CONTROL SYSTEMS

EPENG 202
COURSE OUTLINE

OBJECTIVES
•The objectives of this subject/course are to enable you to:
•Know and understand definitions such as system, open-loop and closed-
loop control, reference and controlled variable, transfer function and
characteristic equation.
•Use the block diagram method of representing a system’s operation.
•Be familiar with Kirchhoff’s and Mason’s rules to simplify block diagrams.
 Develop a mathematical model from the
schematics/block diagram of a physical system
concentrating on the transfer function of the
system in the frequency domain.
 Be familiar with the principles of the Laplace
transformation learned in a mathematic
course and apply the techniques to derive the
transfer function of simple electrical,
mechanical and electro-mechanical systems.
 Determine the transient response of a first
and second order system.
 Determine the frequency response of first and
second order systems mathematically.
 Draw the Bode diagram of first and second order
system frequency responses using a mathematical
approach.
 Use the straight-line approximation method to draw
the Bode diagrams of higher order-transfer
functions.
 Determine stability of systems using the Bode
diagrams.
 Discuss elements of industrial controllers and define
proportional, integral and derivative (PID) control
modes.
 Describe the basic operation of a PLC, draw and
write ladder diagrams and instruction sets for simple
systems.
 Chapter 1: Introduction
 Control systems: Control systems as an integral part
of modern society and its numerous applications all
around us.

 History of control systems: Read

 Terminology:
 Control system.
 Open-loop systems.
 Closed loop systems.
 Transfer function and characteristic equation.
 System.
 Discuss how a specific open-loop system can be
altered to form a closed-loop system.
Chapter 2: Block Diagram Models of Control Systems

 The canonical form of a control system.

 Derivation of the transfer function equations from the canonical form.
 Setting up a simple block diagram for a given system.
 Be able to identify the various signal values at different points in the block diagram.
 Know how to apply Kirchhoff’s law to simplify block diagrams.
 Know how to apply Mason’s law to simplify block diagrams.
 Know how to use simplification theorems when dealing with block diagrams.

Terms used in control systems

 Block diagrams:
 The open-loop transfer function
 The closed-loop transfer function using Kirchhoff’s method.
 Error ratio
 Feedback ratio
 Unity feedback systems
 Signal flow diagrams
 Mason’s rule
Chapter 3:Transfer Functions
 Derive the transfer function of simple electrical networks.
 Derive the transfer function of simple mechanical networks.
 Derive the transfer function of simple instrumentation processes.
 Derive the transfer function of simple electro-mechanical systems.

 Transfer function of electrical networks

 Electrical components
 Electrical networks
 Transfer function of mechanical networks
 Mechanical components
 Mechanical systems – translation, rotational, gears
 Servomotors
 Heat transfer systems – liquid filled thermometer
Chapter 4:Transient Response
 Determine the transient response of a typical first
order system.
 Determine the transient response of a typical
second order system.

Forcing functions:
 Impulse function
 Step function
 Ramp (velocity) function
 Parabolic (acceleration) function
Transient response of first and second order
systems.
Chapter 5: Frequency Response
 Determine the frequency response of a typical first
and second order system mathematically.
 Draw the Bode diagram of first and second order
systems using the mathematical approach.
 Draw the Bode diagram of first and second order
systems using the straight line approximation
approach.
 Determine the gain and phase cross-over
frequencies, the gain and phase margins and the
stability of the system using the Bode diagrams.
 The decibel concept
 Frequency response using Bode diagrams
 Straight-line approximations
CHAPTER: 6 DIGITAL CONTROLLERS

 Discuss the design of controller in the z -

plane
 Characteristic response
 Stability analysis - Root locus, Nyquist,
Bode, Mathematical tests for stability -
Jury’s test
 Digital controller design - Ragazzinis
method

 Digital observer
 Microprocessor control
 Optimal control systems
 Characteristics of optimal control
systems
 Calculus of variations
 Dynamic programming
 Maximum principle
 Application of the maximum principle of
special control
Chapter 7: PID-applied control systems
(Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative
control)
 Discuss the classification of industrial automatic
controllers.
 Discuss the elements of industrial controllers.
 Define Proportional, Integral and Derivative
control modes.
 Elements of controllers.
 Proportional, integral and derivative mode
control.
 Chapter 8: Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLC’s)
 Describe the basic construction of a PLC.
 Define basic PLC terminology.
 State the advantages of using PLCs in systems over the
classical approach of control system design.
 Draw ladder diagrams for simple systems.
 Write instruction sets for given ladder diagrams.
 Draw ladder diagrams from given instruction sets.
 Program a specific PLC decided upon by your engineering
department (Most of the practical work will be tested during
laboratory sessions and marks allocated accordingly).

