PROPELLER

Module 17A
 Syllabus
17.1 Fundamentals
• Blade element theory;
• High/low blade angle, reverse angle, angle of attack, rotational speed;
• Propeller slip;
• Aerodynamic, centrifugal, and thrust forces;
• Torque;
• Relative airflow on blade angle of attack;
• Vibration and resonance.
17.2 Propeller Construction
• Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and metal propellers;
• Blade station, blade face, blade shank, blade back and hub assembly;
• Fixed pitch, controllable pitch, constant speeding propeller;
• Propeller/spinner installation.
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control
• Speed control and pitch change methods, mechanical and electrical/electronic;
• Feathering and reverse pitch;
• Overspeed protection.
 Syllabus
17.4 Propeller Synchronising
• Synchronising and synchrophasing equipment.
17.5 Propeller Ice Protection
• Fluid and electrical de-icing equipment.
17.6 Propeller Maintenance
• Static and dynamic balancing;
• Blade tracking;
• Assessment of blade damage, erosion, corrosion, impact damage,
delamination;
• Propeller treatment/repair schemes;
• Propeller engine running.
17.7 Propeller Storage and Preservation
• Propeller preservation and depreservation.
 Aircraft Propeller
• The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a central
hub to which the blades are attached.
• Each blade of an aircraft propeller is essentially a rotating wing.
• As a result of their construction, the propeller blades produce forces
that create thrust to pull or push the airplane through the air.
• The power needed to rotate the propeller blades is furnished by the
engine.
• The propeller is mounted on a shaft that may be an extension of the
crankshaft on low-horsepower engines.
• On high horsepower engines, it is mounted on a propeller shaft that
is geared to the engine crankshaft.
• In either case, the engine rotates the airfoils of the blades through
the air at high speeds, and the propeller transforms the rotary
power of the engine into thrust.
 Blade element theory
• “A propeller blade can be considered as being composed of an infinite number of thin
blade elements, each of which is a miniature airfoil section whose chord is the width
of the propeller blade at that section.”
• The typical propeller blade can be described as a twisted airfoil of irregular planform.
• The propeller blade is divided into small segments so that the performance of each
segment may be critically analyzed.
• By combining the performance of the segments, designers are able to closely predict
the performance of the propeller.
• For purposes of analysis, a blade can be divided into segments that are
located by station numbers in inches from the center of the blade hub.
• The angle of the blade near the hub is higher than the angle at the tip.
• The reason the propeller blade needs the twist is due to the difference in
velocity between the blade at the hub versus the blade at the tip.
• The lower speeds at the hub region benefit from the higher blade angle
while the higher speeds at the tip require a lesser blade angle.
• The pitch of the blade changes progressively from the root to the tip to
provide the proper interaction with the air along the entire length of the blade.
 Terminologies
• The blade back is the cambered or curved side of the blade, similar to the
upper surface of an aircraft wing.
• The blade face is the relatively flat side of the propeller blade similar to the
under surface of a wing.
• The chord line is an imaginary line drawn through the blade from the leading
edge to the trailing edge.
• The leading edge is the thick edge of the blade that meets the air as the
propeller rotates.
• The blade shank is the thick, rounded portion of the propeller blade near the
hub and is designed to give strength to the blade.
• The blade butt, also called the blade base or root, is the end of the blade that
fits in the propeller hub.
• The blade tip is that part of the propeller blade farthest from the hub,
generally defined as the last 6 inches of the blade.
Because most propellers have a flat blade face, the chord line is often drawn
along the face of the propeller blade.
 Thrust Calculation

