Topic: Introduction to Computer Networks

A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and devices that communicate

with each other to share resources, data, and application. These devices communicate using
established rules known as communication protocols, enabling them to exchange data over wired
or wireless connections.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is the smallest and most basic type of network. It is
centered around an individual person and typically covers a range of a few meters. PANs
are used to connect personal devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable
technology. For instance, when you connect your smartphone to a wireless headset via
Bluetooth, you're utilizing a PAN. These networks are convenient for personal use,
allowing seamless communication between devices without the need for complex
infrastructure.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) connects computers and devices within a limited
geographic area, such as a home, office, or school. LANs enable resource sharing,
including files, printers, and internet connections, among connected devices. They are
typically high-speed and cost-effective, making them ideal for environments where users
need to collaborate and share information efficiently. For example, in a school computer
lab, all computers might be connected via a LAN to access shared educational resources.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) spans a larger geographic area than a LAN,
typically covering a city or a large campus. MANs are designed to connect multiple
LANs within a specific region, facilitating communication and resource sharing across
different locations. For instance, a city's government offices might be interconnected via
a MAN to ensure efficient data exchange and coordination among departments.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a broad area, such as multiple cities, countries, or
continents. WANs are used to connect multiple LANs and MANs, enabling organizations
to communicate and share resources across vast distances. The most well-known example
 of a WAN is the Internet, which connects computers and networks worldwide. WANs
often rely on public transmission systems, such as telephone lines and satellite links, to
facilitate connectivity.
5. Storage Area Network (SAN)
A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a specialized network that provides access to
consolidated, block-level data storage. SANs are primarily used to enhance storage
devices' accessibility, such as disk arrays and tape libraries, making them appear to
servers as locally attached devices. This setup improves storage utilization and
performance, particularly in enterprise environments where large volumes of data need to
be stored and retrieved efficiently.
Network topology
Network topology refers to the way in which computer and other devices has been arranged or
how data is passed from one computer to another in the network. It encompasses both the
physical layout of devices and the logical flow of data between them.
1. Logical Topology
Logical topology, describes how data flows within the network, regardless of its physical
design. It focuses on the path that data takes as it moves from one device to another, the
protocols used, and how devices communicate. For example, even if a network is physically
arranged in a star topology, it might operate logically as a bus or ring topology, depending on
how data is transmitted and managed. Two prominent logical topologies are Ethernet and
Token Ring.
a) Ethernet Logical Topology
Ethernet networks commonly operate using a logical bus topology. In this setup, all
devices share the same communication medium and data is broadcast to all devices. Each
device checks the data to determine if it is the intended recipient. This method is efficient
for small networks but can lead to data collisions as the network grows. To manage this,
Ethernet employs the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) protocol, which helps devices detect and manage data collisions
b) Token Ring Logical Topology
In this configuration, a special data packet called a "token" circulates around the network.
A device must possess the token to send data, ensuring that only one device transmits at a
 time, which eliminates data collision. This method provides an orderly network access
protocol.
2. physical topology
physical topology refers to the actual placement of network devices and the physical
connections between them. It describes how devices such as computers, switches, routers,
and cables are arranged and interconnected within a network. Understanding physical
topology is essential for designing, implementing, and troubleshooting networks effectively.
Common Physical Topologies
Bus topology
In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable, known as the bus or
backbone. This configuration allows data to travel in both directions along the cable, enabling
communication between devices.
How Bus Topology Works
In a bus topology, when a device sends data, the signal travels along the central cable and is
received by all devices on the network. Each device checks the destination address of the data; if
it matches, the device processes the data; otherwise, it ignores it. To prevent signal reflection,
terminators are placed at both ends of the bus. This setup is simple and cost-effective for small
networks but can become inefficient as more devices are added.
✅ Advantages of Bus Topology
 Cost-Effective: Requires less cabling than other topologies, making it economical for
small networks.
 Easy to Implement: Simple layout and straightforward installation process.
 Scalable: Devices can be easily added to the network without disrupting existing
connections.
❌ Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Limited Cable Length: The length of the central cable limits the number of devices and
the distance between them.
 Network Disruptions: A failure in the central cable can bring down the entire
network
 Data Collisions: As more devices are added, the likelihood of data collisions increases,
leading to network inefficiencies.
  Difficult Troubleshooting: Identifying and isolating network issues can be challenging.
Star topology
In a star topology, all devices in a network are individually connected to a central hub or switch.
This configuration resembles a star, with the central device at the center and each connected
device extending outward like spokes. The central hub manages and controls all data traffic,
ensuring that messages are correctly routed between devices.
🧩 How Star Topology Works
In a star topology, each device (such as a computer, printer, or server) connects to the central hub
using its own dedicated cable. When a device wants to communicate with another, it sends the
data to the hub, which then forwards it to the intended recipient. This setup allows for efficient
data management and simplifies troubleshooting, as issues can often be isolated to individual
connections.
✅ Advantages of Star Topology
 Easy to Install and Manage: The straightforward layout simplifies network setup and
maintenance.
 Fault Isolation: If a single cable or device fails, it doesn't affect the rest of the network,
making it easier to identify and fix issues.
 Scalability: New devices can be added without disrupting the existing network.
 Performance: Dedicated connections to the hub reduce the chances of data collisions,
enhancing overall network performance.
❌ Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Central Point of Failure: If the central hub fails, the entire network becomes inoperable.
 Higher Cabling Costs: Each device requires its own cable to connect to the hub, which
can increase installation costs, especially in large networks.
 Limited by Hub Capacity: The number of devices that can be connected is constrained
by the hub's capacity.
Ring topology
In a ring topology, each device (or node) in the network is connected to exactly two other
devices, forming a closed loop or circle. This configuration allows data to travel in one or both
directions around the ring, passing through each device until it reaches its destination.
🔄 How Ring Topology Works
In a ring topology, data is transmitted in the form of packets that travel from one device to the
next. Each device has a repeater that regenerates the signal and passes it along to the next device
in the sequence. This process continues until the data reaches its intended recipient. The
unidirectional or bidirectional flow of data helps prevent collisions and ensures orderly
communication.
✅ Advantages of Ring Topology
 Equal Access: Each device has equal access to the network, preventing any single device
from monopolizing the bandwidth.
 Predictable Performance: The orderly data transmission reduces the chances of packet
collisions, leading to more predictable network performance.
 Simplified Troubleshooting: The structured layout makes it easier to identify and isolate
faults within the network.
❌ Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Single Point of Failure:.A failure in any single device or connection can disrupt the
entire network.
 Difficult Reconfiguration: Adding or removing devices requires temporarily shutting
down the network, which can be inconvenient.
 Latency Issues: As data must pass through multiple devices, the time it takes to reach its
destination can increase, especially in larger networks.

