Problem Solving

and Reasoning
Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Problem Solving and Reasoning

01 02
Inductive and Problem Solving with
Deductive Reasoning Patterns

03 04
Problem Solving Group Activity
Strategies Outputs
 02
Problem Solving
with Patterns
Pattern Recognition as a Problem Solving Strategy

This section focuses on how to recognize both the evident

and the hidden patterns that may arise in observing few cases of a
given problem.
Let us try this…
Provide the information asked in the following scenarios.
1. In a certain gathering, participants greet each other through
handshakes. Of course, a person cannot shake his own hands and each
person can only shake hands with another person once.
a. How many handshakes occurred between two people in the
meeting?
b. How many handshakes occurred among three people in the
meeting?
c. How many handshakes occurred among four people in the meeting?
d. If there are 12 people in the meeting, how many handshakes
occurred in all?
 P1 P2
P1 P2

P3 P4

P1 P2

P3
 P1 P2
P1 P2

P3 P4

P1 P2

P3
Handshakes Problem
Summary of results

Number of individuals Number of handshakes

𝟐 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
𝟒 𝟔
𝟓 ?
Handshakes Problem
Summary of results

Number of individuals Number of handshakes Increment

𝟐 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 +𝟐
𝟒 𝟔 +𝟑
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 +𝟒
Handshakes Problem
Summary of results

Number of individuals Number of handshakes Formula

𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝟑
𝟒 𝟔 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟔
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎
… … …
12
Handshakes Problem
Summary of results

Number of individuals Number of handshakes Formula

𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝟑
𝟒 𝟔 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 = 𝟔
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 + 𝟐 + 𝟑 + 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎
… … …
𝟏𝟐 𝟔𝟔 𝟏+𝟐+𝟑+𝟒+𝟓+𝟔+𝟕
+ 𝟖 + 𝟗 + 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟔𝟔
Hence, we have…
Provide the information asked in the following scenarios.
1. In a certain gathering, participants greet each other through
handshakes. Of course, a person cannot shake his own hands and each
person can only shake hands with another person once.
a. How many handshakes occurred between two people in the
meeting? One handshake
b. How many handshakes occurred among three people in the
meeting? Three handshakes
c. How many handshakes occurred among four people in the meeting?
Six handshakes
d. If there are 12 people in the meeting, how many handshakes
occurred in all? Sixty-six handshakes
𝒏𝒕𝒉 − 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 Formula for a Sequence

In some cases, we can use patterns to predict a formula, called an

𝒏𝒕𝒉 − 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂, that generates the terms of a sequence.
Let us try this…

Provide the information asked in the following scenarios.

2. Consider a 10-item true or false question.
a. In how many ways can you answer the first item?
b. In how many ways can you answer the first two items?
c. In how many ways can you answer the first three items?
d. Generalizing, in how many ways can you answer the first 𝒏
items?
e. In how many ways can you answer the 10-item test?
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
For the first item, there are only two possible answers, either TRUE or
FALSE.

When we consider the first two questions, we can enumerate the

possibilities as follows:
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
For the first item, there are only two possible answers, either TRUE or
FALSE.

When we consider the first two questions, we can enumerate the

possibilities as follows:
Item No. 1 Item No. 2
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
For the first item, there are only two possible answers, either TRUE or
FALSE.

When we consider the first two questions, we can enumerate the

possibilities as follows:
Item No. 1 Item No. 2
TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE
FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE

Thus, there are four possible ways in all.

In how many ways can you answer the first item?
When we consider the first three questions, we can enumerate the
possibilities as follows:
Item No. 1 Item No. 2 Item No. 3
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
FALSE
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
When we consider the first three questions, we can enumerate the
possibilities as follows:
Item No. 1 Item No. 2 Item No. 3
TRUE TRUE
TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE
FALSE TRUE
FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE
FALSE FALSE
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
When we consider the first three questions, we can enumerate the
possibilities as follows:
Item No. 1 Item No. 2 Item No. 3
TRUE TRUE TRUE
TRUE TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
FALSE TRUE FALSE
FALSE FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
When we consider the first three questions, we can enumerate the
possibilities as follows:
Item No. 1 Item No. 2 Item No. 3
TRUE TRUE TRUE
TRUE TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE TRUE This accounts for
FALSE TRUE FALSE eight possible ways
FALSE FALSE TRUE of answering three
FALSE FALSE FALSE questions.
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
Summarizing the results, we have the table:

Number of questions Number of ways to answer

1
2
3
4
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
Summarizing the results, we have the table:

Number of questions Number of ways to answer

1 2
2 4
3 8
4 ?
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
Summarizing the results, we have the table:

Number of questions Number of ways to answer

1 2 𝟐𝟏

2 4 𝟐𝟐

3 8 𝟐𝟑

4
In how many ways can you answer the first item?
Summarizing the results, we have the table:

Number of questions Number of ways to answer

1 2 𝟐𝟏

2 4 𝟐𝟐

3 8 𝟐𝟑

4 16 𝟐𝟒

So, it appears that for n questions in the test, there are exactly 𝟐𝒏 ways of
answering them. Specifically, if there are 10 questions, then there must be
1024 ways.
Hence, we have…

Provide the information asked in the following scenarios.

