LECTURE - 2
Pesticide use and Pesticide industry in India. Classification of insecticides and
acaricides based on mode of entry ,action & chemical nature
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Synthetic insecticides constitute the indispensable chemical component of plant
protection in the present day agriculture worldwide. The World’s pesticide consumption is
estimated to be about 3.1 million tonnes of which 24% is consumed in USA, 45% in Europe
and 20% in developing countries. The Asia Pacific Region accounts for 16% of the total
pesticide consumption, out of which 75% is used on rice, cotton and vegetable crops. India
is the third largest consumer of pesticides in the world and the highest among South Asian
Countries.
During the last four decades, the consumption of pesticides has increased several
hundred folds from 154 metric tonnes in 1953-54 to 80,000 metric tonnes in 1994-95.
However, thereafter the consumption of the pesticides steadily declined to the present level
of 54,135 metric tonnes during 1999-2000. The average per hectare consumption of
pesticides in India was 1.2 g ha in 1953-54, which increased to 377 g ha –1 in 1985-86 and
–1
to 431 g ha–1 in 1992-93, and declined to 288 g ha –1 in 1999-2000. These values are much
lower when compared to other countries. Insecticides constitute 80% of pesticides used in
India of which 67% are used for agricultural purpose.
Among the states in India, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana,
Gujarat, West Bengal and Maharastra account for 79.4% of the total pesticide consumption
covering 53.4% of the gross cultivated area. In Andhra Pradesh the pesticide consumption
has come down from 12,775 to 7,000 metric tonnes in 1999-2000. The average per hectare
consumption in hot-spot areas such as Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh was around 14 g
ha–1 during 1973-74, which was more than that of Japan (11 g ha –1) (Agnihotri, 2000).
However, the total pesticide consumption in Guntur district has also come down from 7,845
metric tonnes to 1,946 metric tonnes (JDA, Guntur, 2003).
However, the use of insecticides for insect pest control in certain crops like cotton
has led the plant protection through subsistence phase, exploitation phase, crisis phase, and
disaster phase and finally reached the integrated control phase (Smith, 1969). Accordingly
the age of pesticides was divided into, the Era of Optimum (1946-62), the Era of Doubt
(1962-76) and the Era of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) (1976 - After) (Metcalf, 1980)
Though the present day plant protection is in the era of IPM, the insecticides are
being successfully abused not only in agriculture but also in the social life. The use of
insecticides has a mixed blessing, one side in boosting the agricultural production and other
side insecticides are responsible for insect resistance, resurgence and resulting in toxic
insecticide residues. These bio-ecological problems are man made and occur due to
indiscriminate use of insecticides on crops like cotton, paddy, deciduous fruits, vegetables
and ornamentals, and in human and animal health and sanitation programmes.
Pesticide Consumption 1973-74
Japan - 10,790 gm/ha USA - 1490 gm/ha
Europe- 1870 gm/ha India - 336 gm/ha
Africa - 127 gm/ha
Pesticide usage in India Vs World:
Pesticide group (%) India (%) World (%)
Herbicide 12 43.6
Insecticide 77 29.7
Fungicides 8 20.6
Others 3 6.1
Pesticide Use Trend in the World (Million US $ 1988)
Area Herbicide Insecticide Fungicide Other Total
USA 3040 1115 375 360 4890
Western 2315 990 1875 440 5620
Europe
Eastern 945 600 290 75 1910
Europe
Far East 1335 2015 1240 215 4805
Latin America 600 705 260 60 1625
Rest of the 690 650 420 100 1600
World
Total 8925 6075 4200 1250 20450
Five year plan wise on plant protection coverage and consumption:
FiveYear Plant protection Pesticide consumption (mil.
plan coverage (mil ha) tonne)
I 2.4 2350
II 6.4 8620
III 17.2 14630
IV 60.5 37932
V 70.0 49880
VI 108.0 56000
VII 137.0 75000
VIII
IX
X
Consumption of Technical Grade Insecticides in India (Tonnes)
Year Insecti- Fungi- Herbi- Rodenti- Others Total
cides cides cides cides
1954 434 -- -- -- -- 434
1960 6729 598 -- 104 -- 7341
1965 10428 1480 -- 268 -- 12176
1969 17393 986 12 145 -- 18536
1973-74 38970 10337 810 150 165 50432
1977-78 46755 9685 1425 270 845 58980
1989-90 45655 19020 5130 1220 165 71190
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTICIDES
I. Based on origin and source of supply:
a. Inorganic insecticides: Comprise compounds of mineral origin and elemental sulphur.
