SUBJECT: READING AND WRITING

LESSON 2: UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF FORMAL AND LINGUISTIC SCHEMATA IN READING

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to:
A. Understand the connection among content, formal, and linguistic schemata in reading;
B. Use a variety of strategies to help him/her effectively draw out relevant schemata when reading; and
C. Relate new information to his/her prior experiences to decrease text unfamiliarity by using graphic
organizers.
Starter
Study the next paragraphs to answer the following questions.
1. What is the general topic of the two texts?
2. Reading the texts, what similarities and differences did you notice as to how the texts were written
and the language used by the authors?
3. Which of the two was easier to read and to understand? Why?

A. Illiteracy is a person's inability to read, and there are many people who are considered illiterate.
People who cannot understand reading materials that are supposed to be within their age and ability
level are called semi-illiterates. An example would be a high school student who can only manage to
read a grade three textbook. Illiteracy has been a major problem among teachers and countries in
general for many years now, and many solutions have been proposed to solve it. Still, it remains a big
concern.
Lately, a related problem has gotten attention too-aliteracy, which is the lack of will to read. An
alliterate person is one who can read, but refuses to do so. A student who will only read a text by
Shakespeare because he is asked by his teacher but does not see the importance of the skill may be
considered alliterate. Many experts claim that the number of alliterate persons is worth solving as well.

B. In the field of education, there is a constant search for various ways that will make learners maximize
their potentials, abilities, and performance. In this regard, a key issue is to understand the role played
by a learner's willingness to engage in various learning undertakings. In particular, researchers have
identified motivation, defined as "the personal goals, desires, and intentions of an individual" (Guthrie
& Wigfield, 2000, p.2), as an important affective factor to consider in learning, which is considered more
adaptable than learning style and the second most important individual difference factor next to aptitude
(Ellis, 2006).
While it is true that illiteracy is a very serious problem, aliteracy may be an even greater one. The
latter has been defined as "lack of the reading habit; especially, such a lack in capable readers who
choose not to read" (Harris & Hodges, 1981, in Cramer & Castle, 1994, p.4). In America, it has been
observed that although their students learn how to read at increasingly difficult levels, too many of them
do not voluntarily choose to read their own personal pleasure or information (Cramer & Castle, 1994).
Similarly, in the 2007 National Book Development Board (NBDB) Readership Survey, it has been
reported "the per- centage of book readers (among Filipinos) has decreased by 7%" (Mandigma, 2008,
par. 5). - Mante-Estacio, M.J. "Dimensions of Reading Motivation among Filipino Bilinguals." TESOL Journal

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Focus
Formal Schema

Formal schema is a person's knowledge of how a text is logically organized to make it

understandable to readers. Obviously, you can manage to understand and make sense of a reading
material better if you know how it was written its format and its structure.
To do this, you must remember that different texts are written in many different ways. Below are
some common rhetorical patterns/text structures. Some if not all of these were presented to you in
earlier grades. Which ones do you still remember? Which ones do you often encounter in reading?

1. Narration - writing that provides details to explain how an event happened.

Signal Words for Narration
at this / that point meanwhile as soon as in the meantime when
yesterday immediately tomorrow later

Examples:
• After a big bowl of his favorite pasta, he sat on a sofa in my study and read his science textbook
as I wrote at my desk. We both enjoyed this simple yet profound togetherness, the two of us
focused on our own projects yet palpably connected. As we worked under the soft glow of paper
lanterns, with the heat on high and our little dog snoring at his feet, my son began to relax. I
could feel a shift as he began to remember, deep in his body, that he was home, that he was
safe, that he did not have to brace to protect himself from the expectations of the outside world.

2. Description - writing that explains the topic to allow the reader to visualize it.
The topic could be a person, place, thing, or even something abstract. It has a clear
focus, sense of purpose, uses sensory details and precise words to present details in
a logical order.

Signal Words for Description

Above across between beyond in front of onto away from
inside opposite to adjacent to back of by into outside over near
down behind below against along here in on under
to the right throughout beneath alongside amidst farther

Examples:

• The Olympic symbol consists of five interlocking rings. The rings are colored black blue, green,
red, and yellow.
• The kitchen table is rectangular. Made of a two-inch-thick piece of oak, its top is covered with a
cloth patterned in dark red and blue squares against a white background.
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3. Exemplification - writing that gives a number of examples to develop a main idea.

