KINGSMEAD COLLEGE, IKORODU,LAGOS

PHYSICS FIRST TERM YEAR 11 E-NOTE

(BLENDED CURRICULUM)

WEEK 1
THE CONCEPT OF POSITION

The position of an object on a plane or in space is the exact point at which the object can be
located with respect to a reference point.

Distance and displacement

Distance is the total length of path travelled in any direction; while displacement is the distance
travelled in a given direction.
The exact location of an object requires the use of coordinate system.

Cartesian Coordinates in Two Dimensions (2D)

The modern Cartesian coordinates system in two dimensions (a.k.a. rectangular
coordinate system) is defined by two perpendicular number lines referred to as
the x and y – axes respectively.

A plane with x and y – axes is referred to as the x-y plane. The value of x is called the x-
coordinate or abscissa and the value of y is called the y –coordinate or ordinate.
Distance between two points in 2D Coordinate system
PQ2 = PR2 + QR2
iii. Origin O(0, 0) and T(5, -2)

OT = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
= (5 − 0)2 + ( − 2 − 0)2
= (5)2 + ( − 2)2
= 25 + 4
iii. Origin O(0, 0) and T(5, -2)

OT = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
= (5 − 0)2 + ( − 2 − 0)2
= (5)2 + ( − 2)2
= 25 + 4
2 2 2
PQ = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 )
PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Example
Find the distance between the following points
i. A(3, 5) and B(-2, -3)
ii. X(0, 16) and Y(-7, 5)
iii. Origin and T(5, -2)

Solution
i. AB = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1 )2
= ( − 2 − 3)2 + ( − 3 − 5)2
= ( − 5)2 + ( − 8)2
= 25 + 64
= 89 units

ii. XY = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

= ( − 7 − 0)2 + (5 − 16)2
= ( − 7)2 + ( − 11)2
= 49 + 121
= 170 units

iii. Origin O(0, 0) and T(5, -2)

 OT = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
= (5 − 0)2 + ( − 2 − 0)2
= (5)2 + ( − 2)2
= 25 + 4
= 29 units

EVALUATION
[Link] is position?
[Link] is the major difference between distance and displacement?
[Link] the 2-D coordinate system
4.a. Write the formula for the distance between any two points
in the x-y plane
4. b. Find the distance between A(-4, -9) and B(-2, 1)
ASSIGNMENT
Find the distance between the following pairs of point in 2D
1. A(0, -5) and D(7,-6)
2. G(0, 0) and J(4,0)
3. Q(9, -5) and V(-4,0)

WEEK 2
SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalars
Scalars are physical quantities that have magnitude and no direction. E.g distance, speed,
temperature, mass, volume, density, work, energy, power, pressure etc.

Vectors
Vectors are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. E.g displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, weight, momentum, gravitational field, electric field, magnetic field
etc.

Vector Representation
A vector is represented by a straight line with an arrow and an angle showing the direction of the
vector.
Resultant of Vector
The resultant of vectors is a single vector which produces the same effect in magnitude and
direction as the original vectors added together.

The parallelogram law of vector addition

This states that if two vectors are represented both in magnitude and direction by the adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal
of the parallelogram drawn from the common point.

Triangle law of vector addition

This states that if two vectors are represented by two arrows in such a way that the second arrow
begins from the tip of the first arrow, the resultant is a third arrow starting at the tail of the first
arrow and ending at the tip of the second arrow.

Analytical method of finding the resultant vector

From the triangle law of vector addition, the resultant of two vectors can be calculated as shown
below.

R2 = A2 + B2 – 2ABcosθ [cosine rule] ------------------ (i)

Similarly, using the parallelogram of vector addition,

R2 = A2 + B2 – 2ABcos(180 - θ)

Since cos(180 - θ) = - cos θ

R2 = A2 + B2+ 2ABcosθ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ii

Any of the two expressions of the cosine rule as applicable to a parallelogram gives the resultant
of the two vectors.

Example 1
A man wishes to travel due north in order to cross a river 5 km wide flowing due east at 3 kmh-1.
If he can row at 10 kmh-1 in still water, find the
i. direction in which he must head his boat in order to get to
his destination directly opposite his starting point;
ii. resultant velocity of the boat in the river;
iii. time taken to cross the river;

Solution
In order to move north when the river flows eastward, the man must steer his boat in the
northwest direction.

i. The direction he must head his boat is θ northwest.

3
Sin θ = 10
 Sin Θ = 0.3
θ = sin-1 0.3
= 17.46o = 17o28′
 He must head at 17.46o northwest.

ii. ON2 = OW2 – WN2

= 102 – 32
ON2 = 100 – 9
ON2 = 91
 ON = 91 = 9.54 km/h

Distance
i. Velocity = Time
Distance
Time = Velocity
5
Time = 9.54 = 0.52 hr
= 31.2 mins

Example 2
Two forces of magnitude P = 30N and Q = 40 N act on a body O. If the angle of inclination
between the two forces is 60o, calculate
a. the resultant
b. its direction from the 40 N force

Solution

R2 = P2 + Q2 – 2PQcos (180 - θ)
R2 = 30 + 40 – 2 x 30 x 40 cos (180-60)
= 900 + 1600 – 2400 cos 120
=2500 – 2400 x (-0.5)
= 2500 + 2400 x 0.5
R = 3700
2

R = 3700
R = 60.83 N

The angle that the resultant makes with the 40 N force is α

sin α = sin (180 - θ)
P’ R
 sin α = sin 120
30 60.83
 sin α = 30sin 120
60.83
sin α = 30 x 0.8660
60.83
sin α = 0.4271
α = sin-1 0.4271
α = 25.3o
Resolution of vectors
In resolution of vectors, the resultant vector is resolved into two perpendicular (rectangular)
components in the vertical and horizontal directions. If a vector R acts at an angle, Ө, as shown
below,

Horizontal component Rx = Rcos Ө

Vertical component Ry = Rsin Ө

Example 3
A wheel barrow is pushed with force 250 N acting at an angle 60o with the ground. What is the
effective force pushing it along the ground?
Solution
The effective force pushing it along the ground is the horizontal component.