This group includes arsenate and fluorine compounds, sulphur as acaricide and zinc
phosphide as rodenticides.
b. Organic Insecticides:
1. Insecticides of animal origin: Nereistoxin (Cartap hydrocloride is the synthetic analogue
marketed as Padan and Celedan) isolated from marine annelid, Lumbrineris heteropoda
and L. brevicerrus and fish oil resin soap.
2. Plant origin insecticides or Botanical insecticides: Nicotinoids, Pyrethroids, Rotenoids
etc.
3. Synthetic Organic insecticides: Chlorinated hydrocarbons, Organophosphorous and
carbamate insecticides, Synthetic pyrethroids etc.
4. Hydrocarbon oils etc.
II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of
the insects they are grouped as
1. Contact poisons
2. Stomachpoisons
3. Fumigantpoisons
[Link] poisons: These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body
either through spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons can
kill the insects by mere coming in contact with the body of the insects. Eg: DDT and BHC
and Methyl parathion.
[Link] poisons: The insecticides when applied on the leaves and other parts of plants
get ingested and enter insect body through insect digestive system. They must be palatable
and bring about the kill of the insect quickly. Systemic insecticides poison sucking insects
feeding on plant sap. Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead arsenate, DDT, BHC and Methyl parathion
3. Fumigants: A fumigant is a chemical substance, which is volatile at ordinary
temperatures and sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of subjecting
the infested material to the toxic fumes or vapours of chemicals or gases, which have
insecticidal properties. Chemical used is the fumigant and a reasonably airtight container or
room is known as fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium.” Fumigants mostly gain entry into
the body of the insect through spiracles and trachea. The fumigants should be volatile and
cheap. They should not be corrosive toequipment and effect germination of the seed and
quality of produce, and should not be inflammable
III. Based on the mode of action of the insecticides:
[Link] poisons: Bring about the kill of insects by exerting a physical effect. Eg: Heavy
oils, tar oils etc., which cause death by asphyxiation (Scale insects) i.e. by exclusion of air.
Inert dusts effect loss of body moisture by their abrasiveness as aluminum oxide or absorb
moisture (hygroscopic) from the insect body as charcoal.
[Link] poisons: They cause precipitation of protein especially destruction of
cellular protoplasm of midgut epithelium. Eg.: Arsenicals and fluorine compounds.
[Link] poisons: Chemicals, which block cellular respiration by reacting with
enzymes like cytochrome oxidase and inhibittheir catalytic action. Eg. Hydrogen cyanide
(HCN), carbon monoxide, rotenone etc.
[Link] poisons: Chemicals, which inhibit Acetyl Choline Esterase (Ache) and affect the
nervous system. Eg. Ops, Carbamates.
[Link] poisons: Compounds which produce neurotoxic symptoms after some period
(latent period) and do not belong to the above categories. Eg: Chlordane, toxaphene, aldrin
etc.
IV. Based on toxicity:
Classification Symbol Oral LD50DermalLD50
Skull &Poison 1-50 1-200
1. Extremely toxic Red
2. Highly toxic Poison 51-500 201-2000
Yellow
3. Moderately toxic Danger 501-5000 2001-20,000
Blue
4. Less toxicCaution5000 20,000
Green
V. Based on stage specificity:
1. Ovicides
2. Larvicides
3. Pupicides
4. Adulticides
VI. Generation wise:
First generation - Inorganics and Botanicals
Second generation - Synthetic organics
Third generation - Recent chemicals for reproductive
control, IGRs like MH & JH mimics, anti
JH, Ecdysone agonists, Semiochemicals
Fourth generation - Synthetic pyrethroids, Benzoyl phenyl
ureas
Fifth generation - Recent Synthetic pyrethroids
Neonecotinoids, Pyridine Azomethines,
Pymetrozine,Formamidines Oxadiazine,
Indoxacarb, Avermectins, Bt
VII. Recent trends in insect control:
1).Ionizing radiations 2).Chemosterilants 3).Repellents
4).Antifeedant 5).Attractants 6).Pheromones
7).Hormones 8).Antibiotics 9).Baits 10).Mutations/Genetic manipulations
Classification by Brown (1951) based on mode of action
Group Subgroup Examples
1. Physical poisons -- Heavy mineral oils, inert dusts
[Link] -- Heavy metals, like Hg and acids.