• The thrust produced by the engine/propeller

combination is the result of how much air is
pushed and the speed of the moving air mass.
• The resulting action/reaction is in accordance
with Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
• In comparison to a jet engine, a propeller moves
a large mass of air at a relatively slow speed.
• Thrust = Mass flow per second * (V2 – V1)
 High/low blade angle, reverse angle, angle of
attack, rotational speed
• Blade Angle: It is the angle between the face or chord of a blade
section and the plane in which the propeller rotates.
• Blade angle and propeller pitch are closely related.
• The blade angle for each segment of a fixed-pitch propeller is the angle
formed by the chord line of the blade segment and its plane of rotation.
• That relationship does not change.
• The same is true for controllable-pitch propellers once the blade angle
is established.
• Angle of Attack: It is the angle between the face or chord of a blade
section and the relative airflow.
• The angle of attack of a fixed-pitch propeller blade varies with forward
speed of the aircraft.
• The faster the airspeed of the airplane, the less the angle of attack.
 Relative airflow on blade angle of
attack;
• The relative airflow (RAF) encountered by the propeller
varies with the speed of the airplane.
• When the aircraft is travelling at a low airspeed, the
angle of attack encountered by the propeller blade is
high.
• The thrust for a given rpm will be high due to the high
angle of attack.
• In terms of efficiency, the slow moving airplane will have
poor propeller efficiency.
• At high airspeeds, the angle of attack of the propeller is
relatively low.
 Propeller Evolution
• Successful propellers started as simple two-bladed wood propellers and have
advanced to the complex propulsion systems of turboprop aircraft that involve
more than just the propeller blades.
• As an outgrowth of operating large, more complex propellers, a variable-pitch,
constant-speed feathering and reversing propeller system was developed.
• This system allows the engine rpm to be varied only slightly during different
flight conditions and, therefore, increases flying efficiency.
• A basic constant-speed system consists of a flyweight-equipped governor unit
that controls the pitch angle of the blades so that the engine speed remains
constant.
• The governor can be regulated by controls in the cockpit so that any desired
blade angle setting and engine operating speed can be obtained.
• A low pitch, high rpm setting, for example, can be utilized for takeoff.
• Then, after the aircraft is airborne, a higher pitch and lower rpm setting can be
used for cruise operations.
• Normal propeller movement with the positions of low pitch, high pitch, feather
(used to reduce drag if the engine quits), and zero pitch into negative pitch, or
reverse pitch.
Variable Pitch Propeller Concept
• Where a large number of small airplanes use fixed-
pitch propellers, a majority of higher performance
aircraft are equipped with propellers that are variable
pitch.
• This allows the operator to vary the pitch of the
propeller during flight to increase the efficiency of the
propeller in order to yield the desired performance in
terms of speed and fuel economy.
• These propellers often include a constant-speed
mechanism that keeps the engine at the same rpm
during cruise flight.
• When the aircraft changes flight attitude (e.g., nose up
for altitude gain), the propeller changes pitch to keep
the engine at the same rpm.
 Reversing Propeller Concept
• Some propellers are able to produce reverse thrust.
• This is accomplished by reducing the pitch angle to achieve a
negative angle of attack.
• This produces reverse thrust that serves as a means of
aerodynamic braking to reduce aircraft speed following
landing.
• The ability to reverse the thrust of the propeller is useful for
slowing the aircraft after touching down, thereby shortening
the length of roll out and allowing the aircraft to operate from a
shorter runway than it could otherwise use without reverse
thrust while saving a measure of wear on the brake system.
• Some aircraft are able to back-up on the ground using reverse
thrust.
• Reverse thrust may prove useful when manoeuvring a
seaplane, especially during docking.
 Featherable Propeller Concept
• Multiengine aircraft are normally equipped with propellers that may be
feathered.
• This feature is useful for when the aircraft experiences a dead engine or
an engine incapable of producing proper thrust during flight.
• Without the ability to feather the propeller, the dead or weak engine
would windmill or attempt to windmill.
• Such action generates detrimental drag, making it more difficult for the
aircraft to sustain altitude.
• When the propeller is feathered the blade angle is close to 90°.
• Where the propeller tip may not appear to be perpendicular to the plane
of rotation, the higher angle of attack of the blade towards the hub is
also in play.
• The net result of the aerodynamic action acting on the entire blade is
that the propeller does not rotate the engine. The drag produced by the
propeller is relatively low as the blades slice through the air during flight.
RANGE OF PROPELLER PITCH
Depending on the design of the propeller, the range of pitch may extend from reverse
thrust to feathered. Generally speaking, higher performance turboprop aircraft have
propellers that include the full range of travel. This provides the aircraft with sufficient
propeller capabilities to meet operational requirements.
 Propeller slip
• An airplane moving through the air creates a drag force opposing its forward motion.
• If an airplane is to fly on a level path at a constant speed, there must be a force applied to
it that is equal to the drag but acting forward. This force is called thrust.
• The work done by thrust is equal to the thrust times the distance it moves the airplane.
Work = Thrust × Distance
• The power expended by thrust is equal to the thrust times the velocity at which it moves
the airplane.
Power = Thrust × Velocity
• If the power is measured in horsepower units, the power expended by the thrust is termed
thrust horsepower.
• The engine supplies brake horsepower through a rotating shaft, and the propeller converts
it into thrust horsepower.
• In this conversion, some power is wasted. For maximum efficiency, the propeller must be
designed to keep this waste as small as possible.
• Since the efficiency of any machine is the ratio of the useful power output to the power
input, propeller efficiency is the ratio of thrust horsepower to brake horsepower.
• The usual symbol for propeller efficiency is the Greek letter η (eta).
• Propeller efficiency varies from 50 percent to 87 percent, depending on how much the
propeller slips.
 Propeller slip
• Pitch is not the same as blade angle, but because pitch is largely determined
by blade angle, the two terms are often used interchangeably.
• An increase or decrease in one is usually associated with an increase or
decrease in the other.
• Propeller slip is the difference between the geometric pitch of the propeller
and its effective pitch.
• Geometric pitch is the distance a propeller should advance in one revolution
with no slippage.
• Effective pitch is the distance it actually advances.
• Thus, geometric or theoretical pitch is based on no slippage. Actual, or
effective, pitch recognizes propeller slippage in the air. The relationship can
be shown as:
Slip = Geometric pitch – Effective pitch
• Geometric pitch is usually expressed in pitch inches and calculated by using
the following formula:
GP = 2 × π R × tangent of blade angle at 75 percent station
(R = Radius at the 75 percent blade station and π = 3.14)
Aerodynamic, centrifugal, and thrust
forces
FORCES ACTING ON A PROPELLER
• The propeller is subjected to numerous forces. The level of force may be extreme, depending on the operation.
• Forces acting on the propeller during flight include:
(a) centrifugal force,
(b) torque bending force,
(c) thrust bending force,
(d) aerodynamic twisting force, and
(e) centrifugal twisting force.

• (a)Centrifugal force is a physical action that tends to pull the rotating propeller blades out of the hub.
This is the most dominant force on the propeller. The centrifugal load exerted by the blades at high rpm is
measured in tons. Damage to the propeller near the root or damage to the hub may result in blade separation.

• (b)Torque bending force, in the form of air resistance, tends to bend the propeller blades in the direction opposite
than of rotation.
The resistance generated by the rotating blades is basically drag. Under varying flight configurations, the pilot
has to use the flight controls to compensate for the torque generated by the engine/ propeller combination.