Fx = Fcos Ө
 = 250cos 60
= 250 x 0.5
= 125 N
Example 4
A tug tows a small boat with a rope inclined upwards at 30o to the horizontal. The tension in the
string is 2000 N. Calculate:
i. the force tending to raise the boat from the water;
ii. the force moving it along the water.
Solution

i. The force tending to raise the boat is the vertical component, Fy

Fy = Fsin Ө
Fy = 2000sin 30
= 2000 x 0.5
= 1000 N
ii. The force moving it along the water is the horizontal component, Fx
Fx = Fcos Ө
FX = 2000cos 30
= 2000 x 0.8660
= 1732 N
EVALUATION

1. Define the following with 3 examples each:

- Scalar
- Vector
2. Explain how a vector is represented
3. What do you understand by the resultant of a vector?
4. State the:
- Triangle law of vector addition
- Parallelogram law of vector addition
5. Explain how a vector is resolved into the two components
6. A force of 40 N is inclined at an angle of 30o to the horizontal, resolve this into the
-Vertical component
-Horizontal component
ASSIGNMENT
1 .Find the resultant of two forces of 7 N and 10 N at 60o to each other.
2. A tug boat is travelling from Asaba to Onitsha across the River Niger with a resultant velocity
of 20 knots. If the river flows at 12 knots, the direction of motion of the Boat relative to the
direction of water flow is……… [JAMB]
3. Two forces, whose resultant is 100 N are perpendicular to each other. If one of them makes
an angle of 60o with resultant, calculate its magnitude (sin 60o = 0.8660, cos 60o = 0.5000)
[WAEC/SSCE]

WEEK 3

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Acceleration = change in velocity

time taken
�−�
�= �
v – u = at
v = u + at ------ i
Average velocity = distance travelled
time taken
Distance travelled = average velocity x time taken
u+v
s= 2
t - - - - - - - ii
Substitute equation (i) in equation (ii)
u + u + at
s= t
2
2u + at
s= t
2
2ut + at2
s=
2
2ut at2
s= +
2 2
1
s = ut + at2 - - - - - - - - iii
2
Finally, from equation (i)
v = u + at
at = v - u
v –u
t =
a
Substituting in equation (ii)
u+v v –u
s= 2 a
(v + u)(v – u)
s= 2a

v2 − u2
s= 2a
v2 – u2 = 2as
 v2 = u2 + 2as - - - - - - - - - iv

Hints on the use of the equations

Each of the equations contains four or five parameters: u, s, a, t and v. You may be given three
and required to determine the remaining ones. Select an equation that does not contain the
parameter that is not given and is not required.

Example 1
A car starting from rest is uniformly accelerated so that its velocity is 5 seconds is 36 km/h. A
brake is then applied to bring it to a stop in 4 seconds. Find its
a. acceleration;
b. retardation.
Solution
1 km/h = 1000 = 1000 m/s
60x60 3600

 36 km/h = 36 x 1000 m/s

3600
= 10 m/s
a. u = 0 m/s (starts from rest)

v = (36 km/h) = 10 m/s

t=5s
a=?
Use the equation that does not contain ‘s’
v = u + at
10 = 0 + a(5)
10 = 0 + 5a
5a = 10
a = 10/5 = 2 m/s2
b. u = 36 km/h = 10 m/s (when the brake is applied is the beginning of the retardation
process)
v = 0 m/s (when the car has come to rest)
t=4s
a=?
v = u + at
0 = 10 + 4a
- 4a = 10
10
a = −4m/s2
 a = -2.5
- a = 2.5 m/s2
∴ Retardation = 2.5 m/s2
Example 2 (SC/GCE)
A train starts from rest from a station and travels with uniform acceleration of 0.5 m/s2 for 20 s.
It travels with uniform velocity for another 30 s, the brakes are then applied so that a uniform
retardation is obtained and the train comes to rest in a further 10 s. Calculate the total distance
travelled by the train.
Solution
u = 0 m/s; a = 0.5 m/s2; t = 20 s
v−u
a= t
v−0
0.5 = 20
v
0.5 = 20

v = 0.5 x 20
v = 10 m/s

1
Using, s = ut + 2at2
1
s1 = 0x20 + 2 x 0.5 x 202
1
s1 = 0 + 2 x 0.5 x 400
s1 = 100 m

Second part of the journey:

u = v =10 m/s (uniform velocity);
t = 30 s
s=?

u+v
s= t
2

10 + 10
s= x 30
2
20
s= x 30
2
s2 = 300 m
Third part of the journey:

u = 10 m/s
v = 0 m/s (the train is brought to rest)
t = 10 s
s=?
u+v
s= t
2

10 + 0
s= x 10
2
10
s= x 10
2
s3 = 50 m

Total distance s = s1 + s2 + s3
s = 100 + 300 + 50 = 450 m
Solution
a) u = 0 m/s (the ball was released from a height)
s = 31.25 m
g = 10 m/s2 (downward motion)
t=?
1
Using s = ut + 2gt2
1
31.25 = 0 x t + 2 x 10t2
31.25 = 5t2
t2 = 31.25
5
t = 6.25
2

t = 6.25
t = 2.5 s

b) v = u + gt
v = 0 + 10 x 2.5
v = 25 m/s

Example 2
A ball is thrown up vertically with a velocity of 40 m/s. Calculate the:
a. maximum height reached;
b. time to reach the maximum height;
c. time to reach the ground again.
Solution
(a)
u = 40 m/s; v = 0 m/s (at max height); g = - 10 m/s2)
v2 = u2 + 2gs
02 = 402 – 2 x 10s
0 = 1600 – 20s
 20s = 1600
s = 1600
20
s = 80 m

(b) Since we have known the values of all the others, we can use any equation containing t
v = u – gt
0 = 40 – 10 x t
40 = 10t
40
t = 10
t=4s
(c) u = 40 m/s; g = - 10 m/s2,, s = 0 m (reach the ground again)
1
Using s = ut + gt2
2
1
0 = 40t - 2 x 10t2
5t2 = 40t
5t = 40
40
t= 5
t = 8s

Example 3
A projectile is fired with a horizontal velocity of 330 m/s from the top of a cliff 80 m.
i. How long will it take to strike the level ground at the base of the cliff?
ii. How far from the foot of the cliff will it strike? [g = 9.8 ms-2]

Solution

The time it takes the projectile to move from A to B is the same as the time it will take it to fall
freely from A to C.
Reason: In both cases what brings the projectile down is the acceleration due to gravity which is
constant and acts vertically downward
Consider the projectile as falling freely from rest at A to C; i.e. the vertical motion with u = 0 m/s
1 1
i. Vertical distance, sy = 2gt2 (From s = ut + 2gt2, with u = 0 m/s )
1
80 = 2 x 9.8t2
80 = 4.9t2
80
 t2 = 4.9
t2 = 16.3265
t = 16.3265
t = 4.04 s
ii. For the horizontal motion with g = 0 m/s2
1
Horizontal distance, sx = uxt (From s = ut + 2gt2, with g = 0 m/s)
Given: u = 330 m/s, t = 4.04 s
sx = 330 x 4.04
sx = 1330 m

Test Yourself Questions

A stone is thrown vertically upward and returns to the ground after 5 secs. Find the:
i. initial velocity [Ans: = 24.5 m/s]
ii. greatest height reached [ Ans: 30.625 m]
(g = 9.8 m/s)
EVALUATION
1. Write the four equations of motion
2. A train accelerates uniformly from rest to a velocity of 36 km/h in 5 second. Calculate
the acceleration
3. a. If an object projected with initial velocity reaches the
maximum height, what is its final velocity?
b. If an object simply falls from a height, what is its initial velocity?
4. A stone is thrown straight upward and it rises to a height of 20 m. With what speed was
it thrown? [g = 10 ms-2]