Mesh topology
In a mesh topology, each device, or node, is interconnected with multiple other nodes, creating a
network where data can traverse various paths to reach its destination. This structure enhances
redundancy and reliability, ensuring that if one path fails, alternative routes can maintain
network communication.
🔄 How Mesh Topology Works
In a mesh network, nodes collaborate to distribute data efficiently. Each node acts as both a
transmitter and receiver, forwarding data to neighboring nodes until it reaches its target. This
decentralized approach eliminates the need for a central hub, allowing the network to self-
configure and adapt to changes dynamically.
✅ Advantages of Mesh Topology
  Redundancy and Reliability: Multiple pathways between nodes ensure that the network
remains operational even if individual connections fail.
 Scalability: New nodes can be added without disrupting existing connections, making it
suitable for expanding networks.
 Self-Healing: The network can automatically reroute data through alternative paths when
a node or connection becomes unavailable.
 Efficient Coverage: Ideal for large areas where traditional infrastructure is impractical,
such as rural regions or disaster zones.
❌ Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Complex Setup: Designing and configuring a mesh network can be intricate due to the
numerous interconnections.
 High Cost: Requires more cabling and hardware compared to simpler topologies,
increasing initial investment.
 Maintenance Challenges: Troubleshooting and managing the network can be more
demanding due to its complexity.
Tree topology
In a tree topology, network devices are arranged hierarchically, resembling the structure of a
tree. This configuration combines characteristics of both star and bus topologies, making it a
hybrid model. It's particularly effective for large networks that require structured and scalable
layouts.
🌳 Structure of Tree Topology
A tree topology begins with a root node, typically a central hub or switch, which connects to one
or more intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes, in turn, connect to other nodes or end
devices, forming a branching structure. This hierarchical arrangement allows for efficient data
management and simplifies network expansion.
🔄 How Tree Topology Works
In this topology, data transmission follows a hierarchical pat. When a device sends data, it travels
up the hierarchy to the common ancestor of the source and destination nodes and then down to
the destination. This structured flow minimizes data collisions and ensures organized
communication across the network.
✅ Advantages of Tree Topology
  Scalability New nodes can be added easily at appropriate levels, facilitating network
growth without disrupting existing operation.
 Hierarchical Management The structured layout allows for efficient administration and
troubleshooting, as issues can be isolated within specific branches.
 Flexibility Combining elements of star and bus topologies provides a balance between
centralized control and distributed access.