• (c) Thrust bending force is the thrust load that bends propeller blades forward as the aircraft is pulled through
the air.
The thrust bending force is more prominent at the tip of the propeller blade. The relative thinness of the
propeller blade in the tip area allows that section to bend forward in response to the generation of thrust.
Aerodynamic, centrifugal, and thrust
forces
• (d)Aerodynamic twisting force (ATF), also known as aerodynamic twisting moment
(ATM), tends to rotate the propeller blades to a high blade angle.
This force is generated as the propeller produces thrust. Because the axis of rotation
of the propeller blade in terms of pitch angle is approximately the midpoint along the
chord, the center of pressure generated by the aerodynamic action of the blade
interacting with the air imparts a force nearer the leading edge of the blade. The result
is that the blade tries to move in the direction of higher pitch. ATM may be
incorporated to increase the pitch of the blades during flight.
• (e)Centrifugal twisting force (CTF), also known as centrifugal twisting moment (CTM)
, is generated as the propeller rotates. Because the axis of blade pitch rotation is
basically the midpoint of the chord, the mass of the propeller blade on each side of
the axis of rotation works to reduce propeller pitch due to the centrifugal force
generated. As with the other forces acting on the propeller blades, the higher the rpm,
the greater the CTM. When compared to the aerodynamic twisting moment, the
centrifugal twisting moment is more powerful and tends to force the propeller blades
toward a low blade angle.
Aerodynamic, centrifugal, and thrust
forces
• Two of these forces acting on the propeller's blades are used to move the blades on
a controllable pitch propeller.
• Centrifugal twisting moment (CTM) is sometimes used to move the blades to the low
pitch position, while aerodynamic twisting moment (ATM) is used to move the blades
into high pitch.
• These forces can be the primary or secondary forces that move the blades to the
new pitch position.
• In terms of construction, a propeller must be capable of withstanding severe stresses,
which are greater near the hub, caused by centrifugal force and thrust. The stresses
increase in proportion to the rpm.
• The blade face is also subjected to tension from the centrifugal force and additional
tension from the thrust bending force. For these reasons, nicks or scratches on the
blade may cause very serious consequences. These could lead to cracks and failure
of the blade.
• A propeller must also be rigid enough to prevent fluttering, a type of vibration in
which the ends of the blade twist back and forth at high frequency around an axis
perpendicular to the engine crankshaft.
• Fluttering is accompanied by a distinctive noise, often mistaken for exhaust noise.
The constant vibration and resonance tends to weaken the blade and eventually
causes failure.
 P-FACTOR
• When an airplane is flying in a level attitude, the thrust developed by
the propeller is fairly uniform between the descending blade and the
ascending blade.
• Raising the nose of the aircraft produces asymmetrical thrust
between the ascending and descending propeller blades. This is
often referred to as “P-Factor.”
• P-Factor is generated during climbs because the descending blade
has a greater angle of attack than the ascending blade.
• The difference in thrust between the right and left regions of the
propeller disc generates a yawing moment.
• For right-hand rotating propellers, a left yawing moment is formed.
• Pilots compensate for P-Factor by applying the necessary rudder
input.
 SLIPSTREAM EFFECT
• Another occurrence generated by the flowing air mass of the propeller is the
slipstream effect.
• As the air acted upon by the propeller flows aft, it flows around the surface of
the aircraft at an accelerated speed when compared to air flowing over the
surface outside the propeller disc.
• Control surfaces within the path of the slipstream benefit from the accelerated
flow and become more effective.
• The slipstream generated by the propeller also has a whirling action as it flows
aft.
• This rotating air mass on single-engine aircraft, or aircraft with a propeller in the
nose, experience a yawing action due to the striking of the air against the vertical
fin.
• For right-hand rotating propellers, the aircraft develops a yawing moment to the
left.
• Aircraft designers often compensate for the slipstream effect by offsetting the
vertical fin, incorporating a corrective measure with the rudder, or applying a
slight offset of the thrust line of the engine by designing the engine mount with a
corrective installation angle.
• Such corrective measures may also soften the effect of P-Factor.
 Torque;
• Torque is a natural resistance to a rotating mass.
• As the propeller revolves in one direction, torque works to rotate the airplane in the
opposite direction. This follows Newton’s Third Law of Motion that states, for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• On a right-hand rotating propeller, torque works to drop the left wing. The greater the
power/rpm, the greater the torque effect.
• High power operations, in combination with low airspeeds, increase the torque effect.
• Often aerobatic pilots will demonstrate “torque rolls” by pointing the nose of the
airplane vertically up with full power. As the airspeed approaches zero, the aircraft
will begin to revolve in the opposite direction of the rotating propeller.
• Pilots experience the effect of torque, P-Factor, and slipstream effect when they
perform power-on stalls.
• During the manoeuvre, the throttle is placed at full power and the nose of the aircraft
is lifted until the aircraft stalls. When the stall is entered, the pilot will implement
corrective control inputs to compensate for the torque and other effects while
recovering from the stall.
• If the throttle is reduced to idle, or a low-power setting during the stall, the effects of
torque, P-Factor, and slipstream action are greatly reduced.
 GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION
• The rotating propeller is, in effect, a gyroscope. The rotating
mass will generate a measure of gyroscopic rigidity and
precession. The latter produces a small, but noticeable,
reaction during operation.
• Gyroscopic precession is the response of a gyroscope to
generate an action 90° from the point of input in the direction
of rotation.
• To illustrate, when an aircraft equipped with a right-hand
rotating propeller is yawed to the left, gyroscopic precession
will work to lift the nose.
• During takeoff roll of an aircraft equipped with a tail wheel,
when the pilot raises the tail, the aircraft develops a yawing
action to the left.
• In general, the effects of gyroscopic precession are minor. The
pilot is able to make inputs into the flight control system to
counteract gyroscopic precession.
 Vibration and resonance
• During operation, the propeller is subjected to vibrations. The mechanical and aerodynamic forces acting on
the propeller generate vibrations.
• Such vibrations are harmful when they result in extreme blade flexing.
• High levels of flexing will work harden the metallic blade and may cause sections of the blade to break off.
• The area near the propeller tip is of great concern as the thinness of the metal in combination with the high
air speeds encountered during high rpm operations make this portion of the propeller blade vulnerable.
• Manufacturers of propellers must design the propeller to withstand the operational vibration for the
particular airframe/engine/ propeller installation.
• Some aircraft have red arcs on the tachometer to indicate operational rpms that are harmful. Pilots are
allowed to accelerate and decelerate through and beyond the red arc, or critical rmp range, but must avoid
continuous operations within the range of the red arc.
• Metal propeller blades may possess multiple resonant frequencies, usually two, that result in considerable
flexing of the blade. The hinge point where the flexing concentrates is referred to as a node point or nodal
point.
• If the blade receives physical damage in this exact location or a repair is improperly performed at the node
point, there is a likelihood that the blade will fail at that location over the course of operations.
• Between the mechanical impulses applied to the propeller and the aerodynamic forces absorbed by the
propeller, metal propeller blades, usually aluminum, must be designed to withstand the natural vibrations
generated during operation.
• A proven approach to minimizing damage that may occur to the propeller from resonance is to generate
forces between the airframe, engine, and propeller that do not closely match the natural resonant
frequencies of the propeller.
17.2 Propeller Construction
 Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and metal
propellers;

• An increasing number of light aircraft are designed for

operation with governor regulated, constant-speed
propellers.
• A majority of small, single engine aircraft use fixed-
pitch metal propellers.
• Some light sport aircraft (LSA) use multi blade fixed-
pitch composite propellers.
• Medium size turbo prop aircraft will often be equipped
controllable propellers with pitch reversing systems.
• Larger transport and cargo turbo prop aircraft use
propeller systems with dual or double acting governors
and differential oil pressure to change pitch.
 Fixed Pitch wooden Propeller
• Although many of the wood propellers were used on older airplanes, some
are still in use.
• Early aviation pioneers carved propellers from laminated wooden blanks
using hand tools.
• The construction of a fixed-pitch, wooden propeller is such that its blade
pitch cannot be changed after manufacture.
• The choice of the blade angle is decided by the normal use of the propeller
on an aircraft during level flight when the engine performs in an efficient
manner.
• The impossibility of changing the blade pitch on the fixed-pitch propeller
restricts its use to small aircraft with low horsepower engines in which
maximum engine efficiency during all flight conditions is of lesser
significance than in larger aircraft.
• The wooden, fixed-pitch propeller is well suited for small aircraft because of
its lightweight, rigidity, economy of production, simplicity of construction, and
ease of replacement.
• Because many small aircraft have a variety of approved propellers for
installation, aircraft owners or operators have the option of selecting the
appropriate propeller for their operation.
 Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and
metal
propellers;

• The two common options are a “climb prop” or “cruise prop.”

