight and flexible. These cells can be used in various applications,
such as:
• Rooftop Solar Shingles
• Roof Tiles
• Building Facades
• Glazing for Skylights or Atria
Materials: Include amorphous silicon, copper indium Diselenide
(CuInSe2), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and gallium arsenide.

Emerging Technologies
Research in photovoltaic technology is exploring new materials and structures to
improve efficiency and reduce costs. Some of these emerging technologies
include:
• Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSC): Use organic or inorganic semiconductors,
offering low-cost fabrication options.
 o Third-Generation Solar Cells: Research is ongoing in multi-junction
devices and quantum-dot absorbers, which promise higher efficiencies
and new applications.

Factors Influencing Solar Cell Material Choice

• Absorption Coefficient: Determines how well the material absorbs light.
• Bandgap Energy: The energy difference between the valence band and the
conduction band in a semiconductor material, crucial for solar cell efficiency.

Factors Limiting the Efficiency of the Cell

1. Wavelength of solar spectrum: Cell response to only a portion of wavelength
available in the solar spectrum. Photon with wavelength > 1.1 μm does not have
sufficient energy to create electron–hole pair in silicon cell.
2. Temperature: Normal operating temperature of silicon cells can reach 60°C in
peak sunlight and these temperature decreases the efficiency of the cells.
3. Mounting of the cells: Solar cells need to be mounted on something that can help
remove heat, like an aluminium plate. If they aren’t properly mounted, they might
overheat and work less efficiently.
4. Arrangement and maintenance of solar cell: The negative side of the cells
usually faces the sun and has antireflection coatings. These coatings should be
protected from dust, bird dropping, by a clear plastic or glass cover. Accumulated
dust on the cover will reduce the output power by about 10%.
5. Position of the cell: The cell or panel should be positioned either facing south in
the north of equator or facing north in the south of equator for maximum power
output and fixed panel applications.

7. Explain applications of solar cells

Applications of Solar Cell Systems
Solar cells are widely used to convert sunlight into electricity. Here are some key
applications of solar cell systems:

1. Solar Water Pumps

• Solar-powered water pumps are used on farms to provide water to livestock and
in villages to pump water from wells or rivers for drinking and irrigation.
 • These pumps use solar energy to generate electricity, which powers the motor that
pumps the water.

2. Solar Vehicles

• Solar vehicles, like cars or bikes, use solar panels to power their electric motors.
• The solar panels convert sunlight directly into electricity to either fully or partially
power the vehicle’s movement.

3. Solar Lanterns

• Solar lanterns are used for lighting homes or powering small devices like radios.
• They store solar energy in a battery during the day, which can be used to provide
light or power at night.

4. Solar Panels on Spacecraft

• Spacecraft often use solar panels to generate electricity while in space.

• These panels convert sunlight into electricity to power various systems on the
spacecraft.

5. Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Power Systems

• These systems are used in homes and businesses to generate electricity and feed
any excess power back into the utility grid.
• Solar panels generate electricity, which is used directly by the building, with any
surplus sent to the grid.

6. Cathodic Protection Systems

• Used to prevent metal structures like bridges and pipelines from corroding.
• Solar cells provide the necessary voltage to protect the metal from rusting by
creating a small electrical charge.

7. Electric Fences

• Common in agriculture to keep animals within a designated area.

• Solar panels power the fence, which delivers a mild electric shock when touched,
keeping animals in or out.

8. Remote Lighting Systems

• Used in places where it’s expensive or difficult to connect to the grid, such as in
rural areas or for road signs.
• Solar panels charge batteries during the day, which then power lights at night.

9. Telecommunications and Remote Monitoring Systems

 • Used in remote areas for communication systems like radios, telephones, and
weather stations.
• Solar panels provide the electricity needed to power these systems, making them
reliable even in isolated locations.

10. Rural Electrification

• Used in remote areas to provide electricity for lighting, communication, and

charging batteries.
• Small solar cell systems charge batteries that can then be used to power lights
and other devices.

11. Water Treatment Systems

• Used in remote areas to purify drinking water.

• Solar cells power devices like UV lights to disinfect water, or power systems to
desalinate water, making it safe to drink.

8. With a neat sketch explain flat plate solar collector

Flat Plate Solar Collector
Types of Flat Plate Collectors
1. Liquid (Water) Collectors
o Used for domestic water heating
2. Air Collectors
o Used for space heating
A flat plate solar collector is a non-concentrating solar collector that absorbs solar
radiation over a large area and converts it into heat energy, which is transferred to a
working fluid (water or air).