 Basic control elements:

◦ Switches and relay contacts
◦ Logic operations
◦ Other PLC functions
 TEXTBOOKS
CORE REFERENCE TEXT

1. Design and Analysis of Control Systems

Arthur G.O. Mutambara
CRC Press
ISBN :0-8493-1898-X

2. Introduction to Control Systems

P Ellis, G Jonker, D Pentz
0-620-22216-6

3. Modern Control Engineering: Instrumentation and Control Series

K OGATA
Prentice-Hall. Inc
13-590232-0

4 . Control Systems Engineering

Author:Norman S. Nise (3rd or 6th Eds)
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
0-8053-5424-7

SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS
1. Automatic control systems / Benjamin C. Kuo.
2. Control systems : an introduction / Kevin Warwick.
3. Mechatronics : electronic control systems in mechanical engineering /W. Bolton.
4. E-Book: Control Engineering; An introduction with the use of Matlab/ Derek Atherton.
ASSESSMENT
 RULES
 Students shall attend all the lectures and
laboratory sessions.
 Students shall attempt all the class tests and
do the assignments on or before the required
dates.
 Late arrival of students for lectures or labs
will not be tolerated.
 EVALUATION AND TESTS
 Continuous assessment through:
◦ Laboratory work - 10% (at least 3 labs)
◦ Semester Tests - 30% (two tests +1 Control
Project)
◦ Assignments - 10% (three assigns)
◦ Final Exam - 50%
◦ Performed all laboratory practicals and achieved an
average mark of at least 50% in the tests.
 Final Mark = [(Test average)*0.3 + (Lab
average)*0.1]+ [(Assignments
average)*0.10] +[Final exam*.5]
 Pass mark-at least 50%.
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. What is a Control System?
 Daily life requires numerous objectives that need to
be accomplished through control e.g:
◦ Regulation of temperature and humidity to make our homes
and buildings comfortable to live in.
◦ Control automobiles and planes to reach our destinations
safely.
◦ Control of industrial processes to achieve satisfactory
precision and cost-effectiveness.
◦ Human beings have in-built senses which control their own
actions, the actions of others, and also the actions of
machines.
 INTRODUCTION
 The control mechanism is based on the ability to measure
the output of a system, and to take corrective action if its
value deviates from some desired value.
 This necessitates the need for a sensing device.
Definition: We define a control system as a system with the
ability to measure the output and to regulate any deviations
from the desired value.
 Alternatively, we define a control system as a device or set
of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the
behavior of other device(s) or systems.
INTRODUCTION
 [Link] are the benefits of Control?
 Some of the benefits of control are:
◦ Path following.
◦ Stabilization.
◦ Performance improvement.
◦ Robustness to plant uncertainty: be able to maintain
system response and error signals within prescribed
tolerances (despite disturbance effects on plant,
noise, modeling errors due to nonlinearities and time-
varying parameters).
INTRODUCTION
3. Concept of System
 [Link] is a System?
 System means different things integrated together
for a common purpose.
 Systems normally perform tasks through
coordinated actions.
 All systems have certain things in common:
◦ They require inputs and outputs to be specified.
◦ They have boundaries.
 A typical system is as shown on next slide.
 INTRODUCTION

Inputs System
Outputs

Boundary

Fig.1 Components of a System

 A system may have many inputs and outputs
(Multi-variable system).
 INTRODUCTION
 In control Engineering the way in which the
outputs responds to the system inputs (system
response) is important.
 A control system design Engineer attempts to
evaluate the system response by determining a
MATHEMATICAL MODEL for the system.
 Conventionally, we refer to the system that is
being controlled as the PLANT or PROCESS and
is usually represented by a block diagram.
 INTRODUCTION
 In control engineering, there are some inputs an
engineer will have direct control over, which he
can use to control the plant outputs.
 Such inputs are called Control Inputs.
 Those inputs to a control system which an
engineer has no control over and they tend to
deflect plant outputs from desired values, are
called Disturbance Inputs.
 The diagram on the next slide is an example of
a multivariable system (ship/Aircraft).
 INTRODUCTION
Rudder Position
Engines
Wind Forward velocity
Waves/Turbulences Ship/Airplane Heading
Current
Ship/Aircraft Motion
(Roll, pitch, yaw, heave)

