21CEE505T – ADVANCED CONCRETE ENGINEERING

UNIT-V

Special and Sustainable Concretes

Special Concrete – Definition
Special concrete refers to concrete that is designed, modified, or produced to meet specific
performance requirements that cannot be achieved by conventional concrete. These requirements
may include high strength, durability, workability, resistance to extreme conditions, or specific
functional properties.

Examples: High Performance Concrete (HPC), Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC), Fibre

Reinforced Concrete (FRC), Lightweight Concrete
Sustainable Concrete – Definition
Sustainable concrete is concrete that is produced and used in a manner that minimizes
environmental impact while maintaining required strength and durability. It focuses on reducing
carbon emissions, conserving natural resources, and improving long-term performance.

This is achieved by:

 Using industrial by-products (fly ash, GGBS, silica fume)

 Reducing cement content (lower CO₂ emissions)
 Recycling materials (aggregates, water)
 Enhancing durability to increase service life

Oil Palm Shell & Coconut Shell in Concrete

Definition:
Oil Palm Shell (OPS) is a waste material obtained from the processing of palm oil. It is used as a
lightweight coarse aggregate in concrete.
Properties:
 Low density (lighter than conventional aggregates)
 Rough and irregular shape → good bonding
 High water absorption
 Eco-friendly and sustainable material
Definition:
Coconut shell is an agricultural waste used as a partial or full replacement for coarse aggregate in
concrete.
Properties:
 Very low density → produces lightweight concrete
  Hard and tough structure
 High durability and resistance to abrasion
 High water absorption compared to conventional aggregates
Applications:
1. Lightweight Concrete Production
o Used to reduce the dead load of structures.
2. Structural Members
o Suitable for beams, slabs, and columns in low to medium strength applications.
3. Precast Elements
o Blocks, panels, and prefabricated components.
4. Sustainable Construction
o Reduces environmental impact by utilizing waste materials.

Advantages:

 Reduces overall weight of concrete

 Cost-effective (waste material reuse)
 Improves thermal insulation
 Eco-friendly and sustainable

Limitations:

 Lower compressive strength than conventional concrete

 Higher water absorption → requires proper mix design
 Not suitable for very high-strength structural applications

Bacterial Concrete
Natural process, mainly weathering, deteriorates concrete by creating cracks, fractures and
fissures, which result in reducing service life of structures. Even historical monuments built in
stone also develop cracks and fissures. Grouting with epoxy or other cementitious materials
are often adopted for remediating such defects.
Ramakrishnan et al of South Dakota School of Mines and Technology have experimented a
novel technique for remediating cracks and fissures in concrete structures by employing a
selective microbial agency. In their attempt to seal cracks in concrete they used common soil
bacteria called “Bacillus pasteurii” which during the process of their metabolic activities
secrete or precipitate calcite (CaCO₃) which is responsible for sealing the cracks. Calcium
Carbonate is a natural calcareous cementing material and a bonding agency which is
environment friendly unlike other bonding materials, like epoxy or calcium silicate hydrates
(C–S–H gel) resulting from hydration of cement.
The idea was taken from earlier paper on consolidation of sand by using similar bacteria. Earlier
similar technique was also employed for sealing cracks and fissures in oil wells. From earlier
studies it was found that average crack width of 2.7 mm in granite rock was remedied with a
mixture of sand and silica fume by using same kind of common soil bacteria.

Experimental Investigations
In the South Dakota School of Mines, the effectiveness of microbiologically induced calcite
(CaCO₃) precipitation in remediating cracks in concrete was evaluated by comparing the
compressive strength and stiffness of cracked specimens treated with bacteria and with those
of the control specimens (without bacteria).
For studying the above, cement mortar beams of size 152 × 25.4 × 25.4 mm were prepared.
The specimens were cured in water for 28 days and then kept exposed to air for another 3
months. Artificial cracks were cut. The width of the cracks were 3.2 mm for all the 10
specimens and the depth of cracks were 3.2 and 9.5 mm. The first 5 specimens were used as
control without any filling in the cracks and left exposed to air. The cracks in the remaining 5
specimens were filled with a mixture of sand and B. pasteurii bacteria. The final concentration
of bacteria in the sand is of the order of 6.2 × 10⁸ cells per ml. is forced into the crack by knife
edge. Then the beams with bacteria in their cracks were placed in a tray containing urea – CaCl₂
medium as food for bacteria and cured for 28 days. The medium was replaced after 14 days.
Extreme care was taken not to disturb the precipitation of the calcium carbonate during change
of the medium.
The control beams and those of beams with bacteria were tested for their stiffness after 28 days.
It was found that stiffness value of beams whose cracks were filled with bacteria and sand were
higher than those of control specimens. This was also true for beams with both.

