Chapter-15: Stellar Interiors*

Instructor: Dr. Rudra Kafle

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts

1 Equations of Stellar Structure

The internal structure of a spherical star in equilibrium is dictated by few
equations of stellar structure. The major equations are the equation of hydro-
static equilibrium, the equation of mass continuity, and the equation of energy
transport, the equation of energy generation, and the equation of state.

1.1 Equation of hydrostatic equilibrium

The first equation which governs the structure of a star is the equation of
hydrostatic equilibrium,

dP GM (r)ρ(r)
=− , (1)
dr r2
where r is the distance from the star’s center, P (r) is the local pressure,
M (r) is the mass contained within a sphere of radius r, ρ(r) is the local
mass density, and G is the Newtonian Universal gravitational constant (G =
6.67 × 10−11 N · m2 /kg 2 ).
In writing Eq. (1), the following assumptions are made:
(a) The star is spherical and non-rotating.
(b) The star is neither expanding nor contracting.
(c) The only forces acting on the star are the force due to pressure gradient
and the gravitational force.
* These
notes are mostly based on the textbook Foundations of Astrophysics by B.
Ryden and B.M. Peterson. Please DO NOT SHARE this document in any public
website.

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Although we can not, as it is, solve Eq. (1) for pressure, we can make some
crude approximations to extract some interesting information about a star.
A rough approximation to the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium (Eq. 1) is
the following:
∆P G⟨M ⟩⟨ρ⟩
=− , (2)
∆r ⟨r⟩2
where ∆P is the the difference in pressure between the photosphere of the
Sun (or a star) and its center, ∆r is the difference in radius between the
photosphere and the center, and ⟨M ⟩, ⟨ρ⟩, and ⟨r⟩ are typical values of
mass, density, and the radius of the Sun’s interior respectively. We can make
further approximations, and write Eq. (2) for the Sun as follows:
0 − PC G (M⊙ /2) ρ⊙ 2GM⊙ ρ⊙
≈− 2 ≈− 2
. (3)
R⊙ − 0 (R⊙ /2) R⊙
This gives a rough estimation of the central pressure of the Sun as
GM⊙ ρ⊙ 8π 2 2
Pc ≈ 2 ≈ Gρ⊙ R⊙ ≈ 5 × 1014 N m−2 ≈ 5 × 109 atm. (4)
R⊙ 3

1.2 Equation of mass continuity

The second equation dictating the stellar structure is the equation of mass
continuity:
dM
= 4πr2 ρ(r), (5)
dr
where ρ(r) is the density of the material of star at radius r.

r
dr

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Figure 1: A shell of radius r and thickness dr of a spherical star.

As it is shown in Fig. 1, Eq. (5) tells us that the total mass of a spherical star

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is the sum of the masses of infinitesimally thin spherical shells of which it is
made. We can derive the relation between the mass M (r) enclosed within
the radius r and the local density ρ(r) from Eq. (5).
We have the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium (Eq. 1) and the equation of
mass continuity (Eq. 5) with three unknowns P (r), M (r), and ρ(r). There-
fore, we need further information to solve for P , M , and ρ uniquely.

1.3 Equation of state

We can solve for P , M , and ρ uniquely by considering additional equation
governing the stellar structure, which is the equation of state:
ρ(r)kT (r)
P (r) = , (6)
µmp
which shows the relation between the pressure, temperature and the density
of the stellar gases. We also need to include radiation pressure due to the
photons to the pressure given by Eq. (6). The radiation pressure in a stellar
interior with temperature T (r) is given by,
a
Prad (r) = T (r)4 , (7)
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where a = 4σSB /c = 7.56 × 10−16 Jm−3 K −4 is the radiation constant.

1.4 Energy transport in stars

Thermal energy transfer occurs by three processes: conduction, convection,
and radiation. In the stars, the last two processes are dominant ways of
energy transport. The rate at which the thermal energy flows outward from
the interior of a star is dictated by the equation of energy transport, which
includes the combined effect of the two major energy transport modes in a
star: radiative energy transport and the convective energy transport.