ASSIGNMENT
1.A body starts with an initial velocity of 26 m/s and moves at a constant rate of 7 m/s2 for 25 s.
Find the total distance moved in metres.
2.A particle accelerates uniformly from a speed of 10 ms-1 to 20 ms-1 in 5 s. If it maintains this
speed for 5 s before being brought to rest in another five seconds. Calculate the total distance
covered by the particle. [WAEC/SSCE Nov. 2004]
3. An orange fruit drops to the ground from the top of a tree 45 m tall
a. What is its speed just before it hits the ground?
 b. How long does it take to reach the ground?
[g = 10 ms-2]
4. Calculate the maximum height a ball of mass 1.2 kg will attain if projected vertically upward
with an initial velocity of 17 m/s
5. An object falls freely from a height of 25 m onto the roof of a building 5m high. Calculate the
velocity with which the object strikes the roof. [WAEC/SSCE]
6. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from the ground with an initial velocity of 0.5 ms-1. What
is the total time spent by the ball in the air? [g = 10 ms-2] [WAEC/SSCE]

WEEK 4

PROJECTILES

A projectile is an object when projected with initial velocity and allows to fall freely, follows a
parabolic path as a result of the force of gravity and the frictional resistance of air.

The parabolic path followed by a projectile is called a trajectory.

Examples of projectiles are:

i. In Sports: Javelin, discus, football, tennis ball etc.
ii. In warfare: arrow, spear, bullet, bombs etc.

A projectile has two independent motions:

a. A horizontal motion with a constant velocity because it does not depend on acceleration
due to gravity

Initial velocity in the horizontal direction Ux = Ucos θ

Final velocity in the horizontal direction Vx = Ucos θ
b. A vertical motion which varies due to acceleration due to gravity and time.

Initial vertical velocity Uy = Usin Ө

Final vertical velocity, Vy = Uy ± gt

Vy = Usin Ө – gt (still rising before the maximum height)

Vy = Usin Ө + gt (falling after the maximum height)

Terminologies in projectiles
i. Time of flight (T)
This is the time required for a projectile to return to the same level from which it was
projected.
ii. Maximum Height (H)
This is the maximum vertical distance reached measured from the horizontal plane of
projection.
iii. Range (R)
This is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where the
projectile lands on the projection plane again.

Time of flight (T)

To determine the time of flight, first find the time to reach the maximum height
Initial velocity of vertical component uy = UsinӨ
At maximum height, final velocity vy = 0 m/s
Acceleration due to gravity a = - g
Time to reach maximum height t = ?
Using v = u – gt (vertical upward movement)
For the vertical direction, v = vy, u = uy
∴ Vy = uy – gt
 0 = usinӨ - gt (at maximum height, v = 0)
gt = usin Ө
usinӨ
t =
g

But T = 2t
2usinӨ
∴ Time of flight = T = g

Maximum Height (H)

Since the first three parameters we know are v, u and a (or –g), we can use:
Initial velocity of vertical component uy = UsinӨ
At maximum height, final velocity vy = 0 m/s
Acceleration due to gravity a = - g
 Time to reach maximum height t = ?
Maximum height s = ? (s = H)
v2 = u2 – 2gs
vy 2 = uy 2 − 2gs
∴ 0 = (usinӨ)2 + 2gH
2gH = (usin Ө)2
2
usin Ө
H = 2g
u2 sin2 Ө
H =
2g

Range (R)
This is the horizontal distance (R) travelled due to the horizontal component of the initial
velocity (Ux) in the time of flight (T).

Horizontal distance covered:

Distance
Speed = Time
sx
ux = t
sx = ux . t

But sx = R, t = T
∴ R = ux T
2usinӨ
R = ucosθ x
g
2u2 sinӨcosθ
R= But 2sinӨcos Ө = sin2Ө
g
u2 x 2sinӨcosθ
R=
g
u2 sin2Ө
R =
g
Maximum range is achieved when the angle of projection, Ө, is 45o.
u2 sin (2 x 45)
R =
g
2
u sin90
R =
g
2
u
R = (Sin 90o = 1)
g
NOTE: If a projectile is fired at an angle φ to the vertical direction, the horizontal angle � =
90 − φ
Example 1
An arrow is shot into the air with an initial velocity of 100 m/s at an elevation of 60o. Find the:
 i. time of flight;
ii. maximum height attained;
iii. range;
iv. maximum range;
v. velocity of the arrow after 3 s.
[Take g = 10 m/s2]
Solution
i. U = 100 m/s; θ = 60o g = 10 m/s2

2Usin θ
T= g
2 x 100 sin 60o
T= 10
T = 2 x 100 x 0.8660
10
T = 17.32 s
ii. H = U2sin2θ
2g
1002 ×���260 1002 ×(���60)2
�=
2×10
 �=
2×10

= 10000 x (0.8660)2 = 10000 x 0.749956

20 20
= 7499.56
20
H = 375 m
iii. R = U2 sin 2θ = 1002 x sin(2 x 60) = 10000sin 120
g 10 10
= 10000 x 0.8660
10
R = 866 m

iv Rmax = U2 = 1002 = 10000

g 10 10
= 1000 m
v. Vx = Ux = Ucos θ
Vx = 100cos 60 = 50 m/s
�
Since time to reach maximum height, 2 > 3 secs, the arrow has not reach the maximum
� 17.32
height as it is still rising (Note 2 = 2
= 8.66 secs)
∴ v = u - gt,
Vy = Usin θ – gt
Vy = 100sin 60 – 10 x 3 = 56.6025 m/s
 ∴ V= V2x + V2y
V = √(56.60252 + 502)
= 5703.843
Velocity after 3 secs = 75.52 m/s
EVALUATION
1. What is a projectile?
2. List 2 applications in i) Warfare ii) Sports
3. a) Write the expressions for the initial velocity of a projectile in the
-Horizontal direction
-Vertical direction
b) Write the expressions for the final velocity of a
Projectile in the
o Horizontal direction
o Vertical direction

4. Define the following:

-Time of flight
-Maximum height
-Range
5. Write the formulae for the following:
-Time of flight
-Maximum height
-Range
ASSIGNMENT
A body is projected from the ground at an angle θ to the horizontal with a velocity of 30 ms-1. It
reached a maximum height of 11.25 m. Calculate
i. The value of θ
ii. The time taken to strike the ground
iii. The range
iv. The velocity 2 s after projection
[Neglect air resistance and take g as 10 ms-2] [NECO 2004]

WEEK 5
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Momentum (p)
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of a body.
Momentum p = mv

Impulse (I)

Impulse is the product of force acting on a body and the time it acts.
I = Ft
Literally speaking, Impulse is a measure of the impact of collision. It consists of very large force
acting for a very short time.
Momentum and impulse are vectors with same unit Ns (kgm/s)

Newton’s Laws Of Motion

Newton’s first law of motion (Law of inertia)

A body will continue in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon
by an external force.
This tendency of bodies to remain in their state of rest or of uniform linear motion is called
inertia.

Inertia mass is defined as the quantitative measure of the reluctance of a body to move from rest
or to stop when in uniform motion.