• Climb propellers generally have a lower pitch or shorter diameter that allows the
engine to attain higher rpms.
• Cruise propellers are built with higher pitch angles and longer diameters and are well
suited for cruise operations.
• A wooden propeller is not constructed from a solid block of wood, but is built up of a
number of separate layers or laminates of carefully selected and well seasoned
hardwoods.
• Many woods, such as mahogany, cherry, black walnut and oak, are used to some
extent, but birch is the most widely used.
• Five to nine separate layers are typically used, each about ³⁄ inch (2 cm) thick.
Generally, the growth rings of the laminates are alternated in terms of direction to
minimize warping.
• The wood laminates are glued together using a waterproof, resinous glue and
allowed to set. The blank is then roughed out to the approximate shape and size of
the finished product. The roughed out propeller is then allowed to dry for
approximately one week to permit the moisture content of the layers to become
equalized.
• This additional period of seasoning prevents warping and cracking that might occur
if it was immediately carved from a blank. Following this period, the propeller is
Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and
metal
propellers;

• Templates and bench protractors are used to assure the proper contour and blade angle at all
stations.

• After the propeller blades are finished, a fabric covering is cemented to the outer 12 to 15 inches
(30 to 38 cm) of each finished blade.
• A metal or composite tipping is fastened to the leading edge and tip of each blade to protect the
propeller from damage caused by flying particles in the air during landing, taxiing, or takeoff.
• The tipping also serves as an erosion strip to protect the leading edge of the propeller.
• Metal tipping may be of terneplate, monel metal, or brass. Stainless steel has been used to some
extent. The metal tipping is secured to the leading edge of the blade by countersunk wood screws
and rivets.
• The heads of the screws are soldered to the tipping to prevent loosening, and the solder is filed to
make a smooth surface.
• Since moisture condenses on the tipping between the metal and the wood, the tipping is provided
with small holes near the blade tip to allow this moisture to drain away or be thrown out by
centrifugal force.
• It is important that these drain holes be kept open at all times.
• When the aircraft is inactive for an extended period, the engine is positioned so that the wooden
propeller remains in a horizontal position to maintain even water content between the blades.
• If the blades are left in a vertical position for a protracted period, water in the wood will tend to
migrate to the lower blade.
Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and
metal
propellers;

• Since wood is subject to swelling, shrinking, and warping because of

changes of moisture content, a protective coating is applied to the
finished propeller to prevent a rapid change of moisture content.
• The finish most commonly used is a number of coats of water
repellent, clear varnish.
• After these processes are completed, the propeller is mounted on a
spindle and very carefully balanced.
• Several types of hubs are used to mount wooden propellers on the
engine crankshaft.
• The propeller may have a forged steel hub that fits a splined
crankshaft.
• It may be connected to a tapered crankshaft by a tapered, forged
steel hub.
• Or it may be bolted to a steel flange forged on the crankshaft.
• In any case, several attaching parts are required to mount the
propeller on the shaft properly.
• Hubs fitting a tapered shaft are usually held in place by a retaining nut that screws onto the end of the
crankshaft. A lengthy metal key is used to align the propeller hub with the crankshaft.
• Proper positioning of the propeller on the crankshaft in terms of clock angle is needed when the engine is started
by hand cranking or propping.
• A snap ring is used in many hubs. The snap ring retains the crankshaft nut when the propeller is removed from
the engine. The snap ring also serves as a pulling surface when breaking the hub free from the tapered
crankshaft using the crankshaft nut. A loud cracking sound is emitted when the hub is broken free from the
tapered crankshaft.

• On splined shaft installations, front and rear cones may be used to accurately center the propeller on the
crankshaft or propeller shaft and seat the propeller.
• The rear cone is a one piece bronze design that fits around the shaft and against the thrust nut (or spacer) and
seats in the rear cone recess of the hub.
• The front cone is a two piece, split type steel cone that has a groove around its inner circumference so that it can
be fitted over a flange of the propeller retaining nut.
• Then, the retaining nut is threaded into place and the front cone seats in the front cone hub.
• A snap ring is fitted into a groove in the hub in front of the front cone so that when the retaining nut is
unscrewed from the propeller shaft, the front cone acts against the snap ring and pulls the propeller from the
shaft.
• One type of hub incorporates a bronze bushing instead of a front cone. When this
type of hub is used, it may be necessary to use a puller to start the propeller from the
shaft.
• A rear cone spacer is sometimes provided with the splined shaft propeller assembly
to prevent the propeller from interfering with the engine cowling. The wide flange on
the rear face of some types of hubs eliminates the use of a rear cone spacer.