Fig.2. Multivariable System

 The rudder and engines are controlled
inputs(values are adjustable).
 Wind, waves, turbulences and current are
disturbance inputs and will induce errors in the
outputs(controlled variables) of position, heading
and forward velocity.
 INTRODUCTION
 In addition, the disturbance will introduce
increased ship or aircraft motion (roll, pitch,
yaw or heave) which is not desirable.
 Pitch-motion in vertical plane
 Roll-rock from side to side.
 Yaw-Motion about vertical axis (deviate
temporarily from straight line).
 Heave-to cause to rise and fall with swelling
motion.
INTRODUCTION
 The relationship between control input,
disturbance input, plant and controlled variables is
as shown below.

Fig. 3 Plant inputs and outputs

INTRODUCTION
b. Control System Applications
 Many examples of control application exist and
these include:
◦ i. Smart transportation systems
◦ ii. Intelligence Systems
◦ iii. Virtual Prototyping and Hardware in the Loop
◦ iv. Steering Control of Automobile
◦ v. Idle-Speed Control
◦ vi. Sun Tracking Control of Solar Collectors
INTRODUCTION
(i). Smart transportation systems
 Intelligent cars that provide maximum levels of
comfort, safety and fuel efficiency. Intelligent
systems may include climate control, cruise control,
anti-lock brake system (ABS), active suspension that
reduce vehicle vibration over rough terrain.
◦ (ii). Intelligence Systems
 Newly developed materials provide unique
opportunities for highly efficient actuation and
sensing.
 State-of -the –art actuators and sensors are
implemented in locomotion, material handling,
defence, robotics, aeronautics, space industry and
biological applications.
INTRODUCTION
◦ (iii) Control in Virtual Prototyping and Hardware in
the Loop
 Virtual prototyping is where manufacturers design and test the entire
system in the computer environment (simulation) before a physical
prototype is made.
 This phenomenon is widely applicable in automotive, aerospace,
defence and space industries.
 Design tools such as MATLAB and Simulink (a high-performance
language for technical computing) enable designers to design and test
controllers for different components (suspension, steering, ABS,
engines, flight control mechanisms, landing gears, and other
specialized devices).

 Hardware in the loop technology is a new approach of testing

individual components by attaching them to the virtual and
controller prototypes. The physical controller is interfaced with the
computer and replaces its mathematical model within the computer.
◦ (iv).Steering Control of Automobile
 This is a simple example of a control system where the
direction of the two front wheels can be regarded as the
controlled variables or the output.
 The direction of the steering wheel is the actuating signal or
input.
 The control system in this case is composed of the steering
mechanism and the dynamics of the entire automobile.
◦ (v). Idle-Speed Control
 The objective is to control the idle-speed of the engine of an
automobile at relatively low value (for fuel economy),
regardless of the applied engine loads.
 The aim of controlling the engine idle-speed is to eliminate or
minimize the speed droop when engine load is applied
(transmission, power steering, air-conditioning etc.) and also
to maintain engine idle-speed at desired value.
INTRODUCTION
 The diagram below shows the idle-speed control
system.

Fig. 4. Idle-Speed Control System

 By adjusting the throttle angle, you control the engine
speed.
INTRODUCTION
◦ (vi) Sun Tracking Control of Solar Collectors
 Solar power conversion methods include the solar-cell
conversion technique which involves tracking the sun to
generate non-fossil fuel electrical power.
 In these systems, sun tracking has to be achieved efficiently.
 The figure below show such a typical system used for water
extraction from underground..

Fig. 5. Solar tracking for Electric power generation for water extraction
INTRODUCTION
 The collector dish must track the sun accurately.
 The movement of the collector dish has to be controlled by a
sophisticated control system(s).
 The controller uses the sun’s rate and sun sensor information
as inputs to generate proper motor commands to adjust the
controller.
◦ The important components of sun-tracking control
system are shown below.

Fig. 6. Important Components of Sun-Tracking Control System

INTRODUCTION
4. Open-Loop Control Systems (Non-feedback
systems)
 This is a system that does not have information
feedback.
 A very simple system.
 The elements of this system can be divided into two
parts:
◦ the controller , and
◦ the controlled process/plant
 An input signal or command applied to the controller,
whose output acts as actuating signal, controls the
controlled process so that the controlled variables
will perform according to some prescribed standard.
INTRODUCTION
 In a simple case, the controller can be an Amplifier,
Mechanical linkage, filter, or any other control
elements, depending on the nature of the system.
 In more sophisticated systems, the controller can be
a computer, such as Microprocessor.