Newton’s second law of motion

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes
place in the direction of the applied force.
F α change in momentum
Time
mv – mu
Fα t
mv – mu
Fα� t
But k = 1
mv – mu
∴F= t .............i
m(v – u)
F= t
�–�
But �
=a
∴ F = ma

From eqni,
Ft = mv – mu
OR Impulse = change in momentum

Example 1
A car of mass 600 kg, moving with a forward acceleration of 5 ms-2 is acted upon by a constant
resistive force of 1000 N. Calculate the force from the engine to maintain this forward
acceleration.
Solution
Net force = ma
F – 1000 = ma
F = ma + 1000
= 600 x 5 + 1000
= 3000 + 1000
= 4000 N = 4 kN
Example 2(JAMB)
When taking a penalty kick, a footballer applies a force of 30.0 N for a period of 0.05 s. If the
mass of the ball is 0.075 kg, calculate the speed with which the ball moves off.
Solution
F = 30.0 N, t = 0.05 s, m = 0.075 kg, u = 0 m/s (from rest)
Impulse = change in momentum

 Ft = m(v – u)
30 x 0.05 = 0.075(v – 0)
1.5 = 0.075v
1.5
v= 0.075
v = 20 m/s

Newton‘s Third Law of Motion

Action and reaction are equal and opposite

Or
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Conservation of Linear Momentum and Conservation Of Energy

The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that if two or more bodies collide in a
closed system, the total momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the
collision.

Conservation of momentum and energy in collision

Take u1, u2, and v1, v2 as the initial and final velocities of two colliding bodies of masses m1 and
m2.

Elastic collision
In elastic collision both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
Conservation of momentum: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
1 1 1 1
Conservation of kinetic energy: 2
m1u12 + 2m2u22 = 2m1v12 + 2m2v22
Inelastic collision
In this case, only momentum is conserved. The kinetic energy decreases as the two objects stick
together, as part of the kinetic energy (K.E) is converted to sound, heat, etc. The objects move
with the same velocity in the same direction.

Conservation of momentum: m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v

For kinetic energy
1 1
Before collision: 2
m1u12 + 2m2u22
1 1 1
After collision: 2
m1v2 + 2m2v2 = 2(m1 + m2)v2
Example 1 (JAMB)
A body of mass 100 g moving with a velocity of 10.0 ms-1 collides with a wall. If after the
collision, it moves with a velocity of 2.0 ms-1 in the opposite direction. Calculate the change in
momentum.

Solution
Change in momentum = Δp = p2 – p1
= m(-v - u)
= 0.1(-2 - 10)
= 0.1 x (-12)
= - 1.2 Ns
Note v is negative because it is in opposite direction to u

Example 2
Two bodies A and B of masses 4 kg and 2 kg moving towards each other with velocities of 3 ms-
1
and 2 ms-1 collide. If the collision is perfectly inelastic,
a. find the velocity of the two bodies after collision
b. find the total kinetic energy of the system before and after collision
c. calculate the loss in kinetic energy
Solution

a) From conservation of momentum,

m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
4 x 3 – 2 x 2 = (4 + 2)v
12 – 4 = 6v
8 = 6v
8
v = 6 = 1.33 ms-1 (to the right)
b) K.E before collision
1 1
Ek1 = 2m1u12 + 2m2u22
1 1
= 2 x 4 x 32 +2 x 2 x 22
= 18 + 4 = 22 J
K.E after collision
1
Ek2 = 2(m1 + m2)v2
1
= 2(4 + 2) x 1.332
1
= 2 x 6 x 1.332
= 5.31 J
c) Loss in K.E = Ek1 - Ek2
= 22 – 5.31 = 16.69 J

Applications of Newton’s laws and the laws of conservation of momentum

1. Recoil of a gun
Before the gun is fired, the bullet and the gun have zero initial velocity (at rest). If m1
and m2 are the masses of the bullet and the gun; v1 the velocity at which the bullet leaves
the gun; while v2 is the recoil velocity of the gun,

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

m1 x 0 + m2 x 0 = m1v1 + m2v2
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
∴ m1v1 = - m2v2
2. Jet and rocket propulsion
A blast of hot gas is forced out through the exhaust nozzle with high velocity and
momentum; an equal momentum is imparted to the rocket or jet aircraft in the opposite
direction which propels it forward.

3. Revolving lawn sprinkler

The momentum due to the high velocity jet of water from the two nozzles in opposite
direction sets up a couple which makes the sprinkler to revolve.

Example 1
A 3 kg rifle lies on a smooth table when it suddenly discharges, firing a bullet of 0.02 kg with a
speed of 500 m/s. Calculate the recoil speed of the gun
Solution
m1 = 0.02 kg, v1 = 500 m/s, m2 = 3 kg, v2 = ?
0 = m1v1 + m2v2
v2 = - m1v1
m2
0.02 � 500
v2 = - 3
v2 = -3.33 m/s

EVALUATION
1. Define momentum and impulse, stating their SI Units
2. State Newton’s first law of motion
3. State Newton’s second law of motion
4. State Newton’s third law of motion
5. A force of 100 N is used to kick a football of mass 0.8 kg. Find the velocity with which
the ball moves if it takes 0.8 s to be kicked
6. State the principle of conservation of linear momentum,
7. Give two (2) differences between elastic and inelastic collision
8. Mathematically represent the conservation of momentum in
- Elastic collision
- Inelastic collision
ASSIGNMENT
1 .An object of mass 2 kg moves with a uniform speed of 10 ms-1 for 5s along a straight path.
Determine the magnitude of its acceleration (WAEC/SSCE)
2. A net force of 15 N acts upon a body of mass 3 kg or 5s, calculate the change in the speed of
the body (WAEC/SSCE)
3. A constant force of 5 N acts for 5 s on a mass of 5 kg initially at rest. Calculate the final
momentum of the mass(NECO/SSCE)
4. A force acting on a body causes a change in the momentum of the body from 12 kgms- 1 to 16
kgms-1 in 0.2 s. Calculate the magnitude of the impulse (WAEC/SSCE)
5 .A bullet of mass 0.006 kg travelling at 120 m/s penetrates deeply into a fixed target, and is
brought to rest in 0.01 s. Calculate:
a. The average retarding force exerted on the bullet
b. The distance of penetration of the target

6. A ball of mass 5.0 kg hits a smooth vertical wall normally with a speed of 2 m/s and rebound
with the same speed. Determine the impulse experienced by the ball [WAEC/SSCE 1996]
Ans: 20 kgms -1

7. A body of mass 5 kg moving with a velocity of 10 ms-1 collides with a stationary body of
mass 6 kg. If the two bodies stick together and move in the same direction after the collision,
calculate their common velocity WAEC/SSCE 2005 Ans: 4.55m/s
8. A ball of mass 100 g travelling with a velocity of 100 m/s collides with another ball of mass
400 g moving at 50 m/s in the same direction. If they stick together, what will be their common
velocity? [NECO/SSCE 2000] Ans: 60 m/s
9. A machine gun with a mass of 5 kg, fires a 50 g bullet at a speed of 100 ms-1. The recoil speed
of the machine gun is…… JAMB 1978
Ans: 1m/s

WEEK 6
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES (I)
Equilibrium is a state of a body at rest or moving with uniform velocity under the influence of
several forces without accelerating.