• One type of hub assembly for the fixed-pitch, wooden propeller is a steel fitting
inserted in the propeller to mount it on the propeller shaft. It has two main parts:
the faceplate and the flange plate.
• The faceplate is a steel disk that forms the forward face of the hub. The flange plate
is a steel flange with an internal bore splined to receive the propeller shaft.
• The end of the flange plate opposite the flange disk is externally splined to receive
the faceplate. The faceplate bore has splines to match these external splines.
• The units used on lower horsepower engines with tapered shafts generally do not
have these splines.
• Both faceplate and flange plates have a corresponding series of holes drilled on the
disk surface concentric with the hub center.
• The bore of the flange plate has a 15° cone seat on the rear end and a 30° cone seat
on the forward end to center the hub accurately on the propeller shaft.
 Propeller/spinner installation
TORQUING WOODEN PROPELLERS
• Always refer to the current manufacturer’s technical data for explicit maintenance instructions.
• The installation of a wooden propeller must adhere to strict torquing procedures.
• The torque placed on a wooden propeller must be enough to apply a compressive force to the hub without crushing the wood.
• Before installing the propeller, or checking the torque, ensure that the magneto switch(es) are in the OFF position and that the aircraft is
chocked or tied-down.
• Removing a spark plug from each cylinder will further enhance safety and will make it easier to rotate the engine for torquing purposes and
for checking propeller track.
• Always use an accurate torque wrench that fulfills calibration requirements.
• The propeller bolts should be tightened using a star pattern.
• Increase the tightness of the bolts using small incremental increases of torque.
• Keep shifting from one bolt to the next using the star pattern.
• Continue the process until the prescribed torque value is attained.
• If self-locking nuts are used to retain the propeller, add the resistance of the friction of the self-locking mechanism to the published torque
value.
• The reason that the technician should use small incremental increases in torque to arrive at the desired tightness is that applying large
quantities of torque at one time to the bolts may cause the wood to crush and the blade track to shift.
• Wooden propellers should have a blade track no greater than 1/8 inch (3.175 mm). After arriving at the proper torque, safety the propeller
retention hardware, as required.
• The torque of the propeller bolts should be re-checked after the initial flight and following the first 25 hours of operation. Thereafter, check
the bolt torque every 50 hours of operation.
• The torque should also be checked when the ambient environment changes in a substantial manner (e.g., winter to summer).
TORQUING WOODEN PROPELLERS
• To check the torque of the propeller bolts, remove safety wire, if
applicable, and rotate the torque wrench in a tightening direction
until the fastener begins to turn.
• If the amount of torque required to rotate the fastener is very low
(e.g., approximately half to two-thirds of the prescribed torque),
remove the propeller and inspect the hub area for defects (e.g.,
elongated holes and/or cracks).
• Such damage must be repaired by the manufacturer or an
appropriately rated repair facility.
• If the torque is somewhat low (e.g., three quarters the specified
torque), carefully increase the torque to the proper level.
• If the torque is with in the specified range, no action is required.
• And if the torque exceeds the prescribed range, loosen the bolts
and torque to the correct limit.
• At the conclusion of the torque check, verify that the propeller
track is within limits and resafety the hardware, as necessary.
 Fixed pitch, controllable pitch,
constant speeding propeller;
METAL FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS
• Metal fixed-pitch propellers are similar in general appearance to a
wooden propeller, except that the sections are usually thinner.
• The metal fixed-pitch propeller is widely used on many models of light
aircraft.
• Many of the earliest metal propellers were manufactured in one piece
of forged Duralumin.
• Compared to wooden propellers,
- some were lighter in weight because of elimination of blade
clamping devices, offered a lower maintenance cost because they were
made in one piece,
- provided more efficient cooling because of the effective pitch nearer
the hub and,
- because there was no joint between the blades and the hub, the
propeller pitch could be changed, within limits, by twisting the blade
slightly by a propeller repair station.
• Generally, metal propellers are heavier than their wooden counterparts.
 Fixed pitch, controllable pitch,
constant speeding propeller;
• Propellers of this type are now manufactured as one piece
anodized aluminum alloy.
• They are identified by stamping the propeller hub with
- the serial number,
- model number,
- type certificate number,
- production certificate number,
- and the number of times the propeller has been
reconditioned.
• The complete model number of the propeller is a combination
of the basic model number and suffix numbers to indicate the
propeller diameter and pitch.
• An explanation of a complete model number, using the
McCauley 1B90/CM propeller, is provided in Figure.
 Fixed pitch, controllable pitch,
constant speeding propeller;
• STEEL PROPELLER BLADES
• A number of propeller blades are manufactured
from steel. These blades are sometimes found on
propellers used on larger aircraft.
• A number of World War II aircraft and large transport
piston powered aircraft of that era use propellers
with steel blades.
• Steel propeller blades are typically hollow to keep
weight to a minimum.
• By comparison to blades made from other materials,
steel propeller blades possess more heft(weight).
 Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and
metal
propellers;

COMPOSITE PROPELLERS
• As with other parts of the airplane, composite materials and
construction techniques have been adopted by the propeller
manufacturers.
• They offer numerous advantages, especially for higher speed turboprop
aircraft.
• The strength offered by composite blades in conjunction with
lightweight and reduced sound levels have proven useful attributes.
• Similar to other composites used throughout the aviation industry, two
essential components are utilized to produce the blades, the matrix and
the fiber material.
• The former is similar to an epoxy and is used to keep the strands of the
fiber in position.
• The fibers possess considerable tensile strength and provide vigor
(strength) in terms of blade resiliency(flexibility).
• A number of propellers flown in aerobatics are composite because of
their lightweight, low inertia, durability, and affordability.
Construction methods and materials used in wooden, composite and
metal
propellers;

• Composite blades typically begin at the

blade root where they are formed around
the metal blade shank.
• Numerous layers of carbon fiber laminates
are wound around a core. An attached
erosion strip, when included, provides
protection against blade erosion
 Blade station, blade face, blade
shank, blade back and hub
BLADE STATIONS
assembly;
• Propeller blades are rotating airfoils that have a relatively complex shape
when compared to wings.
• The main reason for the intricate (complex) shape is related to airspeed.
• Near the propeller hub the relative velocity between the blade section and
air is comparatively slow.
• By contrast, the propeller tip experiences a high velocity with the air.
• To accommodate the difference in airspeed, a typical propeller blade will
have a high blade angle near the hub and a shallow blade angle at the tip.
• An examination of a propeller blade reveals that the blade angle gradually
decreases from the hub or shank area of the blade to the tip.
• The length of the chord of the propeller blade may also change moving from
the hub to the tip.
• The structural need of the propeller blade near the hub may require a shape
that lacks aerodynamic qualities but provides ample strength to combat the
various forces placed on the propeller assembly.
• Propeller stations are often provided in six inch increments (15 cm). Note the
gradual change in pitch angle and chord width.
 Blade station, blade face, blade
shank, blade back and hub
assembly;
PROPELLER HUB, SHANK, BACK, AND FACE
• The propeller hub is designed to withstand all the forces experienced by the propeller
during operation.
• On fixed-pitched units, the opposing blades connect at the hub, which is a thick, heavily
built member.
• On controllable-pitch propellers, the hub accommodates the pitch change mechanisms,
bearings, passageways, and necessary lubricant(s).
• In addition to retaining the blades and internal members of the pitch control mechanism,
the propeller hub is attached to the crankshaft or propeller shaft.
• The thrust generated by the propeller is transmitted to the engine and ultimately to the
airframe through the propeller hub.
• Some propeller models attach the spinner bulkhead, or spinner backplate, to the hub.
• The portion of the blade inserted into the hub of a controllable pitch propeller is known as
the blade butt or blade root.
• The propeller blade shank connects the blade root or butt to the airfoil section of the
propeller blade.
• The shape of the shank ranges from circular or oval to a highly cambered form.
• The shank must be capable of absorbing the loads placed upon the propeller and
transmitting the thrust to the hub.
• Overshoes or boots associated with de-icing and anti-icing systems are attached to the
shank of the propeller blades and extend down a measure of the blade.
 Blade station, blade face, blade
shank, blade back and hub
assembly;
• The surface of the propeller blade known as the back
is the side of the blade containing the camber or
curvature.
• The propeller back is similar to the upper surface of a
wing in that it generates a lower pneumatic pressure
as the blade rotates.
• Where a wing produces lift, the propeller generates
thrust.
• The face of the propeller blade is the surface that is
relatively flat.
• As the propeller rotates, the face strikes the air. Pilots
who fly single engine airplanes equipped with tractor
propellers look at, or face, the face of the propeller as
they operate the aircraft.
 Types of Propeller
TYPES OF PROPELLERS
• There are various types or classes of propellers, the simplest
of which are the fixed-pitch and ground adjustable propellers.
• The complexity of propeller systems increases from these
simpler forms to controllable-pitch and complex constant
speed systems (automatic systems).