❌ Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Complexity The hierarchical structure can be more complex to design and maintain
compared to simpler topologies.
 Dependency on Root Node If the root node fails, it can impact the entire network's
functionality.
 Cabling Requirements The extensive cabling needed for connections at various levels
can increase installation cost.

Network Software
Just like a computer cannot function without software, a computer network also needs special
software to help computers communicate, share files, and work together. This software is called
Network Software.
Network software is a set of programs or applications that help manage, operate, and secure
computer networks. It ensures that devices connected in a network can exchange data correctly
and efficiently.
Types of Network Software
There are several types of network software, each with its specific purpose. Here are the main
types:
1. Network Operating System (NOS)
A Network Operating System is software that controls and manages the activities of computers
and other devices in a network. It allows users to share files, printers, and internet connections.
Examples: Microsoft Windows Server, Linux Ubuntu Server, Novell NetWare
Functions of NOS:
 Managing network resources like files, printers, and users.
  Providing network security.
 Allowing remote access to the network.
 Handling user permissions and access rights.
3. Network Protocol Software
In the realm of computer networks, network protocols serve as the foundational rules and
conventions that enable devices to communicate effectively. These protocols ensure that data is
transmitted, received, and interpreted correctly across diverse systems, regardless of their
underlying hardware or software differences.
📡 What Are Network Protocols?
Network protocols are standardized sets of rules that dictate how data is formatted, transmitted,
and processed in a network. They define the procedures for initiating and terminating
communication, handling errors, and ensuring data integrity. Without these protocols, seamless
interaction between computers, servers, and other devices would be impossible.
🧱 Categories of Network Protocols
Network protocols can be broadly categorized based on their functions within the network
architecture:
1. Communication Protocols
These protocols facilitate the exchange of data between device:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked
delivery of data between application.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Provides a faster, connectionless transmission, suitable
for applications where speed is critical, such as streaming.
 Internet Protocol (IP): Handles addressing and routing of packets across network.
2. Application Layer Protocols
These operate at the top layer of the network stack, enabling specific network service:
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Facilitates the transfer of web pages on the
internet.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows for the transfer of files between client and serve.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used for sending email.
 Domain Name System (DNS): Translates human-readable domain names into IP
addresses.
3. Network Management and Security Protocols
These ensure the network operates efficiently and securely:
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Monitors and manages network device.
 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)/Transport Layer Security (TLS): Encrypts data for secure
transmission.
 Internet Protocol Security (IPsec): Secures IP communications by authenticating and
encrypting each IP packed.
🔄 How Network Protocols Work Together
Network protocols operate in layers, each with specific responsibilities. For instance, when you
access a website:
. HTTP requests the web page.
. TCP ensures the data packets arrive correctly.
. IP routes the packets to the destination server.
. DNS translates the website's domain name to its IP address.
This layered approach allows for modularity and scalability in network communications.
OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION MODEL(OSI)
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework that
standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct
layers. Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), it facilitates
interoperability between diverse communication systems with standard protocols.
🧱 The Seven Layers of the OSI Model
Each layer in the OSI model serves a specific function and communicates with the layers directly
above and below it. Here's an overview of each layer:
1. Physical Layer: This is the lowest layer, concerned with the transmission and reception
of raw bitstreams over a physical medium. It defines hardware elements like cables,
switches, and network interface cards.
2. Data Link Layer: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error detection and
correction. It ensures that data transferred is free from errors.
3. Network Layer: Manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network, and determines the best way to move data. Routers operate at this layer.
 4. Transport Layer: Ensures complete data transfer. It provides error checking and data
flow control. Protocols like TCP and UDP operate at this layer.
5. Session Layer: Controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes,
manages, and terminates the connections between the local and remote application.
6. Presentation Layer: Translates data between the application layer and the network. It is
responsible for data encryption, compression, and translation.
7. Application Layer: The topmost layer, it provides network services directly to end-user
