MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
WELDING
INTRODUCTION:
Metal fabrication involves joining of two metals together. Various processes are used to join
the metals together depending on the strength of the joint, material and thickness of the work
metals and other several factors. Metal Joining processes are generally classified as:
1) Welding
2) Soldering
3) Brazing
4) Mechanical Fasteners like bolts, nuts, rivets, screws etc.
5) Adhesive bonding.
WELDING
Definition
Welding is a fabrication process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by heating them
to a suitable temperature and then fusing them together with or without the application of
pressure and filler metal.
The capacity of a metal to be welded successfully under desired conditions is known as
weldability. The fusion of metal takes place by the application of heat. The heat may be
obtained from electric arc, electric resistance, chemical reaction, friction or radiant energy.
Types
1) Plastic or Pressure Welding (Under pressure without additional filler metal)
In plastic welding process the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and
then fused together by external pressure. The bonding takes place by diffusion of atoms and
intimate contact of the clean surfaces. Examples:
(a) Friction welding
(b) Electric resistance welding
(c) Blacksmiths forge welding
2) Fusion or non-pressure welding (With additional filler material)
In the fusion welding, the material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to
solidify. They do not require the application of pressure. Examples:
(a) Gas welding
(b) Electric arc welding
(c) Thermit welding
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
ARC WELDING
Construction:
Arc welding equipment are listed below. The equipment’s are categorized as facilitator,
consumable and protecting equipments. Some of the equipment of arc welding are same as
that are used in gas welding like flux, protecting devices and cleaning devices, etc.
Facilitator Equipment
(a) Power source (welding machine)
(b) Electrode holder
(c) Work table
(d) Cables (for connection)
(e) Finishing devices like chipping, hammer, wire brush, etc.
Consumable Equipment
(a) Electrode
(b) Flux
(c) Workpiece
(d) Filler metal
Protecting Equipment
(a) Welding shields
(b) Goggles
(c) Screens
(d) Gloves
(e) Apron
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
Arc Welding Machine:
Both alternating current and direct current are used for arc welding. Whenever AC supply is
not available, DC generators are used for DC arc welding. For AC arc welding a step down
transformer is used. The transformer receives the AC supply between 200 and 440 volts and
transforms it to the required low voltage in the range of 80 to 100 volts. A high current of
100A to 400A will be suitable for general arc welding work.
In DC welding, the workpiece is connected to the positive pole of a DC generator and the
electrode to the negative pole in order to melt greater mass of metal in the base material. This
kind of setup is said to have “Straight Polarity”. When the less heat is required at the base
material, the polarity is reversed. Because of this option of selection of polarity depending
upon the type of the job, in DC welding it is possible to melt many metals which require
more heat to melt.
In AC arc welding, there is no choice of polarity since they change in every cycle. As the AC
current acquires zero values twice in every cycle, at these moments the potential difference is
also zero and hence higher voltage is required to maintain the arc.
Arc Welding Electrodes:
The two types of electrodes used in arc welding are
i. Consumable Electrodes
ii. Non-Consumable Electrodes
Consumable Electrodes also melt along with the workpieces and fill the joint. They are made
of various metals depending upon their purpose and the chemical composition of the
workpieces. The consumable electrodes either will be bare or coated. When the bare elctrodes
are used, the globules of the molten metal while passing from the electrodes absorb oxygen
and nitrogen from the atmospheric air to form non-metallic constituents which gets trapped in
the solidifying weld metal and thereby, decreasing the strength of the joint.
The coated electrodes facilitate:
a) The protection of molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen of the air by providing a
gas shield around the arc and the molten pool of metal
b) To establish and maintain the arc throughout welding
c) The formation of slag over the joint thus protects from rapid cooling
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
d) The addition of alloying element.
The electrodes are made of either soft steel wire or alloy steel. The coating is usually
composed of chalk, ferro manganese, starch, kaolin, alloying and binding materials.
When non-consumable electrodes are used, an additional filler material is also required. The
advantages of using this type of electrode is that the amount of the metal deposited by the
filler rod can be controlled which is not possible in the other types of electrodes.
Working Principle:
When two conductors of an electric circuit are touched together momentarily and then
instantaneously separated slightly, assuming that there is sufficient voltage in the circuit to
maintain the flow of current, an electric arc is formed. Concentrated heat is produced
throughout the length of the arc at a temperature of about 5000 to 6000°C. In arc welding,
usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of the circuit and the electrode held by
the operator forms the other pole. When the arc is produced, the intense heat quickly melts
the workpiece metal which is directly under the arc, forming a small molten metal pool. At
the same time the tip of the electrode at the arc also melts and this molten metal of the
electrode is carried over by the arc to the molten metal pool of the workpiece. The molten
metal in the pool agitated by the action of the arc, thoroughly mixing the base and the filler
metal. A solid joint will be formed when the molten metal cools and solidifies. The flux
coating over the electrode produces an inert gaseous shield surrounding the arc and protects
the molten metal from oxidizing by coming in contact with the atmosphere.