Signal Words for Exemplification

after all for instance namely
in other words put another way to be specific
in particular specifically to clarify
in short stated differently to illustrate
that is for example consider the following
as an example

Example:

• Dogs are domesticated animals that have been living with humans for generations. Dogs can be
classified in a number of different ways. For example, they can be classified by breed. Examples
of different breeds include beagles, basset hounds, poodles and countless others as defined by
the American Kennel Club (AKC). They can also be classified by their role in the lives of their
masters and the work they do. For example, a dog might be a family pet, a working dog, a show
dog, or a hunting dog. In many cases, dogs are defined both by their breed and their role. For
example, a dog could be a beagle that is a family pet.

4. Classification - writing that breaks a topic into its parts or subparts.

Signal Words for Classification

categories classified as classes classifications
comprises composed of different stages of

Example:

• Earthquake can be classified into three main types based on the plate movements. The first type
is known as a convergent boundary. Also known as destructive plate boundary, this type of
earthquake happens when two tectonic plates move toward one another and collide. The second
type of earthquake is called the divergent boundary. During this type of earthquake, two plates
are forced to move away from each other resulting in a riff zone. The last type is called
conservative plate boundary or transform fault. During this type of earthquake, two tectonic
plates slide past one another.

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 5. Comparison and Contrast - writing that explains how two
subjects are similar and/or different.

Signal words for Comparing Signal words for Contrasting

equally although the fact remains
in the same way despite but
similarly, as instead in contrast nonetheless
in a similar fashion otherwise unlike conversely in
like and in the meantime,
to compare both yet on the other hand, yet
in comparison even so whereas counter to
likewise however even though
still as spite of on the contrary

Example:

Although I raised Marcee and Obbie from puppies, they have completely diverse personalities.
Obbie is a six-year-old, male, toy Pomeranian whereas Marcee is a one-year-old, female, Boston terrier.
Obbie is small and soft, unlike Marcee who has bristly hair and is much bigger. Marcee insists on
sleeping on the bed, under the covers every night. On the other hand, Obbie will only sleep on the floor,
under the bed. Obbie is tremendously loyal and uptight; however, Marcee is hyper and friendly to
anyone she meets or sees. Around other dogs, Marcee cowers to the larger dog, yet Obbie will always
stand his ground, never giving up until he is scolded. Given that they were both treated the same way
all their life, it is hard to believe that they are so different in everything they do.

6. Definition - writing that gives the meaning of the topic by explaining its
qualities especially those that differentiate the topic from other similar/related
topics. It consists of three parts: (1) the term, concept, or subject to be defined;
(2) the general class to which it belongs, and (3) the characteristics that
differentiate it from the other members of its class. Remember to give specific
characteristics of what you are defining.

Signal Words for Definition

defined as means to define as defined refers to to illustrate

Example:

• A solar eclipse refers to an astronomical event during which the Moon seems to cover the Sun.
• School is defined as a place or institution for teaching and learning.
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7. Cause and Effect - writing that explains the reasons for and results of a given topic.

Signal words for Cause Signal words for Effect

as for in view of (the fact) accordingly
owing to (the fact) consequently
because (of the fact) in consequence
for the reason that so that as
in as much as a consequence
seeing that being that for this reason
in that one reason since so therefore
due to (the fact that) as a result (of this)
hence so much (so)
that thus because (of this)

Examples:

• Public schools should require students to wear uniforms because they save parents money,
deemphasize fashion, and create school spirit.

• The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major effects on a city’s ability to
provide housing, employment, and adequate sanitation services.

8. Problem-Solution - writing that discusses a topic (a problem) and a probable solution/s for it.

Signal Words for Problem-Solution

but the problem one solution is first,
second the solution one way is
nonetheless one reason for the

Examples:
• “Since pollution has a detrimental impact on modern living standards, a key solution is
increased recycling of waste products.”

