BASIC CARTOGRAPHY II

GMT 04205
MAP MAKING TECHNIQUES

What is a map?
A map is the representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or part of it
drawn on a flat surface according to a scale .

Types of Maps
There are many different types of maps, which are generally classified according
to what they are attempting to show.
It must be noted that there are many different interpretations as to what are the
types of maps.

One common point of view is that there are only two types of maps:
 topographic maps (and general reference maps);
those which summaries the landscape and
 thematic maps;
those which describe/comment on the landscape

For ease of describing functionally quite different maps; and to explain what can
be confusing differences; we have opted to use a greater number of map types:
 General Reference (plan metric maps)
 Topographic Maps
 Thematic maps
 Navigation Charts
 Cadastral Maps and Plans

Plans;
are a set of two-dimensional diagrams or drawings used to describe a place or
object, or to communicate building or fabrication instructions.
On a broad scale, plan is a drawing of a small region; provided a limited data
about a certain small region while map offer accurate description of a greater
portion of the earth.
It must be noted that even this is a simplistic approach as there are often
overlapping features between maps.
For example, a topographic map may be used to show the distribution of a
native orchid (therefore it is both a topographic and thematic map) or may be
used to show features of particular interest to tourists (topographic, general
reference and thematic). pg 2
All of these map types may be a unique, stand-alone, map with no relationship
to other maps or they may be part of a series of related maps, these are
generally called Series Maps.
One confusing issue is that people often refer to a group of maps as a type of
map.
An example is the World Aeronautical Charts (WAC's). These are often referred
to as a type of map, when in reality they are a group of maps of the type
navigation chart.

Map Specification
a set of rules which determine how they are made and what they show.

The specification should also contain information on

 assumptions,
 limitations and
 information sources.
This is known as 'metadata' and is an important aid to the map reader.
For a single, stand-alone map (such as a map of a tourist resort) this may be
very simple. At the other extreme, for series maps the specification is likely to
be very complex because it is important that all maps in the series have similar
content, as-well-as a consistent 'look and feel'.

Categories of map
• Topographic Maps
show topography (landform) and by tradition, other features such as roads,
railway, boundaries etc.
• Thematic Maps
show one theme or subject. They often form a part of a report.
• Scientific Maps
are usually thematic maps but have a specialist nature, for example map
showing geological information or weather.
• Atlas Maps
are often for general (non expert) use and frequently show large areas rather
than details.
• Special Purpose Maps
usually show selected details and may not be drawn to scale.( for example
tourist maps)
• Cadastral Maps
show accurate details of property boundaries.
• Orthophoto Maps
are based on aerial photography and show important man-made features,
super-imposed on the air photographs. They may give detailed information
about features that are omitted as unimportant on other maps. 3
Map Components
Two basic components of Maps:
• Map itself (common called the ‘face of the map’) and
• Information about the Map (commonly called ‘Marginalia’)
The term marginalia come from a convention that all additional information
about the map was printed/drawn outside the edge of the map – i.e. in the
margins. This convention has disappeared with time, but the term lives on.
There are no hard-and-fast rules as to what marginalia should accompany a
map, but there are some well recognized principles which are outlined below.
The marginalia items are:
• » Graticules and Grids
• » Legend
• » Location
• » North Arrow
• » Production Information, including authorship
• » Projection
• » Scale
• » Title
Title
It is essential that a map has a title. The map title reflects the subject of the
map; This is to ensure that the reader knows what is being mapped.
The title is always the largest font size on the sheet, is often in capital letters,
and placed in a prominent place. If a note is included it is usually in a smaller
sized font to the main title.

Legend
A legend is essentially a decoder for all the symbols used on a map. Remember
it is not always intuitive as to what a symbol represents, so give sufficient
information to ensure that your map is not misread. For example, a tree (draw a
tree symbol) symbol could represent a single tree, a forest, a plant nursery, a
city park, a lawn cemetery or even something totally unrelated to plants. As a
general rule a map should always include a comprehensive legend which
explains/defines the meaning of the symbols used. This removes the risk of a
map being misinterpreted and/or used incorrectly. In cases where space does
not permit all symbols to be shown in a map legend, the more obvious ones
could be omitted (for example rivers and/or roads are relatively easily
interpreted by map users).
Scale
The majority of maps need the scale to be stated (maps without scales are
essentially diagrams). This should always be given by Statement of Scale (e.g.
1:1,000,000) and/or by showing a Scale bar. Refer to the section on scale. A
Warning:
In this modern electronic era it is important to remember that a printed map can
be easily enlarged or reduced (most photocopiers are able to do) or can be
turned into an electronic map (as is typical on the internet). When either of
these happen it is important to note that: The Scale Bar will remain correct the
written Statement of Scale will not be correct
The decision as to which of the following alternatives is used is usually based on:
• The purpose of the map
• An assessment of the needs of the map user
• Likelihood of being photographically or electronically enlarged or reduced
Direction
In general maps are drawn with north orientation it helps us to find other
direction on a map like East, West and South. The north arrow must be well
readable but not be too dominant on the map

Differences between plan and a map

(a) A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction
highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects,
regions, and themes.

Plans are a set of two-dimensional diagrams or drawings used to describe a

place or object, or to communicate building or fabrication instructions. Usually
plans are drawn or printed on paper, but they can take the form of a digital file.