TEST CLUB PROPELLER

• A test club is used to test and break in reciprocating engines.
They are made to provide the correct amount of load on the
engine during the testing and breaking in period and not
intended for flight.
• The multi blade design also provides extra cooling airflow
during operation.
 FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER
• A fixed-pitch propeller has the blade pitch, or blade angle, built into the propeller.
• The blade angle cannot be changed after the propeller is built.
• Generally, this type of propeller is one piece and is constructed of wood or
aluminum alloy.
• Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency at one rotational and
forward speed.
• They are designed to fit a set of conditions of both airplane and engine speeds.
• Any change in these conditions reduces the efficiency of both the propeller and
the engine.
• The fixed-pitch propeller is used on airplanes of low power, speed, range, or
altitude.
• Many single engine aircraft use fixed-pitch propellers and the advantages to
these are less expense and their simple operation.
• This type of propeller does not require any control inputs from the pilot in flight.
• Fixed-pitch propellers are available in tractor and pusher designs.
GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER

GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER
• The ground-adjustable propeller operates as a fixed-
pitch propeller.
• The pitch, or blade angle, can be changed only when
the propeller is not turning.
• This is done by loosening the clamping mechanism
that holds the blades in place, and setting the
desired pitch.
• After the clamping mechanism has been tightened,
the pitch of the blades cannot be changed in flight to
meet variable flight requirements.
• The ground-adjustable propeller is not often used on
present day airplanes.
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER

CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER
• The controllable-pitch propeller permits a change of
blade pitch, or angle, while the propeller is rotating.
• This allows the propeller to assume a blade angle that
gives the best performance for particular flight
conditions.
• The number of pitch positions may be limited, as with
a two position controllable propeller, or the pitch may
be adjusted to any angle between the minimum and
maximum pitch settings of a given propeller.
• The use of controllable-pitch propellers also makes it
possible to attain the desired engine rpm for a
particular flight condition.
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER

• This type of propeller is not to be confused with a constant-speed

propeller.
• With the controllable-pitch type, the blade angle can be changed in
flight, but the pilot must change the propeller blade angle directly.
• The blade angle will not change again until the pilot changes it.
• The electric propellers used on older models Beechcraft Bonanzas
are examples of controllable-pitch propellers.
• To change blade angle on these electric propellers, the pilot toggles
increases and decreases in propeller pitch using a switch.
• The use of a governor is the next step in the evolution of propeller
development, making way for constant-speed propellers with
governor systems.
• Constant-speed propeller systems are common place in higher
performance general aviation airplanes and larger propeller
equipped airplanes.
 CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
• The propeller has a natural tendency to slow down as the aircraft climbs and to
speed up as the aircraft dives because the load on the engine varies.
• To provide an efficient propeller, the speed is kept as constant as possible. By
using propeller governors to increase or decrease propeller pitch, the engine
speed is held constant.
• When the airplane goes into a climb (during cruise flight), the blade angle of the
propeller decreases just enough to prevent the engine speed from decreasing.
• The engine can maintain its power output if the throttle setting is not changed.
• When the airplane goes into a dive, the blade angle increases sufficiently to
prevent overspeeding and, with the same throttle setting, the power output
remains unchanged.

• If the throttle setting is changed instead of changing the speed of the airplane
by climbing or diving, the blade angle increases or decreases as required to
maintain a constant engine rpm.
• The power output (not the rpm) changes in accordance with changes in the
throttle setting. The governor controlled, constant-speed propeller changes the
blade angle automatically, keeping engine rpm constant.
 CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS

• One type of pitch changing mechanism is operated by oil

pressure (hydraulically) and uses a piston and cylinder
arrangement.
• The piston may move in the cylinder, or the cylinder may
move over a stationary piston.
• The linear motion of the piston/cylinder is converted by
several different types of mechanical linkages into the
rotary motion necessary to change the blade angle.
• The mechanical connection between the piston/cylinder
and propeller blades may be through gears or linkages.
• The pitch changing mechanism rotates the root of each
blade.
• The propeller blades are mounted with bearings that
allow them to rotate to change pitch.
• In most cases, the oil pressure for operating the different types of hydraulic
pitch changing mechanisms comes directly from the engine lubricating system.
• When the engine lubricating system is used, the engine oil pressure is usually
boosted by a pump that is integral with the governor to operate the propeller.
• The higher oil pressure (approximately 300 pounds per square inch (psi)
provides a quicker blade angle change.
• A valve within the governor directs the pressurized oil for operation of the
hydraulic pitch changing mechanism.
• The governors used to control hydraulic pitch changing mechanisms are geared
to the engine crankshaft and are sensitive to changes in rpm.