Bacterial Concrete
Definition
Bacterial concrete is a type of self-healing concrete in which bacteria are used to precipitate
calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) to seal cracks and fissures.

Principle
 Based on microbiologically induced calcite precipitation (MICP).
 Bacteria such as Bacillus pasteurii produce calcite during metabolic activity.
 The precipitated CaCO₃ fills cracks and restores the integrity of concrete.
Mechanism
1. Bacteria are introduced into concrete (with nutrients like urea and calcium salts).
2. When cracks form and water enters, bacteria become active.
3. Bacteria convert urea into carbonate ions.
4. Carbonate reacts with calcium ions → forms calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).
5. CaCO₃ deposits in cracks → seals them.

Chemical Reaction
 Urea hydrolysis:
CO(NH₂)₂ + H₂O → NH₃ + CO₂
 Formation of calcite:
Ca²⁺ + CO₃²⁻ → CaCO₃ ↓

Experimental Investigation
 Cement mortar beams (152 × 25.4 × 25.4 mm) were prepared.
 Cracks of 3.2 mm width were created.
 Specimens divided into:
o Control (without bacteria)
o Bacterial treated (sand + bacteria)
 Bacteria concentration: ~6.2 × 10⁸ cells/ml
 Cured in urea–CaCl₂ medium for 28 days.
 Results:
o Increased stiffness
o Improved strength compared to control specimens

Advantages
 Self-healing of cracks
 Increases durability and service life
 Eco-friendly (reduces chemical repair materials)
 Reduces maintenance cost
Limitations
 High initial cost
 Requires controlled conditions for bacterial activity
 Limited application in large-scale structures (currently)

Applications
 Repair of cracks in buildings and bridges
 Marine structures
 Historical monuments
 Underground constructions
4
Steps in Diagram
1. Crack formation in concrete
2. Water enters crack
3. Bacteria become active
4. Urea decomposition
5. CaCO₃ precipitation
6. Crack gets sealed