• “Many children suffer long-term consequences of bullying. However, the problem can be
remedied through a three-pronged approach: educating the parents, encouraging a community
atmosphere, and implementing a peer mediation program.”

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 9. Chronology - Also called Time Order, Narration or Sequence of Events,
details support the main idea as a list of events told in the order that they
happened. It answers questions such as “When did it happen?” “In what order
did it happen?

Signal Words for Chronology

after, afterward, as soon in/on (date), last, later,
as, at last, at that time, next, now, meanwhile,
before, during, eventually, shortly, since, then,
finally, first, second, until, when
following, formerly, immediately,

Examples:
• The death of Mac's mother created for him a shocked disbelief, then a personal loneliness and
grief that led to declining health.

• The rehearsal dinner will be on Friday night. Afterward, we are hoping that many of the guests
will help to clean the area for tomorrow's wedding.

10. Persuasion - writing that appeals to the audience's emotion or logical thinking.

Signal Words for Emphasizing

again in that case in fact to emphasize truly
for this reason indeed to repeat with this in mind

Signal Words for Conceding a Point

admittedly it is true that obviously true assuredly
needless to say of course undoubtedly certainly no doubt
to be sure unquestionably granted

Signal Words for Concluding and Summarizing

accordingly consequently in brief inevitably in a nutshell
all in all due to in conclusion on the whole
therefore as a result finally in short since thus
as I have said in any event in summary in essence to sum up

Examples:
• Hunters, hikers, and park recreationalists should turn in poachers. Poachers are people who
kill animals illegally by hunting without a proper permit, or trespassing on someone’s property.
Not only is it cruel to leave an animal carcass lying out to rout, but it can also spread disease
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 among the other animals. It also brings up the price of hunting licenses for other hunters. That
is why it is important we turn poachers in. The first thing that can be done is calling 1-800-TIP-
MONT. When a call is placed, the operator will ask some questions. They ask where and when
the event happened, a physical appearance of the person or a vehicle description, and was
there any physical evidence left behind. So, when you see this happening, either write it down
on paper, or just try to remember it. The second thing a person can do is try to get on the
Internet. There you can find out more information about what you need to do. If anyone sees
one of these illegal acts being done, now you know what to do to turn them in, and make
Montana a better place for everyone and everything.

What pattern/s was/were used in the Starter paragraphs? Cite some words or lines from the
paragraphs to support your answer.
Look for examples for the various patterns from materials you have read previously. Present
some of these in class.
Finally, in many reading materials, the author combines several types of patterns/text structure
in developing his/her ideas. For instance, in comparing two well-known personalities, a writer will most
likely describe the outstanding qualities of the two, and also narrate significant events in their lives. In
presenting an issue like heavy taxation levied on middle class Filipinos, a writer could discuss the
causes and effects, while persuading the readers to act or do some- thing about it. Think of other topics
that can be developed using a combination of two or more rhetorical patterns.

Linguistic Schemata

Another type of schema that a successful reader needs to use is collectively called linguistic
schemata. A reader needs to efficiently decode certain features and understand how words are
organized and fit together in a sentence. Linguistic schemata include knowledge of vocabulary,
language, grammar, and idioms.
Try completing the following sentences to see the importance of linguistic schemata.
1. The _____________ problem needs a solution soon. (run, difficult, it, seldom, beautiful)
The answer is difficult. The way the words in this sentence are arranged tells you that the
sentence requires an adjective that will describe problem. Although beautiful is also an adjective,
it would not logically complete the statement.
2. Forty-four uniformed men _____________ given medals yesterday. ( is, are was, were)
The answer is were because following grammar rules, the subject must agree with its verb in
number and intense.
3. What the rich family did to their workers only _____________ (barked up the wrong tree, beat
around the bush, added insult to injury).
All the choices are idiomatic expressions, but the best expression to complete the sentence is
the last one.
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 ACTIVITY #2
1. Outlining, using graphic organizers (such as concept maps, semantic feature analysis, herringbone,
Venn diagram, cycle organizer, time- lines) are some ways to show how you tap your linguistic and
formal schemata when reading. As enrichment, you will be asked by your teacher to reread some
materials that you have discussed in class, and then use an appropriate graphic organizer to show your
knowledge of how the texts are logically organized.
2. Read the text that follows. Be mindful of what you will do before, during, and after reading the
material. Afterward, write a metacognitive report that will answer the following questions:

• What type of text did you read? What is the topic?