1.4.1 Radiative transport

The energy generated by stars is transported away from them in the form of
photons. This mode of energy transport is called radiative transport. The
temperature gradient of a star in the radiative transport is given by
dT 3ρ(r)κ(r)L(r)
=− , (8)
dr 64πσSB T (r)3 r2

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where L(r) is the luminosity of the star, and κ(r) is the opacity. Eq. (9) is
called the equation of radiative energy transport.
A crude approximation to Eq. (9) for the Sun can be done to obtain the
temperature gradient in the Sun as,

∆T Tphot − TC 5800K − 1.47 × 107 K

≈ ≈ ≈ −20K/km. (9)
∆r R⊙ − 0 6.96 × 105 km − 0
This shows that moving every kilometer distance outward from the center of
the Sun, the temperature decreases by 20 Kelvin.
For details on the radiative transport of energy in a star, see pp. 353 − 356
from your textbook.

1.4.2 Convective transport

The energy transport within a star occurs by the circulation of hotter and
cooler materials as result of pressure gradient (see Fig. 2). This is called the
convective transport.

Pb + dPb, ρb + dρb P + dP, ρ + dρ

dr

Pb, ρb P, ρ

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Figure 2: A blob of gas is moved upward by a small distance dr.

If we consider a small hot blob of gas in a star as shown in Fig. 2 moved

upward through a distance dr, the pressure inside the blob changes and,
accordingly, the density changes. Since the pressure and density of the gases
in the surrounding are different, this motion sets up a convectional flow.
We can obtain an approximate expression for the temperature gradient due
to the convective transport with the help thermodynamics, and it comes to

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be the following equation:
!
dT 1 T (r) dP
= 1− , (10)
dr γ P (r) dr

where γ is called the adiabatic index of the gas. Its value is 5/3 for monatomic
gases (and also for fully ionized gases) and 7/5 for diatomic gases. Eq. (10) is
called the equation of convective energy transport. This shows that when the
energy is transported by convection, the temperature gradient is proportional
to the pressure gradient.
Fig. 3 shows the dominant zones of radiative and convective energy transport
in the Sun.

R
1.0

n
ctio
nve
Co

R
0.7
n
tio
dia
Ra

R
0.2

Core
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Figure 3: Radiative and convective energy transport within the Sun.

For details on the convectional transport of energy in a star, see pp. 356−359
from your textbook.
In general, energy is transported outward in a star (toward photosphere)
mostly by radiation and convection. The efficient process is the one which
leads to a smaller temperature gradient (as derived in Eq. 9 and Eq. 10).
Within a single star, energy can be carried by radiation in one region and
by convection in another. For example, in the Sun, radiation is the more
efficient process out to r = 0.7R⊙ , and convection dominates in the region
0.7R⊙ < r < R⊙ (Fig. 3).

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2 Energy generation in stars
The stars produce their own energy by thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen
nuclei under very high temperature and pressure. The generation of energy
within a star is described by the equation of energy generation, which is
another equation used to study the stellar structure. The equation of energy
generation within a star is given by
  dL
dL = 4πr2 dr ρϵ ⇒ = 4πr2 ρ(r)ϵ(r), (11)
dr
where ϵ(r) is the rate of energy production at a distance r from the center
of the star in the unit of Watts per kilogram (W/kg), ρ(r) is the density of
the gas in the unit of kilogram per cubic meter at that distance, and dL/dr
is the rate of increase in luminosity (production of energy) of the star with
the distance from its core.
The energy in the core of a star is generated from the thermonuclear fusion
in which heavier nuclei are produced from the fusion of lighter nuclei. In
this process, some mass disappears! This lost mass is converted into energy,
which can be calculated by Einstein’s mass-energy relation:
E = (∆m)c2 (12)
where ∆m is the lost mass in the process, and c = 3 × 108 m/s is the speed
of light in vacuum.
For further details, see pp. 359 − 362 from your textbook.

3 Nuclear fusion reactions1

Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear reactions in which lighter nuclei combine
together to from a heavy nucleus with a release of a huge amount of energy. It
requires tremendous pressure and temperature for the nuclear fusion process.
The main nuclear fusion reactions that happen in the stars are the proton-
proton (PP ) cycle (Fig. 4) and the Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) cycle
(Fig. 5). The PP cycle occurs if the temperature of the center of the star is
less than 18 million Kelvin and CNO cycle occurs if the temperature of the
center of the star is greater than 18 million Kelvin.

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The article in the following link describes the PP and CNO cycles in details:
[Link]

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 p + p → 2H + e+ + ve (twice)
 2H + p → 3He + γ (twice)
3He
+ 3He → 4He + p + p
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Figure 4: The PP chain, the dominant form of hydrogen fusion at Tc <

1.8 × 107 K.