Conclusion
Bacterial concrete is an innovative and sustainable technology that enhances durability by
autonomously healing cracks using biological processes.
Geopolymer Concrete
The term “Geopolymer” was coined by Davidovits in 1978. Geopolymer is an inorganic
alumino-silicate polymer, synthesized from predominantly silicon and aluminium material
such as fly ash. Alkaline solutions are used to induce the silicon and aluminium atoms; in the
source materials (fly ash), to dissolve to form gel. The polymerisation process may be assisted
by applied heat followed by drying. The geopolymer gel binds the loose coarse and fine
aggregates to form geopolymer concrete. Geopolymer gel replaces the C–S–H gel in cement
concrete. Chemical reaction period is substantially fast and the required curing period may be
within 24 to 48 hours.
Davidovits claimed that the Egyptian pyramids were built by casting geopolymer on site. He
also reported the geopolymer possesses excellent mechanical properties, does not dissolve in
acidic solutions, and does not generate any deleterious alkali-aggregate reaction even in the
presence of high alkalinity. Some applications of geopolymer concrete are for marine
structures, precast concrete products such as railway sleepers, sewer pipes etc.
B.V. Rangan et al of Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia [12.25] have carried out
pioneering experimental work for the production of geopolymer concrete with a view to
develop optimum mix design process and to establish the engineering properties such as
compressive and tensile strengths, stress-strain relations, modulus of elasticity etc. The studies
undertaken by them also aimed at establishing shrinkage, creep and durability properties. In
particular, the corrosion resistance. The information given on geopolymer concrete in this book
is freely drawn from the article published by R.V. Rangan et al in the proceedings of the
seminar, INCONTEST 2003 held at Coimbatore, India.
In the experimental work low calcium (Class F) fly ash has been used. Sodium hydroxide in
flake form NaOH with 98% purity and sodium silicate solutions (Na₂O = 7.4%, SiO₂ = 29.4%
and water 55.9% by mass) were used as alkaline activators. To improve the workability of fresh
concrete, a commercially available naphthalene based superplasticizer was used. Four types of
locally available aggregates (at Perth, Australia) were mixed together.
Aggregates and the fly ash were mixed dry in a pan mixer for 3 minutes. The alkaline solutions
and the superplasticizer were mixed together, and then added to the solid particles and mixed
for another 3 to 5 minutes. The fresh concrete had a stiff consistency and was glossy in
appearance. The mixture was cast in 100 × 200 mm cylinder in three layers. Each layer was
tamped 60 times and vibrated for 10 seconds on a vibrating table. Five cylinders were prepared
for each test variable.
Immediately after casting, the samples were covered with a film to avoid the loss of water due
to evaporation during curing at an elevated temperature. After being left in room temperature
for 30–60 minutes, the specimens were cured in an oven at a specified temperature for a period
of time in accordance with the test variables selected.
Numerous trial mixes of geopolymer concrete were made and tested. The data collected from
these studies indicated that the salient parameter affecting the compressive strength of
geopolymer concrete are listed below:
 Silicon oxide (SiO₂) to aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) ratio by mass in fly ash should
preferably be in the range of 2.0 to 3.5 to make good concrete.
  Activator liquid to source material (fly ash) ratio by mass
 Concentration of sodium hydroxide NaOH liquid measured in terms of Molarity (M) in
the range of 8 to 16 M
 Sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide liquid ratio by mass. The effect of the parameter
depends on the composition of the sodium silicate solution.
 Curing temperature in the range of 30° to 90°C
 Curing time in the range of 6 to 48 hours.
 Water content in the mixture.

Effect of water contents in the Mix

In order to study the effect of water content on the compressive strength of geopolymer
concrete several tests were carried out. The dose of superplasticizer to the mass of fly ash
was taken as 1.5%. For a given geopolymer concrete the total mass of water in the mix is
taken as the sum of the mass of water in the sodium silicate solution plus the mass of water
in sodium hydroxide solution plus the mass of extra water, if any, added to the mixture. The
mass of geopolymer solids is the sum of the mass of fly ash, the mass of sodium hydroxide
flakes and the mass of sodium silicate solids.

Geopolymer Concrete
Definition
Geopolymer concrete is an inorganic alumino-silicate polymer concrete formed by activating
materials like fly ash with alkaline solutions instead of cement.
Principle
 Based on polymerization of silica (Si) and alumina (Al).
 Alkaline activators (NaOH, Na₂SiO₃) dissolve these elements and form a geopolymer
gel.
 This gel binds aggregates, replacing C–S–H gel in conventional concrete.
Materials Used
 Source material: Fly ash (low calcium – Class F)
 Alkaline activators:
o Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
o Sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃)
 Aggregates (coarse and fine)
 Superplasticizer (for workability)
Manufacturing Process
1. Dry mix aggregates and fly ash
2. Prepare alkaline solution (NaOH + Na₂SiO₃)
3. Add solution to dry mix and mix thoroughly
4. Place concrete in moulds
5. Compaction and vibration
6. Cure at elevated temperature (oven curing)
Properties
 High compressive strength
 Fast setting (24–48 hours curing)
 Excellent durability
 High resistance to acids and chemicals
 Low shrinkage and creep
 Good corrosion resistance
Factors Affecting Strength
 SiO₂ / Al₂O₃ ratio (2.0–3.5)
 Activator-to-fly ash ratio
 NaOH molarity (8–16 M)
 Na₂SiO₃ / NaOH ratio
Advantages
 Eco-friendly (reduces CO₂ emissions)
 Utilizes industrial waste (fly ash)
 High durability and strength
 Resistant to chemical attack
Applications
 Marine structures
 Precast elements (sleepers, pipes)
 Pavements and bridges
 Sewer systems
  Developed by Davidovits (1978)
 Made using fly ash + alkaline solution
 No cement → replaces C–S–H gel with geopolymer gel
 Fast curing (24–48 hrs)
 High strength and chemical resistance
Key factors:
o Si/Al ratio
o NaOH molarity
 Used in marine, precast, and durable structures
 Eco-friendly and sustainable