• Did you expect anything from the text after reading its title and first few paragraphs?
• Were you able to relate well with the topic? Why or why not?
• How did you prepare for the reading activity?
• What strategies did you use while reading to monitor your comprehension?
• What strategies did you use after reading to monitor your comprehension?
• Can you identify the rhetorical patterns used by the author in writing the text?
• Are these patterns easily identifiable?
• Were there difficult words in the text? What are these words? What did you do when you
encountered these words?
• Are there idioms? Did you understand these idioms?
• What can you say about the overall language use and grammar of the text? Are these within
your level?
• Were there other difficulties that you encountered during the activity?
• What questions did you pose before reading the text? Were these questions answered after
reading the same?
• Do you have other questions in your mind after reading the text?
• On a scale of 1-10, how would you rate your success in understanding the text? Why?

Elevate

A full-time Campus Missionary for Elevate DLSU, Gabriel P. Obligacion, once said, "Elevate has
helped me grow as a Christian, a follower of Christ." We are all called by Jesus Christ not only to be a
disciple of His, but to also be a disciple-leader who helps others form their own character as Christians.
The Bible conveys a lot of morals that are taught by Jesus for us to emulate and apply in our daily lives.
Jesus also shows us the importance of supervision, to lead others and ourselves to the right path and

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closer to the Lord. Elevate helps its students develop leadership skills, and instill values that are
portrayed in the Holy Scriptures.

Elevate instills values that are taught in the Bible to its students. According to Gabriel P.
Obligacion, one of Elevates ways to inculcate these morals is by preparing worship services for the
students to attend. These worship services are held every Sunday and are presided by a sundry of
well-trained pastors who preach about the Christian faith. Another way is through the lectures given by
the leaders of each Elevate group to his or her members. In these small but significant gatherings the
students can further understand the teachings being taught by relating to the leader's experiences and
through asking questions. Elevate also "teaches students the importance of meeting in exclusive
Elevate groups weekly." This is to help the members of the group to grow closer to God care and each
other, making them care for one another. "Lastly is to through person- experiences with the Lord through
reading the Bible, spending time with Him in prayer, or serving Him in ministries." When the students
do these simple but relevant actions, they get to know and understand these morals and why they
should value them. It becomes natural for them to project these morals through their good deeds
towards others.

Jesus shows us the importance of proper guidance skills for He did lead His own group of
disciples making Him a disciple-leader. Elevate helps students develop leadership skills. These are the
steps mentioned by my interviewee, Gabriel P. Obligacion, who also assists Elevate to form students
having the correct mindset of how to be a genuine leader. The first step is for the students to truly
comprehend who Jesus really is and what He does in our life. The pupils should also understand that
He died on the cross to cleanse us from sin. This is for the students to understand that they must learn
to sacrifice a lot of things to become a righteous leader. Second is through spending time with the Lord
through contemplating on the Bible and praying. The students will then realize who God is and what
they are called to do in life, making it clearer for them to do His holy will. Third is to train them by
direction and by precedent on how to lead others closer to the Lord. This is when the students are really
taught how to be the head of their groups and how they must guide their members. "Lastly, is to help
them multiply by empowering them to have their own sets of disciples." The last step is when all their
training is used to help others to be a disciple- leader and help them to have disciples of their own.

Elevate gives significance to the importance of having a godly generation of students that will
shape the future according to the will of God. The org then teaches this generation of students the
morals found inside the Bible and helps them to portray these through all the compassion they do
toward others. Elevate also aids its students to develop leadership skills that will assist them in making
their own group of disciples. Gabriel P. Obligacion also stated that through these students' personal
relationship with the Lord, an amazing overflow of the joy and peace found in God will be experienced
by the people around their lives." Now is the time for you to get overflowed by God's loving grace. It is
your time to choose if you will accept God's invitation to be a soldier and disciple- leader of His.
- Mari Arcega, student

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