applications. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP operate at this layer.
🔄 How the OSI Model Works
When data is transmitted from one device to another, it passes through each layer of the OSI
mode. Each layer adds its own header (and sometimes trailer) to the data, a process known as
encapsulation. Upon reaching the destination, the data moves up the OSI layers, with each layer
removing its corresponding header, a process called de-encapsulation.
Common networking and internetworking devices according to the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model layers:
OSI Layer Devices Operating at This Layer
Layer Name
7 Application Proxy servers, Application firewalls, Content filters
6 Presentation Encryption/decryption devices, Data compression devices
5 Session Session Border Controllers (SBCs), Gateways managing sessions
4 Transport Load balancers, Firewalls (monitoring TCP/UDP traffic)
3 Network Routers, Layer 3 switches, Gateways
2 Data Link Switches, Bridges, Network Interface Cards (NICs), Wireless
Access Points (APs)
1 Physical Hubs, Repeaters, Modems, Cables (Ethernet, fiber optics), Network
Interface Cards (NICs)
Note: Some devices, like Network Interface Cards (NICs), operate at multiple layers (both
Physical and Data Link layers) as they handle both the physical transmission of data and the
framing of data packets.
📡 How Data Transfers Through the OSI Model
When data is transmitted over a network, it traverses the OSI layers in the following manner
 1. Application Layer (Layer 7): The data transmission process begins with an application,
such as a web browser or email client, that generates data to be transmitted. The
application layer prepares the data for transmission by encapsulating it in the appropriate
protocol format.
2. Presentation Layer (Layer 6): This layer translates data between the application and the
network format. It handles data encryption, compression, and translation to ensure that
data from the application layer can be properly interpreted by the receiving system.
3. Session Layer (Layer 5): The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates
connections between applications. It sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations,
exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4): Responsible for end-to-end communication and error
handling, this layer ensures complete data transfer. It segments and reassembles data into
a data stream, providing reliable or unreliable delivery and error correction.
5. Network Layer (Layer 3): This layer determines how data is sent to the receiving
device. It handles logical addressing, routing, and path determination, ensuring that data
packets are sent across the network to the correct destination.
6. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): The data link layer provides node-to-node data transfer—a
link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that
may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a
connection between two physically connected devices.
7. Physical Layer (Layer 1): The physical layer is responsible for the transmission and
reception of unstructured raw data between a device and a physical transmission medium.
It converts the digital bits into electrical, radio, or optical signals.
🔄 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Encapsulation (Sender Side): As data moves down the OSI layers, each layer adds its
own header (and sometimes trailer) to the data. This process wraps the data with the
necessary protocol information for that layer.
 Transmission: The fully encapsulated data is transmitted over the physical medium to
the receiving device.
  Decapsulation (Receiver Side): Upon arrival, the data moves up the OSI layers. Each
layer removes its corresponding header, interpreting and processing the data as required,
until it reaches the application layer for use by the receiving application.
THE TCP/IP Protocol
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a suite of communication protocols
that enables reliable data exchange over networks, including the internet. Developed in the 1970s
by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, TCP/IP has become the foundational framework for internet
communication. It’s a layered structure similar to OSI only that it has four layers instead of
seven.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model organizes these protocols into four abstraction layers, each serving distinct
functions:
1. Link Layer (Network Interface Layer):
o Function: Manages data transmission between devices on the same network
segment, handling physical addressing and access mechanisms.
o Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.
2. Internet Layer:
o Function: Responsible for logical addressing, routing, and packet forwarding
across networks.
o Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP.
3. Transport Layer:
o Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between end systems, providing error
correction and flow control.
o Protocols: TCP, UDP.
4. Application Layer:
o Function: Provides network services directly to end-user applications, facilitating
data exchange for various services.
o Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
THE INTERNET AND INTRANET
The Internet is a global network of computers that are connected together to share information
and resources. It allows people around the world to communicate, access websites, send emails,
watch videos, and do much more. While, An Intranet is a private network used within an
organization (like a school, company, or government office). It works like the internet, but it is
restricted to only people within that organization.