Flowchart / Diagram Explanation

 Fly Ash (Si + Al source)
⬇
Add Alkaline Solution (NaOH + Na₂SiO₃)
⬇
Dissolution of Si & Al
⬇
Polymerization Reaction
⬇
Formation of Geopolymer Gel
⬇
Binding of Aggregates
⬇
Geopolymer Concrete Formation
Conclusion
Geopolymer concrete is a sustainable alternative to conventional concrete with superior
strength and durability.

Roller Compacted Concrete

Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a recent development particularly in the field of dam
construction. Roller compacted concrete is a lean no slump, almost dry concrete that is
compacted by Vibratory Roller. A mixture of aggregates, cement and water are mixed in a
conventional batch mixer or in other suitable mixers. Supplementary cementing material, such
as fly ash can also be used. In some cases high volume fly ash to the extent of 60% by weight
of cement has been used. The cement content ranges from 60 to 360 kg/m 3.
Roller compacted concrete is placed in layers thin enough to allow complete compaction. The
optimum layer thickness ranges from 20 to 30 cm. To ensure adequate bonding between the
new and old layer or at cold joint, segregation must be prevented and a high plasticity bedding
mix must be used at the start of the placement. A compressive strength of about 7 MPa to 30
MPa have been obtained.
For effective consolidation, roller compacted concrete must be dry enough to support the mass
of the vibrating equipment, but wet enough to allow the cement paste to be evenly distributed
throughout the mass during mixing and consolidation process.
The first RCC dam was taken up during 1978 and completed during 1980 in Japan. A number
of other dams quickly followed. By end of 1985, seven RCC dams have been completed, and
this method of construction technology has been accepted. In the next seven years (1992) the
number of dams constructed by this techniques rose to 96 in 17 different countries mainly in
USA, Japan, Spain etc.
In India Roller Compacted Concrete has been used as a base concrete in the construction of
Delhi-Mathura concrete road construction project. Similarly RCC has been used as base course
concrete in Pune - Mumbai express highway construction. In both the projects the RCC was
referred as “Dry Lean Concrete. The grade of concrete was M 10, thickness 15 cm. Such a
concrete was thoroughly compacted by vibratory roller over which Pavement Quality Concrete
(PQC) of grade M 40, 35 cm thick was laid.

Definition
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a zero-slump, dry concrete that is placed using paving
equipment and compacted with rollers, similar to asphalt construction.

Materials Used
 Cement (or blended cement)
 Aggregates (well-graded coarse and fine)
 Water (low quantity)
 Admixtures (optional – fly ash, retarders)

Properties
 Very low water content
 Zero or near-zero slump
 High density after compaction
 High strength and durability
 Low permeability

Manufacturing Process
1. Mixing
o Dry mix with controlled water content
2. Transporting
o Dump trucks or conveyors
3. Placing
o Spread using pavers or dozers
4. Compaction
o Compacted using vibratory rollers
5. Curing
o Water curing or curing compounds
Advantages
 Fast construction
 Economical (low cement and labor cost)
 High load-bearing capacity
 Reduced shrinkage
 Suitable for large-scale works

Disadvantages
 Requires heavy equipment
 Not suitable for complex shapes
 Surface finish is rough
 Needs proper compaction control

Applications
 Dams (gravity dams)
 Pavements (roads, highways)
 Industrial yards
 Parking areas
 Airfields

Conclusion
RCC is a cost-effective and durable concrete widely used in heavy-duty and large-volume
construction projects.

Smart concrete
Definition
Smart concrete is a type of concrete that can sense, respond, and adapt to environmental
changes such as stress, strain, cracks, temperature, or damage.

Principle
  Based on embedding functional materials (like conductive fibers or sensors) into
concrete.
 These materials enable concrete to monitor its own condition (self-sensing) or even
repair itself (self-healing).