[Link] inhibitors Respiratory poisons HCN, H2S, CO, rotenone
dinitrophenols.
Inhibitors of MFO Pyrethrin synergists
Inhibitors of Sodium fluoroacetate
Carbohydratemetabolism
Inhibitors of amine metabolism Chlordimeform
Insect hormones JH analogues
Inhibitors of Chitin Synthesis Diflubenzuron
[Link] agents (Non Anticholine esterases OP and carbamates.
metabolic)
Effectors of ion permeability DDT analogues, pyrethroids,
cyclodienes, BHC.
Agents for nerve receptors Nicotine analogues
5. Hormone mimics -- Methoprene
6. Stomach poisons -- Bt toxin
Classification based on chemical origin
Insecticides
Inorganics Organics
1. Arsenicals NATURAL:
2. Flourine compounds 1. Hydrocarbon oils: Petroleium
oils(mineral oils) / coaltar oils,
3. Sulphur and lime sulphur Kerosine, Asphalt
4. Zinc Phosphide 2. Plant origin:
3. Animal / microbial origin:
5. Miscellaneous Compounds:
SYNTHETIC:
a) Bordeaux mixture
b) Sodium selenate 1. Organo metals
c) Mercury compounds 2. Phenolic compounds
3. Thiocyno compounds
d) Phosphorus
4. Organoclorines
e)Thallium sulphate 5. Organophosphorus compounds
6. Carbamates
d) Borax
7. Synthetic pyrethroids
e) Formaldehyde 8. Hormone mimics&IGR compounds
9. Chitin synthesis inhibitors
Classification of Acaricides
1) Antibiotic acaricides: Nikkomycins, Thuringiensin.
2) Macro cyclic lactone acaricides:Tetranactin.
3) Avermectin acaricides: Abamectin (Proclaim 5%5G. LC 90 for mites 0.009-0.24PPM).
4) Bridged diphenly acaricides:Dicofol, Oral LD50 rat:575mg/kg
5) Chlorbenside: Oral LD50 for mice is 3000mg/kg.
6) Carbamate acarcides :Cabaryl (Sevin), Oral LD50 rats:500-750mg/kg. Carbofuran
(Furadon), Oral LD50 rats: 5mg/kg.
7) Oxime Carbamates: Aldicarb (Temik), Oral LD50 rats:1-30mg/kg. Oxamyl
8) Dinitrophenol acaricides: Dinitro-o-cresol(DNOC):
9) Formamidine acaricides: Amitraz, Oral LD50 rats:1600mg/kg.
10) Compounds containing sulphur: Chlorfenside, Oral LD50 mice:3000mg/kg. Tetrasul,
Oral LD50 rats:6800mg/[Link], Oral LD50 rats:15mg/kg. Aramite
11) Organo chlorine acaricides: Endosulfan (Thiodan), Oral LD50 rats:30-70mg/kg.
12) Organophosphate acaricides:Dichlorvos, Menvinphos (phosdrin), Oral LD 50 :
3-12mg/kg. Monocrotophos(Nuvacron), Oral LD50 : 13-14mg/kg.
13) Organothiophosphate acaricides:Diazinon (Basudin), Oral LD50: 150-220mg/kg.
Phorate (Thimet), Oral LD50: 1-5mg/kg. Malathion, Oral LD50: 900-5800mg/kg.
14) The latest Miticides:
a) Tetra San (5WDG): It is a mite growth regulator with contact and trans
laminar activity. It inhibits the moulting process through disruption of the cell
membrane. It is very effective on citrus red mite on rough lemon.
b) Ultiflora 1EC(milbemectin): It is a naturally derived broad spectrum Miticides.
It is translaminor and acts on contact or by ingestion.
c) Akari 5SC: It is a contact Miticide.
d) Shuttle 15EC: Unique mode of action and should provide control of most of
the important mite pests of all life stages. It is a mitochondrial electron
transport inhibitor(METI) like Akari, but it has a different site of action
compared to other electron transport inhibitors.
e) Forbid 4F(Spiromesifen): It is a new chemical class from the cyclic tetronic
acids ,which interferes with lipid biosynthesis.