Resultants and equilibrants

Resultants: The resultant of two or more forces acting at a point is a single
force which produces the same effect both in magnitude and direction as the original forces when
added together.

Equilibrant: The equilibrant of two or more forces is a single force which balances and keeps
other forces acting on a body in equilibrium. The equilibrant is equal and opposite in direction
to the resultant.

Triangle of forces

The principle of triangle of forces states that if three forces are in equilibrium, they can be
represented in both magnitude and direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order.
This principle is applicable to the equilibrium of three forces acting at a point.
Example 1
A mass of 2.0 kg is supported by two cords which make angles of 30o and 50o with the vertical.
Calculate the tension in the two cords.
Solution
 Mass = 2 kg  F = mg = 2 x 10 = 20 N

Ĉ = 180o – (30o + 50o)  Ĉ = 180o – 80o = 100o

T1 = 20  T1 = 20 x sin 50
Sin 50 sin 100 sin 100
T1 = 20 x 0.7660
0.9848
T1 = 15.56 N

Similarly,
T2 = 20  T2 = 20 x sin 30
Sin 30 sin 100 sin 100

T2 = 20 x 0.5
0.9848
T2 = 10.15 N

Example 2 (SSCE Nov. 1990)

The body P shown in the diagram above is in equilibrium. If the mass of the body is 10 kg,
calculate the tension T in the string. [g = 10 m/s2]

Solution

T is the equilibrant of the force F and the weight mg.

From the vector diagram,

cos 60o = mg
T
��
T = cos 60

= 10 x 10
 0.5
= 100
0.5
= 200 N

Moment of a Force
The moment of a force about a point or an axis is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance between that point or axis of rotation and the line of action of the force.

Moment = Force x Perpendicular distance

Moment is a vector with unit Nm.

Moment = F x d
Conditions for equilibrium of forces

Conditions for equilibrium of a number of parallel coplanar forces

1. The algebraic sum of the forces acting on the body in any direction must be equal to zero.
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0
In order words, the sum of the forces acting in one direction must be equal to the sum of
the forces acting in opposite direction.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point on the body must be zero.
In other words, the total clockwise moments of the forces about any point on the body must
be equal to the total anticlockwise moments of the forces about the same point. This is
known as Principle of Moments
ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
Alternatively, calling clockwise moments negative and anticlockwise moments positive, the sum
of all moments about any point must be zero.

Conditions for equilibrium of a number of non-parallel coplanar forces

1. The vector sum of all the forces acting on the body must be zero. In other words, the
algebraic sum of the resolved components of the forces acting on the body in any direction
must be zero.
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0

2. The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any axis perpendicular to the
plane of the forces must be zero.
In other words, the sum of the clockwise moments about any such axis equals the sum of
the anticlockwise moments about the same axis.
Principle of moments
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of parallel forces, the sum of the clockwise moments
about any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.

Example 1
A metre rule is pivoted at its midpoint M with a vertical force of 10 N hanging from the distance
30 cm from M. At what distance must a 15 N force hang to balance the rule horizontally?
Solution
For a uniform rule, the weight acts through the centre of gravity which is at the midpoint M.

Taking moments about M, ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments

15 xX = 10 x 30
10 � 30
X= 15
= 20 cm

Example 2
A weightless bar is pivoted at its centre, and weights of 5 N and 10 N, 3m and 2m respectively
from the pivot on one side, are balanced by a weight of 20 N on the other side. How far is the 20
N weight from the pivot?
Solution

By the principle of moments:

ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
20x = (5x3) + (10x2)
 20 x = 15 + 20  20 x = 35

x = 35
20
x = 1.75 m

Example 3
A light beam AB sits on two pivots C & D. A load of 10 N hangs at O, 2m from the support at C.
Find the value of the reaction forces P and Q at C and D. Take the distances as shown below.

Solution
Being a light beam, the weight is ignored.

Sum of upward forces = sum of downward forces

P + Q = 10 …………………………………………………………………………………
i
Taking moments about C,
Sum of CW moments = sum of ACW moments

10 x 2 = Q x (2+6)
20 = 8Q
Q = 20  Q = 2.5 N
8
From equation i,
P = 10 – Q  P = 10 – 2.5
P = 7.5 N

Example 4 (WAEC/SSCE 1988)

A metre rule is found to balance at the 48 cm mark. When a body of mass 60 g is suspended at
the 6 cm mark the balance point is found to be at the 30 cm mark. Calculate:
i. the mass of the metre rule
 ii. the distance of the balance point from the zero end, if the body were moved to
the 13 cm mark
Solution

i. Using the cgs system and taking moments about P,

ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
M X 18 = 60 X 24

M = 60 x 24
18
M = 80 g

ii. Let the distance from the zero end be x.

Taking moments about the new position of the pivot N,

ΣCW moments = ΣACW moments
 80 x (48 – x) = 60 x (x – 13)
3840 – 80x = 60x – 780
- 80x – 60x = -780 – 3840
- 140x = -4620
140x = 4620
4620
x= 140
x = 33 cm
EVALUATION
1. Define the term equilibrium
2. Differentiate between resultant and equilibrant
3. State the principle of the triangle of forces
4. With the aid of a diagram of three force in equilibrium acting at a point, explain the
principle of triangle of forces
5. What is a moment? State its SI unit
6. States and explains the conditions for equilibrium of a number of parallel coplanar forces
7. States and explains the conditions for equilibrium of a number of non-parallel coplanar
forces
8. State the principle of moment

ASSIGNMENT
1.

Find T1 and T2
2.

An object A, is held in equilibrium as illustrated in the diagram above, Using the data on the
diagram, determine the magnitude, W, of the weight of A [WAEC/SSCE]
1. A uniform metal tube of length 5 m and mass 9 kg is suspended horizontally by two
vertical wires attached at 50 cm and 150 cm respectively from the ends of the tube. Find
the tensions in each wire. Answer: T1 = 30 N; T2 = 60 N
2. A uniform half metre rule AB is balanced horizontally on a knife edge placed 15 cm from A
with a mass of 30 g at A. What is the:
(a) mass of the rule?
(b) force exerted on the rule by the knife edge?
[Take g = 10 ms-2] WAEC
Answers: 45 g, 0.75 N

WEEK 7
Equilibrium of forces (II)
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES (II)

Centre of gravity and stability

The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the entire weight of the object appears to
be concentrated;
While
The centre of mass of an object is the point at which the entire mass appears to be concentrated.
The line of action of the weight always passes through the centre of gravity (cg).

Types of Equilibrium

They are based on displacement of the centre of gravity. They include

1. Stable equilibrium
This is the type of equilibrium in which an object tends to return to its original position whenever
the centre of gravity is slightly displaced.