Types of Smart Concrete

1. Self-Sensing Concrete
o Detects stress, strain, and cracks
o Uses conductive materials (carbon fibers, steel fibers)
2. Self-Healing Concrete
o Repairs cracks automatically
o Uses bacteria or chemical agents
3. Self-Cleaning Concrete
o Breaks down dirt using photocatalytic materials (e.g., TiO₂)
4. Shape Memory Concrete
o Uses alloys to recover deformation

Materials Used
 Carbon fibers / nanotubes
 Steel fibers
 Piezoelectric sensors
 Bacteria (for healing)
 Titanium dioxide (TiO₂)

Working Mechanism
 External load → change in electrical resistance
 Sensors detect variation
 Signal processed to monitor structural health

Properties
 Self-monitoring capability
  High durability
 Crack detection ability
 Reduced maintenance
 Enhanced safety

Advantages
 Early detection of damage
 Reduces repair cost
 Improves structural health monitoring
 Increases lifespan of structures

Disadvantages
 High initial cost
 Complex technology
 Requires skilled monitoring systems

Applications
 Bridges and highways
 High-rise buildings
 Dams
 Nuclear structures
 Smart infrastructure systems


 

 Flowchart Steps
Load / Stress Applied

⬇
Change in Electrical Properties
⬇
Sensors Detect Signal
⬇
Data Monitoring System
⬇
Damage/Crack Identified
⬇
(Optional) Self-Healing Action

Conclusion
Smart concrete is an advanced material that improves safety, durability, and sustainability by
integrating sensing and self-healing capabilities.
 Recycled Aggregate Concrete
Definition
Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) is concrete in which natural aggregates are partially
or fully replaced with recycled aggregates obtained from demolished concrete structures.

Source of Recycled Aggregates

 Demolished buildings and bridges
 Pavements and roads
 Construction and demolition (C&D) waste

Types of Recycled Aggregates

 Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA)
 Recycled Fine Aggregate (RFA)

Properties
 Lower density compared to conventional concrete
 Higher water absorption
 Lower strength (due to old mortar attached)
 More porous structure
 Reduced durability (if not properly treated)

Manufacturing Process
1. Collection of demolition waste
2. Crushing and screening
3. Removal of impurities (steel, wood, etc.)
4. Grading of aggregates
5. Mixing with cement, water, and admixtures

Advantages
 Eco-friendly (reduces landfill waste)
 Conserves natural resources
  Reduces cost of materials
 Sustainable construction practice

Disadvantages
 Lower strength and durability
 Higher water demand
 Quality variation of recycled materials
 Requires proper processing

Applications
 Pavements and roads
 Non-structural concrete
 Low-rise buildings
 Backfilling and sub-base layers

Improvement Measures
 Pre-soaking recycled aggregates
 Use of admixtures
 Partial replacement (not full replacement)
 Surface treatment of aggregates

Conclusion
Recycled aggregate concrete is a sustainable alternative that promotes environmental
conservation, though careful mix design is essential to maintain performance.

Reactive Powder Concrete:

High strength Concrete with strength of 100 – 120 MPa have been used for the construction of
structural members. Concrete with 250 to 300 MPa are also used for non-structural applications
such as flooring, safes and storage of nuclear wastes.
For structural uses, high ductility is required along with high-strength. Reactive powder
concrete (RPC) has been developed to have a strength from 200 to 800 MPa with required
ductility.
Concrete is a heterogeneous material and strength obtained by cement paste is not fully retained
when sand and aggregates are added. The Reactive Power concrete is made by replacing the
convential sand and aggregate by ground quartz less than 300 micron size, silica fume,
synthesized precipitated silica, steel fibres about 1 cm in length and 180 micron in diameter.
The typical composition and mechanical property of the RPC of 200 MPa strength and 800
MPa strength are shown in Table.
Typical Composition of Reactive Powder Concrete 200

Typical Composition of Reactive Powder Concrete 800

Definition
Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) is an ultra-high strength and ultra-dense concrete made
using very fine powders, eliminating coarse aggregates, and incorporating steel fibers to
achieve superior mechanical and durability properties.