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
Advantages:
1. Low cost process.
2. It is applicable to a wide range of metals and their alloys.
3. It produces strong, sound and ductile welds.
Disadvantages:
1. Basically a manual process requiring adequate operator skill for good results.
2. Electrodes require frequent changing.
Industrial application: Arc welding is the most widely used fabrication process at present. It
finds application in the initial fabrication, repair work and maintenance work in different
fields like ship building, structural works of bridges and building, automobile and aircraft
industries, etc.
OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
Principle of operation:
Oxy-Acetylene Welding is basically a fusion type of gas welding process, in which a flame
produced by the combustion of gases is employed to melt the metal. As in arc welding, a
filler metal is used to fill the joint. The molten metal is allowed to flow together thus forming
a solid continuous joint upon cooling. By burning acetylene in combination with right
proportion of pure oxygen, in a welding torch, a flame upto 35000C can be attained.
Construction:
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
1. Gas cylinders: The oxy-acetylene gas equipment consists of two large steel cylinders
in which oxygen and acetylene gases are stored separately under high pressure.
2. Pressure regulators: each cylinder has a regulator to regulate right proportions of the
gases and also to control the working pressures of the gases.
3. Pressure gauges: Two pressure gauges are provided with each regulator. One
indicates the cylinder pressure and the other indicates the working pressure for
welding.
4. Welding Torch: This is a device which mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired
volume and guides the mixture to its tip where it is ignited. The flame is produced due
to the combustion of gases.
5. Hoses: These are rubber tubes which connect the gas cylinders with the welding
torch.
Types of Oxy-Acetylene flame:
The correct adjustment of the flame is very important for reliable works. The flame [Link]
not uniform throughout the entire length of the flame, indeed it varies with the gas
composition. There are three kinds of flame:
1. Neutral Flame: It is known as balanced flame. When oxygen and acetylene are
supplied to the torch in nearly equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced having a
maximum temperature of 34000C. The ratio of volume of oxygen to acetylene
supplied is 1:1. It has a small whitish inner cone surrounded by a sharply defined blue
flame. This neutral flame is desired for most welding operations as it has little effect
on the base metal and sound welds are produced when compared to other flames.
2. Carburizing Flame: It is also known as reducing flame. The temperature of this
flame is around 31500C. The ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 0.9:1. In between the
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
outer blue flame and inner white cone, an intermediate flame feather exists, which is
reddish in colour and it is a indication of excess of acetylene present.
3. Oxidizing Flame: In an oxidizing flame excess of oxygen is present. The flame is
similar to the neutral flame with the exception that the inner white cone is somewhat
small, giving rise to higher tip temperatures of around 35000C. Excess of oxygen in
the oxidizing flame causes the metal to burn or oxidize quickly. The ratio of oxygen
to acetylene is altered from 1.2 to 1.5:1.
Advantages:
1. Low cost and low maintenance of the equipment.
2. Equipment is easily portable.
3. It is applicable to a wide range of metals and their alloys.
Disadvantages:
1. It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding hence high
operating time.
2. The heat affected area is more.
3. Handling and storage of gas is difficult.
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
SOLDERING
Definition:
Soldering is defined as the method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by using
another low temp. metal alloy called solder (having melting point lower than that of the base
metal) under the application of heat.
Types:
Soldering is classified into,
1. Soft Soldering
If the melting point of the filler metal is very much lower than the melting point of the metal
to be joined, then it is termed as soft soldering. The solder is composed of lead and tin with a
low melting point of 150-350˚C.
2. Hard Soldering
The hard solders are alloys of copper and zinc composed in 4:1 ratio, to which silver or tin is
also added. The melting point of the hard solder is also less when compared to the melting
point of the base metal and are in the range of 6000C to 9000C.
Working principle:
The surfaces to be joined are cleaned and are placed on each other. A flux is employed to
prevent oxidation. The solder is heated by a soldering iron and the molten filler metal is made
to flow between the two closely placed adjacent surfaces by the capillary action. In the
soldering process only the solder melts and the workpieces does not.