When a body in a stable equilibrium is displaced slightly, the line of action of the weight mg
changes position relative to the base of the body. Since the line of action of the weight has not
shifted outside the base, its turning moment (mgx) about P sets up a restoring couple which
returns the body to its original position. Examples are a cone resting on its base, a sphere placed
in a concave-shaped object etc
2. Unstable equilibrium
This occurs when object tends to move further away from its original position whenever the
centre of gravity is slightly displaced.
Examples include a cone resting on the apex, a sphere resting on a convex-shaped object, a
lorry loaded with light materials near the base and heavy materials at the top.

When slightly displaced, the line of action of the weight shifts outside with the moment of the
weight (mgx) about P thereby setting up a couple which displaces it further.

3. Neutral equilibrium
This is the type of equilibrium in which an object tends to come to rest in a new position
whenever the centre of gravity is slightly displaced.

Examples include a sphere on a flat horizontal surface, a cone or cylinder resting on its side, an
egg resting on its side etc.

When such a body is displaced, the position of the centre of gravity and its height above the
resting surface remain the same; hence, the weight has no moment setting up a couple about
where the object touches the surface

Factors affecting stability

1. The height of the centre of gravity (cg). The lower, the more stable.
2. The width or wideness of the base. The wider, the more stable.
Couples
A couple is a system of two equal, opposite and parallel forces causing the rotation of a body.

The resultant of the forces is zero.

Examples of couples are the turning of a water tap, corkscrew etc.

Moment of a couple
The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between their lines of action.
Moment of a couple = Fd
Both moment of a force and moment of a couple are also called torque.
Example (WAEC/SSCE 1990)
Two forces each of 4 N act on the opposite sides of a rectangular plate as shown in the diagram
below. Calculate the magnitude of the couple acting on the plate.

Solution
Moment of a couple = One of the forces x perpendicular distance
= 4 x 0.4
= 1.6 Nm
EVALUATION
1. What is the difference between centre of gravity and centre of mass?
2. List the type of equilibriums we have, citing 2 examples each
3. On what factors does the stability of a body depend?
4. What is couple?
5. What is moment of a couple?
6. Write the mathematical expression for the moment of a couple
ASSIGNMENT
1. Two forces, each of magnitude 25 N, act in opposite directions at the opposite ends of a
circular ring. If the diameter of the ring is 65 cm, calculate the torque on the ring
2
 In the figure above, calculate the magnitude of the couple. NECO 2005

WEEK 8
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) I

Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion of a body to and fro in a straight line by a restoring
force in such a way that the acceleration of the body towards a fixed point called the equilibrium
point is proportional to its distance from that point.

Examples of S.H.M.
i. The motion of the simple pendulum
ii. The motion of a vertically loaded test-tube in a liquid e.g water
iii. The motion of a vertically loaded spiral spring
iv. The motion of the springboard of a swimming pool
v. The motion of the prongs of a vibrating tuning fork
vi. The motion of the piston of an internal combustion engine
vii. The motion of the wiper of a car

Relationship between linear and angular velocity

Angular velocity (ω) is the rate of change of angular displacement with time.

Angular velocity = angular displacement

time
Unit: radians per second (rad s-1)

Linear velocity, v = ωr (Unit: m/s)

OR v = ωA
Where, r is the radius; A is the amplitude.

But at any point which is at a distance x from the equilibrium position (less than the amplitude),
the above equations become:

v = ω r2 − x2
v = ω A2 − x2
Relationship between linear and angular acceleration

Angular acceleration = ω2

Unit: rad s-2

Linear acceleration, a = ω2r (Unit: m/s2)

OR a = ω2 A

Centripetal force

��2
Centripetal force, F = �
�� 2
OR F=mx �
F = mω2r

Example 1
A boy ties a stone to the end of a string which he then whirls above his head round a circular
path of radius 15 cm. If the stone makes 20 oscillations in 10 secs, calculate the
i. angular and
ii. linear speed of the stone
Solution
i. But Angular velocity = angular displacement
time
ω = θ (rad s )
-1

t
ω = 20 x 2пrads (Note 360o = 2 п rads)
10 s
∴ ω = 4п rad/s
ii. Linear velocity v = ωr
v = 4п x 15cm (radius, r = 15 cm)
= 60п cm/s
v = 0.6п m/s

Velocity and acceleration in SHM

1. In a SHM, the maximum velocity occurs at the equilibrium position (the centre of
oscillation) i.e. when displacement x = 0
From v = ω A2 − x2
vmax= ω A2 − 02
vmax = ω �2
vmax = ωA or simply vmax = ωr

2. Maximum acceleration occurs at the extremes of oscillation due to the maximum

restoring force at these points. Here, the body oscillates at full amplitude.
amax = ω2A or simply amax = ω2r
At any instantaneous points less than the extreme positions, the displacement (x) is less
than the amplitude; hence, the acceleration is less than the maximum acceleration and it
is given by
a = ω2 x
3. At the equilibrium position where the velocity is maximum, the acceleration is zero;
while at the extreme positions where the acceleration is maximum, the velocity is zero.

Example 2
A body vibrates with s.h.m. with a frequency of 50 Hz and amplitude of 4 cm. Calculate the
a. period;
b. angular velocity;
c. acceleration at the middle and at the end of the path of oscillation;
d. velocities at the middle and at the end of path of oscillation;
e. velocity and acceleration at a distance 2 cm from the centre of oscillation. [Take п =
3.142]
Solution
f = 50 Hz, amplitude A = (4 cm) = 0.04 m
1 1
a. Period T = �
= 50 = 0.02 sec

b. ω = 2пf or ω = 2п
T
ω = 2п x 50 = 100п rad/s
= 100 x 3.142
= 314.2 rad/s
c. Acceleration a = ω2x or a = ω2 A
i. At midpoint, x = 0
∴ a = ω2 x 0 = 0
ii. At the end of the path, x = A = 4 cm
∴ amax = ω2A
= (2пf)2 x A
= (2 x 3.142 x 50)2 x 4
= 3.95 x 105 cms-2
amax = 3.95 x 103 ms-2
d. v = v = ω A2 − x2
i. At midpoint, x = 0
∴ vmax = v = ω A2 − 02
vmax = ω �2
vmax = ωA
vmax = (2пf) x A
= 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 4cm
= 1256.8 cm/s
= 12.57 m/s
ii. At the end of the path, x = A  x=A=4
∴ v = ω A2 − x2
v = ω 42 − 42
v = ω x 0 = 0 m/s
e. At x = 2 cm
i. v = ω A2 − x2
v = 2пf A2 − x2
v = 2 x 3.142 x 50 42 − 22
= 314.2 12
= 1088 cms-1
= 10.88 ms-1
ii. a = ω2 x
= (2пf)2 x
= (2 x 3.142 x 50)2 x 2
= 1.974 x 105 cms-2
= 1.974 x 103 ms-2
EVALUATION
1. Define simple harmonic motion (s.h.m)
2. List three (3) examples of simple harmonic motion
3. Write the relationship between linear and angular velocity
4. Write the relationship between linear and angular acceleration
5. In simple harmonic motion, write the expressions for the following
 i. Acceleration at any point
ii. Maximum acceleration
iii. Velocity at any point
iv. Maximum velocity
ASSIGNMENT
1. A loaded spring performs simple harmonic motion with amplitude of 5 cm. If the
maximum acceleration of the load is 20 cms-2, calculate the angular frequency of the
motion. [WAEC/SSCE 2004]
2. The period of oscillation of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is 4п seconds.
If the amplitude of oscillation is 3.0 m, calculate the maximum speed of the particle
[WAEC/SSCE 2000]
3. A body moves in simple harmonic motion between two points 20 m on the straight line
joining the points. If the angular speed of the body is 5 rads-1, calculate its speed when
it is 6 m from the centre of the motion. [WAEC/SSCE Nov. 2005]
4. A spiral spring loaded with a mass of 0.4 kg is caused to vibrate with a simple harmonic
motion. If the amplitude and period are 3.0 cm and 0.6 s respectively, calculate the
maximum,
i. speed;
ii. acceleration;
iii. kinetic energy [WAEC/SSCE Nov. 2006]
5. The frequency of vibration of an oscillator is 4 Hz. If it makes 12 vibrations in t seconds,
calculate the value of t [NECO/SSCE 2007]