• When rpm increases above the value for which a governor is set, the governor
causes the propeller pitch changing mechanism to turn the blades to a higher
angle.
–The higher pitch increases the load on the engine, and rpm decreases until it returns
to the on speed rpm.
• When rpm decreases below the value for which a governor is set, the governor
causes the pitch changing mechanism to turn the blades to a lower angle.
–The load on the engine is decreased and rpm increases until it reaches the on speed
rpm. Thus, a propeller governor tends to keep engine rpm constant.
• In constant speed propeller systems, the control system automatically
adjusts pitch through the use of a governor, without attention by the
pilot, to maintain a specific preset engine rpm within the set range of
the propeller.
• For example, if engine speed increases, an overspeed condition occurs
and the propeller system responds to reduce the engine rpm. The
controls automatically increase the blade angle until the desired rpm
has been reestablished.
• A good constant speed control system responds to such small
variations of rpm that for all practical purposes, a constant rpm is
maintained.
• Each constant speed propeller has an opposing force that operates
against the oil pressure from the governor. On some models,
counterweights mounted on the propeller blades, or associated parts,
move the blades in the high pitch direction as the propeller turns.
• Other forces used to move the blades toward the high pitch direction
include air pressure (contained in the front dome), springs, and
aerodynamic twisting moment.
 FEATHERING PROPELLERS

• Feathering propellers are typically mounted on multi engine aircraft to reduce propeller drag to a
minimum in case of one or more engine failure conditions.
• A feathering propeller is a constant speed propeller used on multi engine aircraft that has a
mechanism to change the pitch to an angle of approximately 90°.
• A propeller is usually feathered when the engine fails to develop power to turn the propeller. By
rotating the propeller blade angle parallel to the line of flight, the drag on the aircraft is greatly
reduced. With the blades parallel to the airstream, the propeller stops turning and minimum
windmilling, if any, occurs.
• The blades are held in feather by aerodynamic forces. Almost all small feathering propellers use oil
pressure to take the propeller to low pitch and blade flyweights, springs, and compressed air to
take the blades to high pitch.
• Since the blades would go to the feather position during shutdown, latches lock the propeller in the
low pitch position as the propeller slows down at shutdown.
• These can be internal or external and are contained within the propeller hub. In flight, the latches
are prevented from stopping the blades from feathering because they are held off their seat by
centrifugal force.
• Latches are needed to prevent excess load on the engine at start up. If the blade were in the
feathered position during engine start, the engine would be placed under an undue load during a
time when the engine is already subject to wear.
 REVERSE-PITCH PROPELLERS
REVERSE-PITCH PROPELLERS
• Additional refinements, such as reverse-pitch propellers (mainly used on turboprop aircraft), are included in
some propellers to improve their operational characteristics.
• Almost all reverse-pitch propellers are of the feathering type. A reverse-pitch propeller is a controllable propeller
in which the blade angles can be changed to a negative value during operation.
• The purpose of the reversible pitch feature is to produce a negative blade angle that produces thrust opposite
the normal forward direction.
• Typically, when the landing gear is in contact with the runway after landing, the propellers blades can be moved
to negative pitch (reversed), which creates thrust opposite of the aircraft direction and slows the aircraft.
• As the propeller blades move into negative pitch, engine power is applied to increase the negative thrust. This
aerodynamically brakes the aircraft and reduces ground roll after landing.
• The angle of attack encountered by the blades change as the aircraft speed changes. Reversing the propellers
also reduces aircraft speed quickly on the runway just after touchdown and minimizes aircraft brake wear.
• Some aircraft are able to backup using reverse-pitch propellers.
 PROPELLER LOCATION

TRACTOR PROPELLER
• Tractor propellers are those mounted on the upstream end of a propeller shaft in front of the
supporting structure. Most aircraft are equipped with this type of propeller.
• A major advantage of the tractor propeller is that lower stresses are induced in the propeller as it
rotates in relatively undisturbed air.
PUSHER PROPELLERS
• Pusher propellers are those mounted on the downstream end of a propeller shaft behind the
supporting structure.
• Pusher propellers are constructed as fixed or variable pitch units.
• In the early era of aviation, many airplanes used pusher propellers. Some light sport aircraft use
pusher propellers.
• By placing the propeller behind the wing, airflow over the wing is straight and basically void of the
spinning air mass.
• Seaplanes and amphibious aircraft have used a greater percentage of pusher propellers than
other kinds of aircraft.
• On land airplanes, where propeller to ground clearance usually is less than the propeller to water
clearance of watercraft, pusher propellers are subject to more damage than tractor propellers.
• Rocks, gravel, and small objects dislodged by the wheels are quite often thrown or drawn into a
pusher propeller. Similarly, planes with pusher propellers are apt to encounter propeller damage
from water spray thrown up by the hull during landing or takeoff airspeed.
• Consequently, the pusher propeller is commonly mounted above and behind the wings to prevent
such damage.
 CONTRA-ROTATING PROPELLERS

CONTRA-ROTATING PROPELLERS
• Contra-rotating propellers are used on a limited
number of airplanes.
• The propellers are mounted on two concentric shafts
that rotate in opposite directions.
• Such installations have little torque effect generated
by the propellers as the torque from one unit is largely
negated by the torque from the other propeller.
• Having a contra-rotating propeller installation reduces
the diameter of the propeller disc that would otherwise
be necessary using a single propeller. This serves to
lowerthe height of the landing gear and airplane in
general.
 COUNTER-ROTATING PROPELLERS
COUNTER-ROTATING PROPELLERS
• The Wright Brothers used the counter-rotating design in their early model
airplanes to eliminate the torque effect of the spinning propeller mass.
• Not knowing how much impact the torque effect would have on their
aspirations to succeed in producing a successful flying machine, the
Brothers decided to cancel the effect by spinning each pusher propeller in
opposite directions.
• Today the installation of counter-rotating propellers is used on certain model
multiengine aircraft. The benefit of the counter-rotating design is especially
beneficial on twin engine aircraft.
• When an engine fails or is unable to produce power on a twin engine aircraft,
the pilot has to implement compensating action to sustain aircraft altitude
and maintain steerage.
• One action is to feather the propeller. This reduces drag on the side of the
aircraft with the troubled engine.
• Next the pilot must input corrective rudder action. Twin engine aircraft with
similar rotation propellers will typically possess asymmetrical yaw between
the engines.
• In other words, there will be a greater yawing action
when one engine fails than the other. With clockwise
rotating propellers, there will be a greater yawing
action when the left engine fails.
• Consequently, the pilot needs to input greater amounts
of rudder and rudder trim to compensate for a failed
left engine than for a failed right engine. In such cases,
the left engine is termed the “critical engine.”
• A benefit of having counter-rotating propellers is the
elimination of the “critical engine” from the aircraft.
• The critical engine of a multiengine aircraft is defined
as the engine whose failure would most adversely
affect the performance or handling qualities of an
aircraft.
 PROPELLER REMOVAL AND
INSTALLATION
REMOVAL
• It provides general steps for removing and reinstalling a propeller on a
flanged crankshaft or propeller shaft.
• Procedures for removing and installing propellers on splined shafts or
tapered shafts are different. Always use
• the current manufacturer’s information when removing and installing any
propeller.
• Exercise caution when handling propellers to prevent damage to the
propeller and associated components.
–1. Remove the spinner dome in accordance with applicable procedures. It may
be necessary to index the spinner prior to removal so that the spinner may be
installed in the same relative position with the propeller to maintain pre
removal balance.