1. Consider a 10-item true or false question.
a. In how many ways can you answer the first item? 2 ways
b. In how many ways can you answer the first two items? 4 ways
c. In how many ways can you answer the first three items? 8 ways
d. Generalizing, in how many ways can you answer the first 𝒏 items?
𝟐𝒏 ways
e. In how many ways can you answer the 10-item test? 1024 ways
Skills Check Up #2
Provide the information asked in the following scenarios.

Consider a rectangle. Now fold it into two, draw a line on the fold, and
unfold the rectangle. Observe that there are now three rectangles, two small
rectangles and the original rectangle.
a. Fold the rectangle into three, draw lines on the folds, then unfold.
How many rectangles do you see?
b. Fold the rectangle into four, draw lines on the folds, then unfold.
How many rectangles do you see?
c. From your observation in (a) and (b), how many rectangles are
formed if the original rectangle is folded into 𝒏 pieces?
 03
Problem Solving
Strategies
Brief History
Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were
interested in solving mathematical problems, but they were also
interested in heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of
discovery and invention.
In the seventeenth century, the mathematician and
philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) contributed to the field of
heuristics. He tried to develop a universal problem-solving method.
Although he did not achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas
in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and his better-known work
Discourse de la Methode.
Brief History
Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz (1646–1716), planned to write a book on heuristics titled Art of
Invention. Of the problem-solving process, Leibnitz wrote,

“Nothing is more important than to see the sources of invention which

are, in my opinion, more interesting than the inventions themselves.”
George Polya (1887 - 1985)

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to

make a study of problem solving was George
Polya (1887–1985).

He was born in Hungary and moved to the

United States in 1940.

The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya

advocated consisted of four steps.
 Polya’s
Problem-Solving
Strategy
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem
solver, it helps to examine each of these steps and determine what is
involved.
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Understand the Problem
This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must
have a clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on
understanding the problem, consider the following questions.

■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?

■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve
the problem?
■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
■ What is the goal?
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Devise a Plan
Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they
attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used
procedures.
■ Make a list of the known information.
■ Make a list of information that is needed.
■ Draw a diagram.
■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
■ Make a table or a chart.
■ Work backwards.
■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
■ Look for a pattern.
■ Write an equation. If necessary, defi ne what each variable represents.
■ Perform an experiment.
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result.
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Carry Out the Plan
Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
■ Work carefully.
■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may
have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.
Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Review the Solution
Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the
problem.
■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution
that could apply to other problems.
Let us try this…
Use Polya’s four-step problem-solving strategy and the problem-
solving procedures presented in this section to solve each of the
following problems.

1. A volleyball team won two out of their last four games. In how
many different orders could they have two wins and two losses in
four games?
Solution
I. Understand the Problem

We know that there are many different orders that the team won
two games out of four. It could have won two straight games and
lost the last two games (WWLL), the other way (LLWW) but we need
to consider also other possibilities.
Solution
I. Understand the Problem

We know that there are many different orders that the team won
two games out of four. It could have won two straight games and
lost the last two games (WWLL), the other way (LLWW) but we need
to consider also other possibilities.

II. Devise a Plan

We will make an organized list of all possible orders.

Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan

We will use a strategy to make sure no duplications.

Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan

We will use a strategy to make sure no duplications.

1. WWLL
2. WLWL
3. WLLW
4. LLWW
5. LWLW
6. LWWL
Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan

We will use a strategy to make sure no duplications.

1. WWLL
2. WLWL
3. WLLW
4. LLWW
5. LWLW
6. LWWL

Hence, we produced 6 different orders.

Solution
IV. Review your Solution

We have made an organized list and made sure no duplications. Are

we confident that there are only 6 possible orders?
Let us try this…
Use Polya’s four-step problem-solving strategy and the problem-
solving procedures presented in this section to solve each of the
following problems.

