NOTRE DAME OF UPI, INC.

Nuro, Upi, Maguindanao Del Norte

LESSON MODULE IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Date of Submission: December 5, 2025

TOPIC 1: FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS

I. Introduction
Everything around us—iron in our blood, calcium in our bones, gold in jewelry—was once created inside stars. Stars act like
gigantic factories that build elements through nuclear reactions. This lesson will help you understand how stars are
formed, how they evolve, and how they create heavy elements.

II. Key Concepts Explained Simply

1. Big Bang Theory
 The universe began 13 billion years ago from a massive explosion of a tiny, extremely hot and dense point.
 After the Big Bang, the first simple elements (Hydrogen and Helium) formed.
2. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 “Stellar” = star
 “Nucleosynthesis” = making new atoms
 Meaning: Stars create new, heavier elements in their core by squeezing atoms together through nuclear fusion.

III. Life Cycle of a Star

Stars change over time depending on their size. Their life cycle explains how heavy elements are produced.
A. Formation of a Star
Nebula
 A gigantic cloud of gas and dust in space
 Called the “nursery of stars” because new stars form here.
Protostar
 Gravity pulls gas together, causing it to spin and heat up.
 It is not yet a full star, but it is glowing and forming.
B. Main Sequence Star
 The longest phase of a star’s life.
 Nuclear fusion starts: Hydrogen atoms fuse to form Helium.
 The star becomes stable and shines steadily (like our Sun).

IV. Paths of Star Evolution

Stars can be average-sized (like the Sun) or massive (much bigger).
A. Average-Sized Star
Red Giant
 Happens when the star runs out of hydrogen.
 It expands, cools, and turns reddish.
White Dwarf
 After losing its outer layers, the star leaves behind a small, hot core made mostly of Carbon.
Black Dwarf
 The cooled-down white dwarf that no longer emits light.
B. Massive Star
Red Supergiant
 A very large star that expands faster and more dramatically.
Supernova
 A massive star explodes, releasing huge amounts of energy.
 This explosion creates heavy elements like gold, uranium, and lead.
 These elements are scattered across space.
Neutron Star
 The extremely dense leftover core of a supernova.
Black Hole
 A region where gravity is so strong that not even light can escape.
 The bigger the star, the heavier the elements it can produce.

V. Evidence of Heavy Element Formation

1. Interstellar Medium
 The matter found between stars.
 99% gas, 1% solid grains (tiny frozen rock-like dust).
 These materials contain the elements created by dying stars.
2. Infrared Radiation
  Heat energy detected during star formation.
 Helps scientists measure the temperature, pressure, and energy inside forming stars.

ACTIVITY: Write the correct star stage being described. Write your answer on a 1 whole sheet of paper.

1. The stage where a star begins as a giant cloud of gas and dust.
2. A forming star that heats up as gravity pulls gas inward.
3. The longest stage where hydrogen is fused into helium.
4. The expanded, cooled stage of an average star after it runs out of hydrogen.
5. The explosive death of a massive star that scatters heavy elements in space.
6. The extremely dense leftover core of a massive star after a supernova.

TOPIC 2: NUCLEAR REACTIONS

I. Introduction
Atoms are the tiny building blocks of everything around us. Inside each atom is a nucleus, and when this nucleus changes,
a nuclear reaction happens. Nuclear reactions release a huge amount of energy—much more than chemical reactions. This
module will help you understand the basic types of nuclear reactions and the particles involved.

II. Key Concepts Explained Simply

1. Nuclear Reaction
A nuclear reaction is a process where the nucleus of an atom changes. This happens in two ways:
A. Nuclear Fusion
 “Fusion” = joining or combining
 Two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus.
 Produces enormous energy (like in the Sun).
 Example: Hydrogen atoms fuse to form Helium in stars.
B. Nuclear Fission
 “Fission” = splitting
 A heavy nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei.
 Releases energy and neutrons.
 Used in nuclear power plants.
2. Radioactive Particles
When unstable nuclei break down, they release different particles and energy. These are called radioactive emissions.
Electron
 Negatively charged particle.
Proton
 Positively charged particle found in the nucleus.
Neutron
 Neutral particle (no charge).
Alpha Particle (α)
 Contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
 Same as a Helium nucleus.
 Heavy and slow, but highly ionizing.
Beta Particle (β)
 High-speed electron released from the nucleus.
 Smaller and faster than alpha particles.
Gamma Rays (γ)
 High-energy waves, not particles.
 Have no mass and no charge.
 Very penetrating.
Positron (β⁺)
 Positively charged electron.
 Same mass as an electron but opposite charge.

3. Types of Nuclear Reactions

A. Alpha Decay
 The nucleus loses an alpha particle.
 Mass and atomic number decrease.
B. Beta Decay
 A neutron becomes a proton and releases a beta particle. 14 14 0
Example: 6C → 5 N +−1 β
 Atomic number increases.
C. Gamma Radiation
 The nucleus releases excess energy as gamma rays.
  No change in mass or atomic number.
D. Electron Capture 201 0 201
 drawing of an electron into an atom’s nucleus Example: 80 Hg → e+ −1¿ 79 Au ¿
E. Bombardment
 A nucleus is hit by a particle (often an alpha particle).
 May produce a new element. Example: Be+ 94¿ 42α → C+ 126¿ ¿ ¿ 10n

III. Why Nuclear Reactions Matter

 They power the Sun and stars.
 They are used in medicine (radiotherapy, imaging).
 They can produce electricity (nuclear power).
 They explain how elements change and decay over time.