–2. Support the propeller assembly with a sling. If the same propeller is to be
reinstalled and has been previously dynamically balanced, make an identifying
mark (with a felt tipped pen only) on the propeller hub and a matching mark on
the engine flange or propeller shaft to make sure of proper orientation during
reinstallation to minimize dynamic imbalance.
 –3. Remove the lockwire and/or safetying devices. Use caution to
prevent scratching the propeller during the removal of the lockwire.
Remove the hardware securing the propeller to the shaft.
– It may be necessary to use special wrenches.
–Do not allow the tools to damage the crankshaft, engine case, or
propeller.
• CAUTION: Remove the propeller from the mounting flange with
care to prevent damaging the propeller mounting studs. Using
the support sling, remove the propeller from the engine. Smaller
propellers may be removed without a sling using technicians to
grapple with the unit. On constant-speed propeller models, be
prepared to capture oil that will drain as the propeller is
separated from the propeller shaft.

–4. Place the propeller on a suitable cart or fixture for transport or

storage
INSTALLATION
• Most flanged propellers have six studs configured in a four inch circle. Dowel pins may
also be used to absorb torque during operation and index the propeller with respect to the
propeller shaft.
• Perform the applicable steps to clean the engine flange and propeller flange with quick
drying stoddard solvent or methyl-ethyl ketone (MEK). Observe safety precautions when
handling such chemicals.
• Install the O-ring in the O-ring groove in the hub bore or on propeller shaft.
• NOTE: When the propeller is received from the factory, the O-ring has usually been installed
or is included with the shipment.
• With a suitable support, such as a crane hoist or similar equipment or adequate personnel,
carefully move the propeller assembly to the engine mounting flange in preparation for
installation.
• Install the propeller on the engine flange. Make certain to align the dowel pins, if used, with
the corresponding holes in the engine mounting flange. As the attachment studs are longer
than the dowel pins, exercise care when threading the studs through the mounting holes to
avoid damage to the threads.
• The propeller may be installed on the engine flange in a given position, or 180° from that
position. If reinstalling a propeller that has been dynamically balanced, align the propeller
to match the original installation position.
• Check the engine and airframe manuals to determine if either manual specifies a propeller
mounting position.
• CAUTION: Tighten nuts evenly to avoid hub damage.
• Install the propeller mounting hardware per manufacturer’s instructions.
• Torque the propeller mounting nuts or bolts in accordance with the proper specifications and safety wire the
studs or bolts in pairs (if required by the aircraft maintenance manual). If safety wire is not used, install the
appropriate safetying device. Be careful to prevent slippage of wrenches during the torquing process.
• Following the installation of the propeller, the technician must connect any additional items included with the
propeller system, such as wires for the propeller de-icing system. If equipped, the spinner must be installed.
• Spinners range from small simple units retained by a single screw, as shown on the wooden propeller in Figure
to large spinners.
• As spinners are part of the rotating mass during operation, technicians should index the spinner in relation to
the spinner bulkhead so that during reinstallation the two may be reunited in the same relative position.
• Some manufacturers index the spinner and bulkhead at the factory. Often technicians will have to install their
own index marks (e.g., a piece of tape that spans the spinner and bulkhead).
• Reinstalling the spinner in a different position may result in vibration during operation.
• It will be necessary to perform a post installation test of the propeller. During the test the technician should
ensure proper rpm attainment and, if the propeller is controllable, check operation including feathering and
reversing, as appropriate.
• After the test, the technician should check for oil leaks on controllable-pitch models and correct any defects. Next,
the technician should complete the appropriate paperwork.
 PROPELLER CLEARANCES
PROPELLER CLEARANCES
• During operation, the whirling propeller is capable of causing damage to itself, the engine, and surrounding objects.
• Generally, when the aircraft experiences a propeller strike, the propeller and engines will need to be inspected and repaired. In extreme cases,
the engine and propeller will need to be replaced.
• To minimize the risk of encountering propeller strikes, an array of clearances between the propeller, ground, water, and structure has been
established.
• Each set of regulations will specify the appropriate propeller clearances.
• In the U.S., the minimum clearance between the tip of the propeller and ground is seven inches (18 cm) for nose wheel aircraft and nine
inches (23 cm) for tail wheel aircraft.
• These clearances are when the aircraft is in its normal takeoff or taxing attitude, whichever is most critical. Aft mounted propellers must be
designed so that the propeller will not contact the ground when the airplane is at its maximum pitch attitude during normal takeoffs and
landings.
• There is a requirement of at least 18 inches (46 cm) of clearance between the propeller and water on aircraft that land and takeoff from the
water.
• A requirement of at least one inch (2.54 cm) of clearance in a radial direction is required from the tip of the propeller to the structure of the
aircraft. Additional radial clearance may be required to prevent detrimental vibrations.
• There must be a minimum of ½ inch (1.27 cm) clearance between any part of the propeller blade and any stationary part of the aircraft.
Positive clearance between the rotating parts of the propeller and spinner and stationary parts of the airplane is required.
17.3 Propeller Pitch Control
 Speed control and pitch change
methods, mechanical and electrical/
electronic
Feathering and reverse pitch;
Overspeed protection
17.4 Propeller Synchronising
Synchronising and synchrophasing
equipment
17.5 Propeller Ice Protection
Fluid and electrical de-icing
equipment.
17.6 Propeller Maintenance
Static and dynamic balancing;
Blade tracking;
 Assessment of blade damage,
erosion, corrosion, impact damage,
delamination
Propeller treatment/repair schemes;
Propeller engine running
17.7 Propeller Storage and
Preservation
Propeller preservation and
depreservation