2. A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more
than the hat. What are the cost of the hat and the cost of the
jacket?
Solution
I. Understand the Problem

After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that the
jacket costs $90 and the hat costs $10. The sum of these costs is
$100, but the cost of the jacket is only $80 more than the cost of the
hat. We need to find two dollar amounts that differ by $90 and
whose sum is $100.
Solution
II. Devise a Plan

Write an equation using ℎ for the cost of the hat and ℎ + 90 for the
cost of the jacket.
ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100
Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan

Solve the equation for h.

2ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ = 100 − 90
2ℎ = 10
ℎ = 5.

The cost of the hat is $5 and the cost of the jacket is $90 + $5 = $95.
Solution
IV. Review your Solution

The sum of the costs is $5+$95=$100, and the cost of the jacket is
$90 more than the cost of the hat. This check confirms that the hat
costs $5 and the jacket costs $95.
Let us try this…
3. Consider the map shown
in Figure 1.2. Allison
wishes to walk along the
streets from point A to
point B. How many
direct routes can Allison
take?
Solution
I. Understand the Problem

We would not be able to

answer the question if
Allison retraced her path
or traveled away from
point B. Thus we assume
that on a direct route, she
always travels along a
street in a direction that
gets her closer to point B.
Solution
II. Devise a Plan

The map in Figure 1.2 has many extraneous

details. Thus we make a diagram that allows
us to concentrate on the essential
information.
Solution
II. Devise a Plan

Because there are many routes, we

consider the similar but simpler
diagrams. The number at each street
intersection represents the number of
routes from point A to that particular
intersection.
Solution
II. Devise a Plan

Because there are many routes, we

consider the similar but simpler
diagrams. The number at each street
intersection represents the number of
routes from point A to that particular
intersection.
Solution
II. Devise a Plan

Look for patterns.

It appears that the number of routes to an

intersection is the sum of the number of routes to
the adjacent intersection to its left and the number
of routes to the intersection directly above.

For instance, the number of routes to the

intersection labeled 6 is the sum of the number of
routes to the intersection to its left, which is 3, and
the number of routes to the intersection directly
above, which is also 3.
Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan
Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan
Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan
Solution
III. Carry Out a Plan

Using the pattern discovered above, we

see from the figure at the right that the
number of routes from point A to point
B is 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑𝟓.
Solution
IV. Review your Solution

Ask yourself whether a result of 35

seems reasonable. If you were required
to draw each route, could you devise a
scheme that would enable you to draw
each route without missing a route or
duplicating a route?
Graded Group Activity
Graded Group Activity #2
Output

1. Group report on assigned exercises.

2. Copy of the presentation to be submitted to CeLo+

Specific Guidelines and Rubrics

-Uploaded in the Assignments Tab
Assigned Exercises
for the Graded
Group Activity #2
Graded Group Activity #3
Use Polya’s four-step problem-solving strategy and the problem-
solving procedures presented in this section to solve each of the
following exercises.
Problem 1 (Group 1)
A Puzzle

A frog is at the bottom of a 17-foot well. Each time the frog leaps, it
moves up 3 feet. If the frog has not reached the top of the well, then
the frog slides back 1 foot before it is ready to make another leap.
How many leaps will the frog need to escape the well?
Problem 2 (Group 2)
Number of Ducks and Pigs

The number of ducks and pigs in a field totals 35. The total number
of legs among them is 98. Assuming each duck has exactly two legs
and each pig has exactly four legs, determine how many ducks and
how many pigs are in the field.
Problem 3 (Group 3)
Carpet for a Room

A room measures 12 feet by 18 feet.

a. How many 1-foot by 1-foot squares of carpet are needed to cover
the floor of this room?
b. How many 2-foot by 2-foot squares of carpet are needed to cover
the floor of this room?
c. How many 3-foot by 3-foot squares of carpet are needed to
cover the floor of this room?
Problem 4 (Group 4)
Palindromic Numbers

A palindromic number is a whole number that remains unchanged

when its digits are written in reverse order. Find all palindromic
numbers that have exactly
a. three digits and are the square of a natural number.
b. four digits and are the cube of a natural number.
References
• Aufmann, R. N., Lockwood, J. S., Nation, R. D. & Clegg, D. K. (2013).
Mathematical Excursions, Third Edition. CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage
Learning.

• Dayap, J. A., Dionsay, J. S., Sullano, A. Q., & Villeta, R. B. (2018).

Exploring the Basics of Mathematics in the Modern World (pp. 25-30).
San Sebastian College-Recoletos de Cavite.
Folding the rectangle into… Number of Rectangles

1 (no folds) 1
Folding the rectangle into… Number of Rectangles

1 (no folds) 1

2 3
Folding the rectangle into… Number of Rectangles

1 (no folds) 1

2 3

3 6