ACTIVITY: Solve the following nuclear reactions. Write your answer on a 1 whole sheet of paper.
18
1. Alpha Decay of 9 F
238 ? 4
2. U → ?Th+ 2?
92
11
3. C reactswith gamma radiation
6
131 131 0
4. I → ? ?+ ? e
53

TOPIC 3: The Atom: From Philosophical Idea to Modern Structure

I. Early Ideas and Atomic Theory
Early Greek philosophers debated the nature of matter:
 Empedocles (450 BC): Proposed that all matter consisted of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth.
 Democritus (400 BC): Suggested that matter was made of small, indivisible particles called atoms (from the Greek
word atomos meaning "uncuttable").
 Aristotle (380-320 BC): Argued that matter was continuous and could be divided infinitely, which dominated scientific thought
for centuries.
Dalton's Atomic Theory (1808)
John Dalton revived the atomic concept and proposed a formal theory based on experiments. The main points are:
1. Elements are made of small, indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and other properties; atoms of different elements differ.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine in a constant, whole-number ratio.
4. In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed. They simply combine, separate, or rearrange (This led to
the Law of Conservation of Mass).
Key Discovery: Law of Definite Proportions (J. Proust, 1799) - A chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of
elements by mass.

II. Timeline of Atomic Discoveries and Structure

The journey from philosophical idea to the modern atomic model involved many scientists and experiments.
A Timeline on the Brief History on Matter and Atoms
Year Event
450 BC Empedocles proposed that all things are composed of four primal elements: earth, air, fire, and water.
400 BC Democritus proposed that all matter is made up of very small particles called atoms, which cannot be divided into
smaller units.
380–320 Aristotle proposed that all matter was continuous and can be further divided infinitely into smaller pieces.
BC
1799 Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions.
1808 John Dalton formulated the atomic theory and proposed the law of multiple proportions.
1869 Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the known elements in a periodic table based on their atomic mass.
1890s Antoine Becquerel and Marie Curie observed that radioactivity causes some atoms to break down spontaneously.
1895 Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.
1897 Joseph John Thomson discovered electrons.
1904 Joseph John Thomson suggested the plum pudding model of the atom (negative electrons dispersed in a positive
structure).
1908–1917 Robert Millikan found the charge of an electron.
1910–1911 Ernest Rutherford observed that atoms are mostly empty space.
1913 Niels Bohr proposed an atomic model that shows electrons move in concentric orbits around the nucleus.
1919 Ernest Rutherford discovered protons.
1932 James Chadwick discovered neutrons.

III. Modern Atomic Structure

The atom consists of two main regions: the nucleus and the surrounding electron cloud.
The Nucleus
 Located at the center of the atom. Subatomic Particle Charge Relative Mass Location
 Contains protons and neutrons, which are Proton +1 unit Nucleus
collectively called nucleons. Neutron 0 (neutral) unit Nucleus
 The nucleus is positively charged and accounts
for almost all of the atom's mass.
Subatomic Particle Charge Relative Mass Location
Electron -1 of a proton Orbits/Cloud
The Electron Cloud
 Surrounds the nucleus and takes up most of the atom's volume.
 Contains electrons.
Atomic Models
 Thomson's "Plum Pudding" Model (1904): A sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electrons embedded in it.
 Rutherford's Model (1911): Based on the Gold Foil Experiment. Showed the atom has a tiny,
dense, positively
charged nucleus and is
mostly empty space.
 Bohr Model
(1913): Electrons move in
fixed,
concentric orbits (energy
levels) around the nucleus.

Important Note: In a neutral atom,

the number of protons equals the
number of electrons.

MINI PERFORMANCE TASK: THE MODEL DIAGRAMS

Draw in a short bond paper and label simplified diagrams for three different atomic models.

 Required Models: Dalton's Indivisible Sphere, Thomson's "Plum Pudding," and Rutherford/Bohr's
Nuclear Model.
 Labeling: Clearly label the key features of each model (e.g., atom, positive charge, negative electrons,
nucleus).

Criteria 50 Points (Excellent) 40 Points 30 Points (Developing) 10 Points (Needs

(Strong) Improvement)
Model All 3 required 3 models are Only 2 models are Only 1 or
Diagrams models(Dalton, Thomson, drawn, but one drawn OR the diagrams zeromodels are
& Rutherford/Bohr) are model has minor contain significant drawn OR the
Labeling drawn accurately and are inaccuracies OR factual errors (e.g., diagrams are
(50 clearly distinct. All key some labels are charge placement is fundamentally
points) features and charges are missing or incorrect) OR labeling is incorrect and show
correctly labeled for each slightly confusing sparse/incomplete. little understanding
model. across the of the models'
models. progression.