Actuating Signal Controlled

Control Input CONTROLLED
Variable
(Ref Signal) CONTROLLER PROCESS
or
(PLANT)
Output

Fig. 7. Elements of an Open-Loop Control System

 Challenge: This system is very sensitive to changes

in the disturbance input.
INTRODUCTION
 Examples of Open-Loop Control Systems include:
◦ a. Idle-speed control system:-adjust throttle angle
 manually, to increase or reduce engine speed.
◦ b. An electric washing machine:-the amount of washing
time is entirely determined by judgment of its operator.
◦ c. A central heating system without a
thermostat/thermo-switch:- it has to be turned off or
adjusted manually to reduce excessive room
temperature.
INTRODUCTION
5. Closed-Loop Control Systems
 This is a system that has information feedback which is
compared with the desired output and corrects the
output automatically if there are deviations.
 The closed-loop control system has got a link or feedback
from the output to the input of the system.
 To obtain more accurate control, the controlled signal is
fed back and compared with the reference or desired
output, and an actuating signal proportional to the
difference of the input and output (error) must be sent
through the system to correct the error.
INTRODUCTION
 A closed-loop control system is therefore an
automatic control system which does not require
manual intervention to correct for output
deviations.
 The diagram below is an example of a closed-loop
control system.

or (Actual)
Desired
output

Fig. 8. Closed-Loop Control System

INTRODUCTION
 It is important to note that feedback can be
negative or positive.
 Closed-Loop control systems with feedback
(negative) are not sensitive to changes in the
controlled variables as does open-loop systems.
 Closed-loop control systems are generally stable
systems.
INTRODUCTION
Practical Examples of Closed-Loop Control
Systems
 a. Room temperature control system with
thermocouple/thermostat:
 The output signal from a temperature sensing device such as
thermocouple or a resistance thermometer (thermistor) is
compared with the desired temperature.
 Any difference or error causes the controller to send a control
signal to the heat control source (gas solenoid valve) which
produces a linear movement to adjust the flow of the gas to the
gas burner.
 The valve then regulates the gas supply to the burner, and
eventually the temperature.
INTRODUCTION
The diagram below shows the room temperature control
system and its block diagram representation.

Fig.9. Room temperature control system

INTRODUCTION
b. Aircraft Elevator control system:
 Control is achieved by power-assisted devices or
servomechanisms that provide the large forces necessary
to operate control surfaces.
 Movement of the control column produces a signal from
the input angular sensor which is compared with the
measured elevator angle by the controller which
generates a control signal that is proportional to the
error.
 The error signal is fed to the electro-hydraulic servo-valve
which generates a valve movement that is proportional to
the control signal, thereby allowing high pressure fluid to
enter the hydraulic cylinder.
INTRODUCTION
 The diagram below illustrates how elevator
control is achieved.

Fig. 10. Aircraft elevator control system

INTRODUCTION
 c. Aircraft/Ship Autopilot Control System:
 The system is designed to maintain a vessel or
aircraft on a set heading while being subject to a
series of disturbances such as wind, waves
(turbulences) and current.
 The autopilot can also be used for course
changing.
 The actual heading is measured by a
gyrocompass(or a magnetic compass in small
vessels) and then compared with the desired
heading, dialed/fed into the autopilot by the ship or
aircraft master.
INTRODUCTION
 The diagram below demonstrates how this control
is achieved.

Fig. 11. Autopilot control system

 The autopilot or controller computes the
demanded rudder angle and sends a control signal
to the steering gear.
 The actual rudder angle is monitored by a rudder
angle sensor, and compared with the demanded
rudder angle to form a control loop.
 The rudder provides a control moment on the hull
to drive the actual heading towards the desired
heading, while the wind, waves and currents
produce moments that may help or hinder this
action.
INTRODUCTION
6. Requirements of a Control System
 The following are the basic requirements of a control
system:
◦ a. Knowledge of the desired value:-What is it you are
trying to control, to what accuracy, and over what range of
values (performance specs).
◦ b. Knowledge of the output or actual value:-This
must be measured by a feedback sensor, in a form suitable
for the controller to understand. Sensor must also have the
necessary resolution and dynamic response for accuracy of
the measured values and required performance
specifications.
◦ c. Knowledge of the controlling device:-The controller must be able to
accept measurements of desired and actual values and compute a control signal
in a suitable form to drive an actuating element. Controllers can be a range of
devices including mechanical levers, pneumatic elements, amplifiers, filters,
microcomputers, analogue or digital circuits.