The PP cycle starts with the fusion of a proton p with another proton p
producing a deuteron 2 H (the nucleus of a deuterium, which is also called
‘heavy hydrogen’), a positron (e+ ), and an electron neutrino (νe ). Thus
formed deuteron collides with a proton producing a He-3 nucleus and a γ
photon. Such produced He-3 nuclei interact with each other producing a He-
4 nucleus and releasing two protons, which continue the next chain reactions
(Fig. 4). Thus, the pp chain reaction is a series of two-body collisions, rather
than a single four-body collision.
The net result of a PP chain is given by

4p →4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 2γ, (13)

where e+ represents a positron and νe is electron neutrino, and γ is a gamma-

ray photon.
In a thermonuclear reaction, there is a loss of mass, i.e., the total mass of the
product nuclei and particles is less than the total mass of the reactant par-
ticles. For example, the total mass of 4 hydrogen nuclei is 6.6905 × 10−27 kg,
the mass of a helium nucleus is 6.6447 × 10−27 kg, the mass of positron is
9.11 × 10−31 kg, and the mass of electron neutrino is negligibly small com-
pared to other terms. A quick calculation shows that the mass difference
between the products and the reactants in a thermonuclear fusion reaction
is 0.0440 × 10−27 kg. The mass deficit (lost mass) appears as energy, which
can be calculated by the following equation:

E = ∆mc2 , (14)

where ∆m is the mass deficit calculated from Eq. (13) and c = 3 × 108 m/s
is the speed of light in vacuum.

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If we consider Eq. (13), ∆m ≈ 0.0440 × 10−27 kg, and hence,

E = ∆mc2 = (0.0440 × 10−27 kg) × 3 × 108 m/s)2 = 24.71M eV. (15)
This is how a star produces energy in a thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen
nuclei (protons) in a proton-proton (pp) cycle.
Taking the derivative of both side of Eq. (14) with respect to time,
dE dm 2
= c. (16)
dt dt
If we consider that the efficiency of this mass-energy conversion process in a
star is η, We can write Eq. (16) as
dm 2
c, L=η (17)
dt
where L is the luminosity of the star. For the thermonuclear fusion in the
Sun. η = 0.7%.

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C + p → 13N + γ
 13N → 13N + e+ + ve
13C + p → 14N + γ
14
N + p → 15O + γ
 15O → 15N + e+ + ve
15N
+ p → 12C
+ 4He

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Figure 5: The CNO cycle, the dominant form of hydrogen fusion at Tc >
1.8 × 107 K.

Fig. 5 shows the various thermonuclear reactions involved in a CNO cycle.

The net result of a cycle can be written as,
4p →4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 3γ. (18)

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As we see from Eq. (18) that the net result does not contain C, N , and O
nuclei, these heavier nuclei play a role of catalysts to speed the fusion of
hydrogen in the energy generation process.

4 Modeling stellar interiors

The equations which govern the stellar structure are the equation of hydro-
static equilibrium, the equation of mass continuity, the equations of energy
transport (radiative and convective transports), the equation of energy gen-
eration, and the equation of state. As discussed before, the following list
gives the equations of the stellar structure:

dP GM (r)ρ(r)
Hydrostatic equilibrium: =− . (19)
dr r2
dM
Mass continuity: = 4πr2 ρ(r). (20)
dr

dT 3ρ(r)κ(r)L(r)
 (Radiative transport) = − 64πσ .
Energy transport: dr   T (r)3 r2 (21)
SB
dT T (r)
 (Convective transport)
dr
= 1 − γ1 P (r) dPdr
.
dL
Energy generation: = 4πr2 ρ(r)ϵ(r). (22)
dr
P (r) = ρ(r)kT (r)
(
(Matter component) µmp
.
Equation of state: a 4
(23)
(Radiation component) Prad (r) = 3 T (r) .

With the help of boundary conditions at the photosphere, and knowing the
dependence of the mean molecular mass µ(ρ, T ), opacity κ(ρ, T ), and the
energy generation rate ϵ(ρ, T ) on density (ρ) and temperature (T ) within the
star, the equations of the stellar structure can be solved numerically to build
up the models of the stellar interiors. Fig. 6 shows a model for the Sun’s
interior, which shows the enclosed luminosity (top), temperature (middle),
and mass density (bottom) as a function of radius within the Sun.