Liquid Flat Plate Solar Collector

Construction
1. Transparent Cover (Glazing)
• Glass or plastic sheet
• Allows solar radiation to enter
• Reduces heat loss (convection & radiation)
2. Absorber Plate
• Blackened metal plate (copper/aluminium)
• High absorptivity
• Converts solar energy into heat
3. Fluid Tubes / Ducts
• Tubes attached to absorber plate
• Carry working fluid (water/air)
• Remove heat from absorber
4. Insulation
• Provided at back and sides
• Reduces heat loss
• Materials: glass wool, foam
5. Casing (Box)
• Outer container (metal/wood)
• Supports and protects components

Working Principle
The working of a flat plate collector
1. Solar radiation passes through the transparent cover
2. The absorber plate absorbs radiation and gets heated
3. Heat is transferred to the fluid in tubes
4. Heated fluid flows to storage or usage system
5. Glass cover traps heat (reduces losses)
Operation (Working Principle) of air flat plate collector

According to your notes (page 5 diagram) :

1. Solar radiation enters through the transparent cover

2. The absorber plate absorbs heat and becomes hot

3. Air flows through the air channel (by fan or natural convection)

4. Heat is transferred from absorber plate to air

5. Hot air exits through the outlet and is used for:

o Space heating
o Drying

9. With a neat diagram, explain the IV characteristics of a solar cell

I–V Characteristics of Solar Cells
The voltage output of the cell (V), in general, can be obtained as:
𝑘𝑇 (𝐼 −𝐼)
𝑉= log⁡𝑒 [1+ 𝑆𝐼 ] − −→ (1)
𝑒 0

Equation (1) represents the I–V characteristic of a solar cell and it is shown in
Figure. under different illumination levels.
On an I–V characteristic, the vertical axis refers to the current (I) and the horizontal
axis refers to voltage (V). The actual I–V curve typically passes through two
significant points:
 1. Short-circuit current (ISC):
The short-circuit current is the current produced when the positive and negative
terminals of the cell are short-circuited and the voltage between the terminals is
zero, which corresponds to a load resistance of zero.
2. Open-circuit voltage (VOC):
The open-circuit voltage is the voltage across the positive and negative terminals
under open-circuit conditions when the current is zero, which corresponds to a
load resistance of infinity.
The cell may be operated over a range of voltages and currents.

Output Power

The cell output power is:

𝑃 =𝐼×𝑉

The output power depends on the value of load resistance for a given light
intensity.
𝑒𝑉
𝑃 = [𝐼𝑆 −𝐼0 {exp⁡ ( ) − 1}] × 𝑉 − −→ (2)
𝑘𝑇

Since 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉, the maximum power occurs when the product of 𝐼𝑉has its
maximum value.
Maximum Output Power of the Cell

Differentiating Equation (2) with respect to 𝑉and setting the derivative equal to zero yields
the value of external load voltage 𝑉𝑀𝑃 that gives the maximum output power.
𝑑𝑃
Thus, from 𝑑𝑉 = 0and substituting 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃 in the resulting equation yields,

This can be rearranged as:

Equation above is an implicit equation for 𝑉𝑀𝑃 that maximizes the power in terms of short-
circuit current (𝐼𝑆 ), reverse saturation current (𝐼0 ), and absolute temperature (𝑇). If all
these parameters are known, 𝑉𝑀𝑃 can be evaluated using trial-and-error, numerical, or
graphical methods.

The I–V characteristic of an ideal solar cell

10. Discuss the efficiency of solar cells

[Link] of Solar Cells
The efficiency (η) of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of electrical power output
to the incident solar power input:
 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜂=
𝐸×𝑆

Where:
• 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum output power (W)
• 𝐸= Solar irradiance (W/m²)
• 𝑆= Area of the solar cell (m²)

It indicates how effectively the solar cell converts sunlight into electricity

2. Maximum Power Output

The maximum power is given by:

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑀𝑃 × 𝐼𝑀𝑃

• 𝑉𝑀𝑃 : Voltage at maximum power point

• 𝐼𝑀𝑃 : Current at maximum power point

3. Fill Factor (FF)

The fill factor is a measure of the quality of the solar cell and is defined as:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑀𝑃 × 𝐼𝑀𝑃
𝐹𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐

• 𝑉𝑜𝑐 : Open-circuit voltage

• 𝐼𝑠𝑐 : Short-circuit current

Higher FF means better performance.

4. Efficiency in Terms of FF

𝑉𝑜𝑐 × 𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 𝐹𝐹
𝜂=
𝐸×𝑆