(b) Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent
any space, real or imagined, without regard to context or scale; e.g. Brain
mapping, DNA mapping, and extraterrestrial mapping.

Plans are often for technical purposes such as architecture, engineering, or

planning. Their purpose in these disciplines is to accurately and unambiguously
capture all the geometric features of a site, building, product or component.
Plans can also be for presentation or orientation purposes, and as such are often
less detailed versions of the former. The end goal of plans is either to portray an
existing place or object, or to convey enough information to allow a builder or
manufacturer to realize a design.
(c) Many but not all maps are drawn to a scale, allowing the reader to infer the
actual sizes of, and distances between, depicted objects. A larger scale shows
more detail, thus requiring a larger map to show the same area.
Plans are usually scale drawings, meaning that the plans are drawn at specific
ratio relative to the actual size of the place or object. Various scales may be
used for different drawings in a set. For example, a floor plan may be drawn at
1:50 (or 1/4"=1'-0") whereas a detailed view may be drawn
at 1:25 (or 1/2"=1'-0"). Site plans are often drawn at 1:200 or 1:100
(d) To communicate spatial information effectively, features such as rivers,
lakes, and cities need to be labeled. Over centuries cartographers have
developed the art of placing names on even the densest of maps. Text
placement or name placement can get mathematically very complex as the
number of labels and map density increases. Therefore, text placement is time-
consuming and labor-intensive, so cartographers and GIS users have developed
automatic label placement to ease this process
Because plans represent three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional plane,
the use of views or projections is crucial to the legibility of plans. Each projection
is achieved by assuming a vantage point from which to see the place or object,
and a type of projection
• If the scale is small, the representation is called map, while it is called plan if
the scale is large.
• We can understand this by considering that the map of a country is made to a
very small scale. So that information represented should not exceed to the
paper.
• While the plan of the building is made large and large scale is chosen for that.
Therefore, the basic difference between plan and a map is that of scale.
• Vertical distances are correctly shown by means of vertical sections called
sections.
Similarities between plan and a map
• The main Object of the survey is to develop a plan and a map.
• The results of surveys when drawn on a paper forms a plan or a map.
• On a plan or a map only horizontal distances are shown.
• The plan or map is made according to some scale chosen. 6
Map making
Map making refers to the production of tangible maps and is an aggregate of
technical process of data collection, cartographic design and construction
(drafting, scribing & display) and reproduction; normally associated with the
production of maps.

Cartography as map making are divided into two parts

i. Tradition or Analogy Cartography
ii. Digital Cartography

i)Traditional or analogy cartography;

Refers to the uses of mechanical equipment e.g. scribing and drawing tools

ii)Digital cartography;
Refers to the uses of modern equipment with software e.g. computer, plotter,
scanner and digitizer.

Different mapping techniques

There has been a drastic change in mapping the world with development in
information technology. Some techniques used in map making are as follows:
1. Independent Mapping Technique:
Nearly everyone uses this technique for beginning a map making. In this
technique, the map is made by studying an existing map and tracing it
exactly. The maps can be inaccurate for a few times, but one can get
acclimated after a while.
2. Carbon Paper Mapping:
This method uses carbon paper to copy the map exactly from an existing
map. Carbon paper is special type of paper designed to transfer text and
image from one sheet of paper to another. When the carbon paper is
placed between two other sheets of paper, the text or image drawn on the
top sheet will be transferred to the bottom sheet using the pigment of the
carbon paper sheet in between.
3. Tracing:
The lower portion of the table is fitted with a glass and light is connected
to the base map is put in the glass and the new map is traced on a plain
paper.
4. Photocopying:
The original map is photocopied in a machine. This method only copies
the map and doesn’t provide any skill to the person.
5. Overhead Projection (OHP) or Light Method:
An OHP machine projects the map made in a clear plastic onto the wall
and the new map is made using that. This method is not much in use
these days.
6. Stencil Method:
In this method, the necessary map trace is made in stencil paper. Then
the copies are made using a Stencil Machine. This method is also not
much in use these days.
7. Area Method:
The original map is made on a paper with squares of equal area. Another
map is made looking at the original lines in each box and traced exactly.
After completion of the process, the map is ready.
8. GIS Method:
This is special method where computer software is used to draw a map
and is the most used method of map making in the world.
 9. Template Method:
In this method, a map is cut and turned into a block or frame. The block is
then placed firmly on a plain paper and map is drawn around the block.

Any method used to draw a map is acceptable, and necessary details need to be
filled in order for the map to be usable. A map is a universal language and the
details need to be filled in according to the international standards.

Modern Practical Mapping Technologies

With increase in use and development of technology every sector is getting
more accurate and powerful methods for their betterment. Mapping is also
dependent on some modern technologies which have made it easier, accurate
and clearer.
 Geographical Information System (GIS)
This method communicates with the satellites in earth’s orbit and special
computer software. The information received from the satellites is used to
generate accurate maps. Mapping is done by processing the information
collected from the satellites. The mapping method has been modernized
because of this method, as the data is accurate and clear.
 Global Positioning System (GPS)

We can find certain location information on earth with the aid of satellite support
and some devices. And so on the basis of that information, any area can easily
be mapped. We can receive the latitude, longitude, altitude, etc. and use those
basic facts to draw the map. Apart from these systems, computers and mobile
communication software use Google Earth and GPS as the modern geographic
information sources.