Principle
 Based on particle packing density and microstructure optimization
 Eliminates coarse aggregates → reduces weak zones
 Uses fine materials to achieve maximum density and strength
 Incorporates fibers to improve ductility

Materials Used
 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
  Silica fume
 Quartz powder
 Fine sand (very fine aggregate)
 Superplasticizer
 Steel fibers
 Water (very low water-cement ratio)

Properties
 Very high compressive strength (150–800 MPa)
 High tensile strength (with fibers)
 Extremely low permeability
 High durability and resistance to chemicals
 Excellent resistance to abrasion and impact

Manufacturing Process
1. Mixing of dry powders (cement, silica fume, quartz powder, sand)
2. Addition of water and superplasticizer
3. Addition of steel fibers
4. Casting into moulds
5. Compaction (often self-compacting)
6. Heat curing (90–200°C for improved strength)

Advantages
 Ultra-high strength and durability
 Long service life
 Reduced section size (slender structures)
 High resistance to corrosion and weathering

Disadvantages
 Very high cost
  Requires precise mix design
 Needs special curing conditions
 Limited availability

Applications
 Bridges and precast elements
 Nuclear and defense structures
 High-rise buildings
 Industrial floors
 Marine structures

Diagram
 Flowchart Steps
Fine Powders (Cement + Silica Fume + Quartz)
⬇
Add Water + Superplasticizer
⬇
Add Steel Fibers
⬇
Dense Packing & Mixing
⬇
Casting & Compaction
⬇
Heat Curing
⬇
Ultra-High Strength RPC

Conclusion
RPC is an advanced concrete with exceptional strength and durability, suitable for high-
performance and critical structures.

Ready-Mixed Concrete (RMC)

Definition
Ready-Mixed Concrete (RMC) is concrete that is manufactured in a batching plant under
controlled conditions and delivered to the construction site in a fresh, plastic state for
immediate use.
Types of RMC
1. Transit Mixed Concrete (Dry Batch)
o Ingredients mixed in truck during transit
2. Central Mixed Concrete (Wet Batch)
o Fully mixed in plant before delivery
3. Shrink Mixed Concrete
o Partially mixed at plant, completed in transit
Information to be Supplied by the Purchaser
 Grade/designation of concrete (e.g., M20, M30)
 Workability (slump value)
 Maximum size of aggregate
 Cement type or special requirements
 Quantity of concrete required
 Delivery schedule and rate
 Site conditions (pumping, placing method)
 Exposure conditions (durability requirements)

Information to be Supplied by the Producer

 Mix proportions and design details
 Type and source of materials
 Admixtures used
 Batch quantity and delivery time
 Test results (slump, strength, quality checks)
 Instructions for handling and placing
 Certification of quality

Advantages
 Better quality control
  Saves time and labor
 Reduces material wastage
 Consistent strength and performance
 Suitable for large projects
 Minimizes storage at site

Properties
 High uniformity and consistency
 Controlled workability
 Good strength and durability
 Reduced segregation and bleeding
 Improved finish and performance

Limitations: Ready-Mixed Concrete vs Site-Mixed Concrete

Limitations of Ready-Mixed Concrete (RMC)

1. Transportation Constraints
o Limited time (≈ 1.5–2 hours) before setting begins
o Traffic delays can affect quality
2. Dependency on Supplier
o Requires reliable batching plant
o Delays in supply affect project schedule
3. Higher Initial Cost
o Cost of transportation and plant operation
o Not economical for small quantities
4. Limited Flexibility at Site
o Difficult to make changes once dispatched
o Not suitable for urgent small adjustments
5. Accessibility Issues
o Not feasible in remote or congested areas
o Requires proper road access for transit mixers
6. Need for Proper Planning
o Requires accurate estimation and scheduling
o Mismanagement leads to wastage

Limitations of Site-Mixed Concrete

1. Poor Quality Control
o Manual mixing leads to inconsistency
o Errors in proportioning
2. Higher Material Wastage
o Loss during handling and storage
3. Labour Intensive
o Requires more manpower
o Increased human error
4. Time Consuming
o Slower production and placing
o Not suitable for large projects
5. Inconsistent Strength
o Variation in mix leads to uneven performance
6. Space Requirement
o Needs storage space for materials
o Causes site congestion
7. Environmental Issues
o Dust and noise pollution at site