For further details in modeling the stellar interiors, see pp. 369 − 372 from
your textbook.

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 1

L (solar units )
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
(a) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

10
T (10 6 K)

0.1
(b) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
100
ρ (1000 kg m−3)

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1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(c)
r (solar radii)
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Figure 6: The enclosed luminosity (top), temperature (middle), and mass

density (bottom) as a function of radius within the Sun.

Appendix: Random walk processes

A random walk is the motion of a particle in which the direction of each step
of the particle is completely uncorrelated with the direction of the previous
step. For example, when we consider the photons produced in the core of a
star, they move to a distance, called the mean free path (l) before they are
absorbed, and are re-emitted. The direction of motion of a re-emitted photon
is independent of the direction of the motion of the original photon that was
absorbed. Therefore, traveling of photons through a gas, their absorption,
and re-emission can be considered as random walk processes.
Here we will be discussing one-dimensional random walk processes. Consider
a large number of photons generated at the origin which move in either
positive or negative x- direction in steps of length l. Their average position
in the beginning (after zero steps) is clearly zero, i.e., ⟨x0 ⟩ = 0. In the first

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step, about half of the photons will move to the position, x = l, and the other
half to the position, x = −l. The average position of all photons after one
step, therefore, will be zero, i.e., ⟨x1 ⟩ = 0. In the second step, about half of
the photons at position x = +l will move to x = +2l, and the other half will
return to the origin, i.e., x = 0. At the same time, about half of the photons
at position x = −l will move to x = −2l, and the other half will return to
the origin, i.e., x = 0. Therefore, after the second step, one-quarter of the
original photons will be at x = +2l, one-quarter of them will be at x = −2l,
and half of them will be at the origin, i.e., at x = 0. Thus, the average
position of the photons after the second step, ⟨x2 ⟩ ≈ 0. From this logic, we
see that the average position of the photons after N steps will remain zero,
i.e., ⟨xN ⟩ ≈ 0. But since, after these steps, individual photons are located
at different positions on the x- axis, the width of the distribution is broader.
This information can be characterized by the root-mean-square displacement
(rms), denoted by ⟨x2N ⟩1/2 , where xN is the position of a photon after N
steps.
The position of a photon after N steps of its random walk can be written in
terms of its immediate past position and the step length as follows:
xN = xN −1 ± l, (24)
which, squaring on both sides, gives
x2N = (xN −1 ± l)2 = x2N −1 + l2 ± 2lxN −1 . (25)
The mean square position of a large number of photons can be obtained by
taking the average of the square of their positions, i.e., averaging both sides
of Eq. (25) as follows:
⟨x2N ⟩ = ⟨x2N −1 ⟩ + l2 ± 2l⟨xN −1 ⟩. (26)
But, since ⟨xN −1 ⟩ = 0, Eq. (26) reduces to
⟨x2N ⟩ = ⟨x2N −1 ⟩ + l2 . (27)
Similarly, for the (N − 1)th step,
⟨x2N −1 ⟩ = ⟨x2N −2 ⟩ + l2 . (28)
Then, from Eqs. (27) and (28), we can write,
⟨x2N ⟩ = ⟨x2N −2 ⟩ + 2l2 . (29)

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By induction, we can generalize the mean-square displacement for a photon
after its N steps random walk as follows:

⟨x2N ⟩ = ⟨x2N −N ⟩ + N l2 , (30)

where the first term in the RHS, ⟨x2N −N ⟩ = ⟨x20 ⟩ = 0 as x0 = 0.

Hence, we can write the rms displacement of photons from the origin after
N steps as follows:
√
⟨x2N ⟩1/2 = N l. (31)

Although the expression for the rms of a photon given by Eq. (31) was
calculated considering one dimensional random walk, this also holds true for
two and three-dimensional random walk processes.
If we consider photons in the core of the Sun moving outward along a direct
path (no random walk!), the number of steps n, that a photon would take in
moving to the bottom of the convective layer:
0.7R⊙
n= . (32)
l
But, instead when the photon does random walk to cover the path, Eq. (31)
gives,
√ √ 0.7R⊙
0.7R⊙ = Nl ⇒ N= . (33)
l
Comparing Eqs. (32) and (33) gives,

N = n2 , (34)

which shows that if it requires n steps to move through a distance along a

direct path from the origin, it will typically require n2 steps to cover the same
distance in a random walk process.

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