Methods of Internet Access:

There are different ways people can connect to the internet. These methods depend on the type of
device, location, and available technology. Below are the main methods of internet access:
1) Connecting via Telephone (Dial-Up Connection)
Connecting via telephone means using a landline telephone line to access the internet. This
method is known as a dial-up connection.
How It Works:
 A modem (modulator-demodulator) is connected to the computer and the telephone line.
 When you want to connect to the internet, the modem dials a special number given by
your Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 Once the call is connected, the modem changes digital data into sound signals that can
travel over the telephone line.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Cheap to set up.  Very slow internet speed.
 Can work in rural areas where only  Cannot use the phone and internet at
landline phones are available. the same time.
 Outdated – rarely used today because
faster methods are available.

2) Connecting via Mobile Phone Network

Connecting via a mobile phone network means using cellular networks (like 2G, 3G, 4G, or
5G) to access the internet. It allows users to connect wirelessly using a SIM card and a
mobile device such as a smartphone, tablet, or USB modem. Currently there are two types of
mobile networks: GSM and CDMA.
 1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)
GSM is a standard mobile communication system used worldwide. It uses SIM cards to
store user information like the phone number and contact details.
Advantages:
 Easy to switch phones – just move the SIM card.
 More international roaming options.
 Widely supported by many phone brands.

2. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA is another mobile communication system where user information is programmed
directly into the phone, not a SIM card.
Key Features:
 No SIM card (in traditional CDMA).
 The phone is locked to one network.
 Mostly used in North America and parts of Asia.
 Also supports 2G, 3G, and 4G networks (some newer CDMA phones now use
SIM cards for LTE).
Advantages:
 More secure and stable connections in some cases.
 Often better call quality in low signal areas.
3) Accessing Internet via Fiber
Accessing the internet via fiber means using fiber optic cables to connect to the internet.
These cables use light signals to carry data, which makes them very fast and reliable.
How It Works:
 Fiber optic cables are laid underground or on poles and connect homes or businesses
to the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 These cables transmit data using light, which travels very fast through thin glass or
plastic strands inside the cable.
 The ISP then connects the user to the internet.
 Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Very high speed – suitable for  Expensive to install.
streaming, gaming, video calls, etc.  Only available in areas with fiber
 Stable connection – not easily coverage.
interrupted.  Installation may take time and special
 Can support many users at the same equipment
time.

4) Wireless Access Using WiMax and Wi-Fi

Wireless access means connecting to the internet without using cables. Two common
wireless technologies are Wi-Fi and WiMax.

1. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

Wi-Fi is a short-range wireless technology that allows devices like phones, laptops, and
tablets to connect to the internet within a local area, such as a home, school, or office.
How It Works:
 A router is connected to the internet using a fiber, mobile, or cable connection.
 The router sends wireless signals, which nearby devices can connect to.
Advantages:
 No cables needed – easy to connect.
 Allows multiple devices to connect at once.
 Common and easy to set up.
Disadvantages:
 Works only in a limited area.
 Speed can reduce if many users are connected.
 Signal may be blocked by walls or distance.

2. WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

WiMax is a long-range wireless technology used to deliver internet to large areas, such as
towns or rural regions, where cables are not available.
 How It Works:
 A WiMax tower sends a wireless signal over a wide area.
 Homes or offices use a WiMax receiver to pick up the signal and connect to the
internet.
Advantages:
1. Covers large areas – good for rural or remote places.
2. No need for underground cables.
3. Can connect many users from far locations.
Disadvantages:
 Affected by bad weather.
 Needs a clear line of sight to the tower for strong signal.
 More expensive equipment than Wi-Fi.

Addressing System on Computer Networks

An addressing system in computer networks is a method used to identify devices (like
computers, phones, or printers) connected to a network. Just like every house has a unique
address, every device on a network must also have a unique address to communicate.

Types of Addressing in Networks:

There are two main types of addresses used in networks: IP Address and Mac Address.
1. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)
An IP address is a unique number assigned to every device connected to a network (like a
computer, phone, or printer). It works like a digital address, allowing devices to find and
communicate with each other over a network or the internet.

Types of IP Addresses:
 IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol. It is the most commonly used system for
identifying devices on a network using a numerical IP address.
Structure of IPv4 Address:
 IPv4 addresses are made up of four numbers (32 bits).
 Each number (called an octet) ranges from 0 to 255.
 Network Number Host Number
 The numbers are separated by dots (. ).

Example:[Link]

Classful IP Addressing
Classful IP addressing is a system used in IPv4 to divide IP addresses into five classes (A, B, C,
D, and E) based on their first few bits. Each class has a different range of addresses, designed
for different sizes of networks. Purpose is to organize IP addresses based on network size and
Helps in managing small, medium, and large networks.
The Five Classes:
Class Starting IP Range First-Octet Usage Default Subnet
Range Mask
A [Link] 1 – 126 Very large networks [Link]
[Link] (e.g., ISPs)
B [Link] 128 – 191 Medium networks (e.g., [Link]
[Link] universities)
C [Link] 192 – 223 Small networks (e.g., [Link]
[Link] offices, homes)
D [Link] 224 – 239 Multicasting (not for
[Link] normal devices)
E [Link] – 240 – 255 Research and reserved N/A
[Link] use

Note: The IP address [Link] is reserved for loopback (testing) and not used in any class.
Class D & E:
 Class D: Used for multicasting (sending data to many devices at once).
 Class E: Reserved for research and future use.
Classes of IPv4 Addresses:
IPv4 addresses are divided into 5 classes, but the most common ones are:
Class Starting Range Use
A [Link] – [Link] Large networks (e.g., big companies)
B [Link] – [Link] Medium-sized networks
C [Link] – [Link] Small networks (e.g., homes, schools)

Types of IPv4 Addresses:

Type Description Example
Private IP Used inside a local network (not on the internet) [Link]
Public IP Used on the internet, assigned by ISPs [Link]
Static IP Fixed – does not change Set manually
Dynamic Changes every time a device connects to the network Given by DHCP
IP

Advantages of IPv4:
 Simple and easy to use.
 Supported by almost all devices and networks.
 Efficient for small and medium networks.
Disadvantages of IPv4:
 Limited number of addresses (only 4.3 billion).
 Not enough for the growing number of internet-connected devices.

2. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

 A MAC address is a unique hardware address given to every device by the manufacturer.
 It is used to identify devices physically on a local network (LAN).
Characteristics:
 Made up of letters and numbers.
 Usually written like this: 00:1A: 2B:3C: 4D:5E
 Does not change, even if you change networks.
Difference Between IP and MAC Addresses:
Feature IP Address MAC Address
Given by Network (ISP or router) Device manufacturer
Changes? Yes, can change depending on network No, fixed to the hardware
Used for Communication over the internet Communication within local network
Format IPv4: [Link] MAC: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E

Why Addressing is Important:

 Helps identify devices on the network.
 Ensures that data is sent to the correct destination.
 Prevents confusion and collision in data transmission.