Though soldering results in a good joint between the two plates, the strength of the
joint is limited by the strength of the filler metal used. Soldering is used for obtaining a leak
proof joint or a low resistance electrical joint. The soldered joints are not suitable for high
temperature applications because of the low melting temperatures of the filler metals used.
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
Method of soldering
The following operations are required to be performed sequentially for making soldered
joints.
1. Shaping and fitting of metal parts together: The two parts to be joined are shaped
to fit closely so that the space between them is extremely small and filled completely
with solder by capillary action. If a large gap is present, capillary action will not take
place and the joint will not be strong.
2. Cleaning of surfaces: In order to obtain a sound joint, the surfaces to be soldered are
cleaned to remove dirt grease or any other foreign material.
3. Application of flux: Then the joining surfaces are coated with a flux usually rosin or
borax.
4. Tinning: It is done on the tip surface of the soldering iron before carrying out the
soldering operation to remove a thin film of oxide which would not allow the heating
up of the job.
5. Application of heat: The parts are held in right position and the soldering iron is
heated and the flowing molten filler metal fills the joint interface.
6. Cooling and final clean up: The joint is allowed to cool and later is cleaned with a
solvent to remove the left out flux.
Application
Soldering is widely used for sheet metal work and in radio and television work for joining
wires
Advantages:
• Low cost and easy to use
• Soldered joints are easy to repair or do rework
• The soldered joint can last for many years
• Low energy is required to solder
• An experienced person can exercise a high degree of control over the soldering
process
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
BRAZING
Definition: Brazing is defined as the method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals by
using a non-ferrous fusible filler metal called spelter (having melting point lower than that of
the base metal) under the application of heat.
Types:
Brazing is classified into,
1. Gas Torch Brazing: It is a commonly used process in which oxy-acetylene torch is
used.
2. Furnace Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are placed in a furnace already hot.
3. Dip Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are dipped in molten filler metal.
4. Electrical Brazing: In electric brazing heat is produced by resistance or induction
method.
Working principle:
The surfaces to be joined are cleaned and are placed in joining position. A flux is
employed to prevent oxidation. The part to be joined is heated and the molten filler metal is
made to flow between the two closely placed adjacent surfaces by the capillary action. If a
large gap is present, capillary action will not take place and the joint will not be strong
Brazing gives a much stronger joint than soldering. The principal difference is the use of
a harder filler material commercially known as spelter. The spelter is usually an alloy of
copper, zinc and tin.
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MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
Method of brazing
The following operations are required to be performed sequentially for making soldered
joints.
1. Cleaning and preparing the surface to be brazed. Cleaning may be done by wire
brushing, filing or grinding.
2. Coating the surface of both base metal and the filler metal with a flux.
3. The parts are aligned, held in right position and clamped.
4. Heating the joint using a blow torch or other suitable mean in the presence of the filler
metal.
5. Filler metal melts and fills the joint by capillary action.
6. The joint is allowed to cool and later is cleaned with a solvent to remove the left out
flux.
Application
Brazing is used for the manufacture of motor cycle frames, repair of radiators and heat
exchangers, joining pipes & pipe fittings, manufacture of cutting tools etc.
Advantages:
• It is easy to learn.
• It is possible to join virtually any dissimilar metals
• The bond line is very neat
• Joint strength is enough for most non-heavy duty type of applications
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ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL DEPT, SJEC
COMPARISON BETWEEN WELDING, SOLDERING AND BRAZING:-
Sl. Parameters WELDING SOLDERING BRAZING
no.
1 Stability & High Comparatively low Moderate
strength of the
joint
2
Governing Joint takes place Joints takes place Joints takes place due
factor due to fusion. No due to capillary to capillary action
capillary action is action between the between the base
present. base metal and the metal and the filler
filler metal metal
3 Process Filler rod Solder Spleter
accomplished
by
4 Working By the application By the application By the application of
principle of heat both the of heat only the heat only the surface
surface of the base surface of the of the spelter is melted
metal as well as the solder is melted while the base metal
filler electrode is while the base does not.
melted to form a metal does not.
joint upon cooling
5 Melting point Same as or slightly Below 350˚C Between 450˚C to
of the filler rod less than that of the 900˚C
base metal
6 Temp. of the Between 3000˚C to Less than 400˚C Between 600˚C to
fame required 6000˚C 1000˚C
to obtain the
joint
7 Filler electrode Almost of the same Alloy of lead and Alloy of copper, zinc
material composition as that tin and tin
of the base metal
8 Operational moderate Economical Comparatively costlier
cost
9 Skills and High Moderate Moderate
experience of
the operator
10 Distortion Comparatively high Less Moderate
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