WEEK 9
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) II
ENERGY OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
i. The simple pendulum

At the equilibrium position Z, the kinetic energy is maximum; and, it is equal to the
maximum potential energy at the extreme positions (X or Y).
 1
mv2max = mgh
2
1 2
2
v max = gh
v2max = 2gh
vmax= 2gh
�
Period, T = 2π
�
The period depends only on the length (l) of the pendulum
ii. The helical spring
�
ω= �
- - - - - - - - - - i.

2π
But ω = T
(Note ω = 2πf)
∴ From eqn (i)
2π �
=
T �
T �
=
2π �
�
T = 2π
�
(Period of oscillating spiral spring)

The period varies only with the mass (m) attached.

If mo is the mass of the spring,
�+ ��
T = 2π �

Example 1
An oscillating pendulum bob has a mass of 0.1 kg. Its amplitude is
0.01 m and its period is 2s. Calculate

i. the angular velocity

ii. the maximum kinetic energy of the bob
iii. the kinetic energy when the bob is 0.004 m from the centre of oscillation.
Solution
m = 0.1 kg, A = 0.01 m T = 2 s
2�
i. From ω = �
2�
ω= 2
= �
= 3.142 rad/s
ii. vmax = ωA
vmax = 3.142 x 0.01 = 0.03142 m/s
1
But [Link] = 2mv2max
1
= 2 x 0.1 x 0.031422
= 4.9 x 10-5 J

iii. With x = 0.004 m and A = 0.01 m

v = ω A2 − x2
v = 3.142 0.012 − 0.0042
v = 0.0288 m/s
1
But K.E = 2mv2
1
= 2 x 0.1 x 0.02882
= 4.15 x 10-5 J

Example 2
A mass of 0.5 kg is suspended from a vertical spring and is pulled down a small distance of 4
mm and then released. If the force constant of the spring is 200 N/m, calculate the
i. period of the motion,
ii. maximum K.E. of the mass.
Solution

m = 0.5 kg, A = (4 mm) = 0.004 m; K = 200 N/m

�
i. T = 2π �

0.5
T = 2π 200

= 2π 0.0025
= 2п x 0.05
= 2 x 3.142 x 0.05
= 0.31 s
ii. ���� = ωA
�
���� = �
��

200
���� = 0.5
� 0.004

���� = 400 � 0.004

���� = 20 � 0.004
���� = 0.08 m/s
 1
But [Link] = 2mv2max
1
= 2 x 0.5 x 0.082
[Link] = 0.0016 J

Example 3
A spring stretches by 15 cm when a mass of 300 g hangs down from it. If the spring is then
stretched an additional 10 cm and released, calculate the
a. spring constant
b. angular velocity
c. amplitude of oscillation
d. maximum velocity
e. maximum acceleration of the mass [g = 10 m/s2]
Solution
m = (300 g) = 0.3 kg; e = 15 cm = 0.15 m; A = 10 cm = (0.1 m)
�
a. k=�
��
k= �
0.3 � 10
= 0.15
k = 20 N/m

�
b. ω= �

20
ω=
0.3
= 66.67
= 8.17 rad/s

c. A = 10 cm = (0.1 m)

d. ���� = ωA
���� = 8.17 � 0.1
���� = 0.817 m/s

e. amax = ω2A
= 8.172 x 0.1
= 6.67 m/s2
Types of oscillations and resonance

There are three types of vibrations or oscillations:

Free vibration: A free oscillation is a simple harmonic motion in which the amplitude remains
constant with time.

Damped oscillation: This is a periodic motion in which the amplitude decreases with time until it
dies away (i.e. becomes zero).

Forced vibration: This is an oscillation or vibration in which an external periodic force is used to
set another body into vibration or to sustain the free vibration of the body in spite of damping.

Naturally, all objects vibrate with a natural frequency in the absence of external forces; in forced
vibration, the objects vibrate with a forcing frequency which is different from its natural
frequency.
An example of forced vibration is the experimental observation when the stem of a tuning fork is
placed on a table. The fork forces the table to vibrate which in turn sets a large mass of air in
contact with it to vibrate.

Resonance
This is a special case of forced vibration.

Resonance is a phenomenon in which a vibrating body or system sets another body or system
into vibration with both of them having the same natural frequencies leading to a vibration of
higher amplitude.

From the definition, both the forcing frequency of the vibrator and the natural frequency of
the body set in vibration are the same.

EVALUATION

1. A mass of 0.30 kg oscillates on a spring elastic constant 30 Nm-1. If the amplitude is

0.015 m, calculate the maximum kinetic energy. [WAEC/SSCE 2005, paraphrased]
2. Name the three types of vibration/oscillations
3. Define resonance

ASSIGNMENT
1. A stone of mass 500 g tied to a rope 50 cm long is whirled at an angular velocity of 12.0
rads-1. Calculate the
i) centripetal force ii) maximum K.E
2. A mass m attached to a light spiral spring is caused to perform simple harmonic motion of
1 �
frequency, f = 2π �
, where K is the force constant of the spring. If m = 0.30 kg, k = 30
 Nm-1 and the maximum displacement of the mass from the equilibrium position is 0.015 m,
calculate the maximum
i. kinetic energy of the system
ii. tension in the spring during the motion {g = 10 ms-2, � = 3.142 [WAEC/SSCE
2005]

WEEK 10
MACHINES (I)

Definition
A machine is a device or tool used in doing work conveniently and efficiently by applying a
force called effort at one point to overcome a resisting force called load at another point
Terminologies
1. Effort (E): This is the force applied to a machine to do work.
2. Load (L): This is the force or resistance overcomes by the machine.

3. Mechanical Advantage (MA) or Force Ratio (FR): This is defined as the ratio of the
load to the effort.
Load
MA = Effort

L
MA = E
It can also be expressed as

Output force
MA = Input force
4. Velocity Ratio (V.R): This is defined as the ratio of the distance moved by effort to the
distance moved by load.
Distance moved by effort e
VR = Distance moved by load
= l

5. Efficiency: This is the ratio of work output to work input

Work output
Efficiency = Work input
x 100 % - - - - - - - - - - - i

Load x distance moved by load

= Effort x distance moved by effort x 100 %

Lxl
= E x e x 100 %

L l
= E x e x 100 %
 1
= MA x VR x 100 %

MA
∴ Efficiency = x 100 %
VR

Also,

Work done on load

Efficiency = Work done by effort x 100 %

Types of machines

i. The lever ii. The pulleys iii. The Inclined plane

iv. The wedge v. The wheel and axle
vi. The hydraulic press

The lever
Classes or order of [Link] is based on the relative positions of Load,Effort and Fulcrum(pivot)
Lever uses the principle of moment.
i. First order lever
This is the class of levers in which the fulcrum (F) is between the effort (E) and the load (L).
Examples are the crowbar, a pair of scissors, see-saw, pliers, a claw hammer etc. The moment
diagram is shown below.

ii. Second order levers

This is the class of lever in which the load (L) is between the effort (E) and the fulcrum. E.g
nutcracker and wheelbarrow.
iii. Third order levers
In this case, the effort (E) is between the load (L) and the fulcrum (F). E.g sugar tongs, forceps,
the human forearm, drink opener, pen knife etc.

The inclined plane

1
 VR = sin θ

The screw and screw jack

For a screw, the distance between successive threads is called the pitch. When a screw is turned
through one complete revolution by the application of effort, E, the screw (with the attached load)
moves a distance equal to the pitch (p). If a tommy bar of length r is used to turn a screw jack,
the effort moves a complete circle (2��) in one turn.

distance moved by effort

VR = distance moved by load

2πr
VR = p

Wheel and Axle

When the effort rotates the wheel through one complete revolution, the axle also turns with the
load through one revolution, both covering a distance equal to their circumference. If R and r are
the radii of the wheel and axle,

distance moved by effort

VR = distance moved by load
2πR
VR = 2πr

R
∴ VR = r
Examples of wheel and axles are windlass, screwdriver, steering wheel etc.

Gears
If N and n represent the number of teeth on the large and small gear wheels respectively and the
effort is applied to the small gear which drives the large gear,

Number of teeth on driven gear

VR = Number of teeth on driving gear

N
VR = n

If the effort is on the large gear driving the small gear,

n
VR = N

Block and Tackle System

This involves several pulleys mounted on a frame work called block with a single rope running
through all the pulleys. They are commonly used in lifts and cranes.
Velocity ratio
i. If individual pulleys are mounted on different axes,
VR = Number of pulleys
ii. If more than one pulley are mounted on the same axis,
VR = Number of ropes
EVALUATION
1. Define and explain the term 'machine'
2. List types of machines
3. Classify the order of lever
4. Explain the following with respect to machine
- Effort
- Load
- Mechanical Advantage
5. Write an expression for the VR of an inclined plane and a screw jack
6. Write the VR of wheel and axle
7. Write and explain the VR of gears
8. If a block and tackle system has 5 pulleys mounted on separate axis, what is the VR?
ASSIGNMENT
A machine with VR 5 requires 1000 J of work to raise a load of 51 kg through a vertical distance
of 1.5 m. Calculate:
i. The efficiency
The MA advantage of the machine [g = 9.81 m/s2]

WEEK 11
MACHINES (II): Calculations

Example 1
A machine with VR 5 requires 1000 J of work to raise a load of 51 kg through a vertical distance
of 1.5 m. Calculate:
i. The efficiency
ii. The MA of the machine [g = 9.81 m/s2]
Solution
Work output
i. Efficiency = Work input
x 100 %

Load x distance moved by load

= Work input
x 100 %
mg x h
= Work input x 100 %

51 x 9.81 x 1.5
= 1000
x 100%
= 75 %
MA
ii. Efficiency = VR
x 100 %
 MA
75 % = x 100 %
VR
75 x 5
MA = 100
= 3.75
Example 2
A plane inclined at an angle of 30o to the horizontal has an efficiency of 60%. Calculate the
force parallel to the plane required to push a load of 120 N uniformly up the plane
Solution
Ө = 30o; Efficiency = 60 %; L = 120 N; E = ?

1
VR = sin θ

1 1
VR = sin 30
= 0.5

VR = 2
MA
Efficiency = VR
x 100 %

MA
60 = 2
x 100 %

MA = 2 x 60
100
120
MA = 100
MA = 1.2
L
But MA = E

120
1.2 = E
120
 E= 1.2
E = 100 N
Example 3 (JAMB)
A wheel and axle has radii 80 cm and 10 cm respectively. If the efficiency of the machine is
0.85, an applied force of 1200 N to the wheel will raise a load of ---

Solution
R = 80 cm; r = 10 cm; Efficiency = (0.85) = 0.85 x 100 = 85%;
E = 1200 N; L=?
R 80
VR = r
= 10 = 8
MA
Efficiency = VR
x 100%
 MA
85 = x 100
8

85 x 8
MA = 100
= 6.8

L
But MA = E

L = MA x E
= 6.8 x 1200
= 8160 N

Example 4 (WAEC/SSCE 2002)

A block and tackle system has 6 pulleys. If the efficiency of the machine is 60 %, determine its
mechanical advantage.
Solution
VR = 6; Efficiency = 60 %

MA
Efficiency = VR
x 100 %

MA
60 = 6
x 100 %

60 x 6 360
MA = 100
= 100

= 3.6
Example 5 (WAEC/SSCE, Nov. 2004)

The diagram illustrates a block and tackle system of pulleys which has a mechanical advantage
of 5
i) Determine the velocity ratio of the machine A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 6
ii) Calculate the magnitude of the effort
A. 1020 N B. 340 N C. 204 N D. 170 N
iii) Calculate the efficiency of the machine
A. 100.0% B. 83.3 % C. 50.0% D. 33.3%

Solution
i) VR = 6 (Number of ropes) (Option D)
L
ii) But MA = E

1020
5= E

1020
 E= 5

E = 204 N (Option C)
MA
iii) Efficiency = VR
x 100 %

5
= 6 x 100 %

Efficiency = 83.3 % (Option B)

EVALUATION
i. A machine has a velocity ratio of 6 and an efficiency of 75%. Calculate the effort needed
to raise a load of 90 N [NECO 2012]
ii. A block system of five pulleys has an efficiency of 70 %. Calculate the
effort that will be required to raise a load of 42.00 N

ASSIGNMENT
A screw jack whose pitch is 2 mm is used to raise a motor car of mass 900
kg through a height of 20.0 cm. The length of the tommy bar of the jack is
40 cm. If the jack is 60% efficient, calculate the
i) velocity ratio
ii) mechanical advantage of the jack
iii) effort required
iv) work done by the effort [Take g = 10 ms-2]