◦ d. Knowledge of the actuating device:- This unit amplifies the control signal
and provides the effort to move the output of the plant towards the desired
value. For example, a gas solenoid in a room temperature control system is an
example of an actuator device.

◦ e. Knowledge of the plant (process):- Most control strategies require some

knowledge of the static and dynamic characteristics of the plant or process.
These can be measured or obtained from application of fundamental physical
laws, or a combination of both.
7. Design Process of Feedback Control
Systems
The design process of a negative feedback control
system can be achieved in 6 basic steps:
a. Step 1:-Transform Requirements into a Physical
System.
◦ Identify system performance specifications.
◦ Identify the system components.
◦ Describe such features as weight and physical
dimensions.
◦ Using the requirements, design specifications such as
transient response and steady-state-accuracy.
 b. Step2: Draw a functional block diagram
◦ Translate a qualitative description of the system into a functional
block that describes the component parts of the system (function
and hardware) and show their interconnection.
◦ Indicate input functions such as transducers and controllers (with
description such as amplifier and motor).
◦ Produce a detailed layout of the system from which the next stage
of developing a schematic can be launched.
 c. Step 3: Create a schematic
◦ Transform the physical system into a schematic diagram.
◦ Make approximations about a system and neglect certain
phenomena (details about components) making certain
assumptions about system and the load.
INTRODUCTION
 d. Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Model (Block
Diagram) (Model behavior of plant).
◦ Use physical laws such as Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical networks
and Newton’s laws for mechanical systems.
◦ Make simplifying assumptions.
◦ Model the system mathematically.
◦ Develop a mathematical model that describes the relationship
between the input and output of the system eg.
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) d m x(t ) d m−1 x(t )
a0 n
+ a1 n −1
+ ... + an y (t ) = b0 m
+ b1 m −1
+ ... + bm x(t )
d t dt d t dt

◦ NB. Many systems can approximately be described by this

equation.
INTRODUCTION
◦ The transfer function, also derived from the above equation, can be used to
model the system. The model is derived from linear time-invariant differential
equation using the Laplace transform e.g.
y ( s) b0 s m + b1s m−1 + ... + bm
G( s) = =
x( s) a0 s n + a1s n −1 + ... + an
◦ However, the transfer function is meant for modeling linear systems, but yields
more information about the system than the differential equation.
◦ Transfer function can also be used to model interconnection of subsystems by
forming block diagrams.
◦ State-space representation can also be used for modeling systems especially for
simulation on the digital computer.
◦ The system can be represented in state space by the equations:

.
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
INTRODUCTION
where by assuming initial conditions and
x(t ) that
0

t  t0

x=state vector
.
x =derivative of the state vector with respect to time
y=output vector
u=input or control vector
A=system matrix
B=input matrix
C=output matrix
D=feed forward matrix
INTRODUCTION
 Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram
◦ Need to reduce large systems block diagram to a single
block with mathematical description that represents the
system from its input to its output.
 Step 6: Analyze and Design
◦ Analyze the system to see if the response specifications
and performance requirements can be met by simple
adjustment of system parameters. If not, you may need
to design additional hardware to achieve the desired
performance.
◦ Use test input signals (step, impulse, ramp, parabolic,
sinusoidal) and check the transient response model, to
test and analyze.
INTRODUCTION
8. System
 We defined a system as a network of components
integrated together to form a common purpose entity.
 For simplicity, a system(whether open-loop or closed-
loop), can be represented by a box with at least an input
and output terminal.
 Systems can be linear or non-linear.
 The block diagram below represents a system.

x (t ) y (t )
System

Fig. 12. System Representation

INTRODUCTION
◦ a. Linear System
◦ A system is called linear if:
 (i). Magnitude of output follows that of input:
ax(t ) = ay (t )
 (ii). System satisfies additive (superposition) property:
x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = y1 (t ) + y2 (t )
 A system that is non-linear does not meet the above
conditions.
◦ b. Time Invariant System
 A system is called time-invariant if the output follows the
same time shift in the input:
 (x(t+τ)=y(t+ τ)).
 E.g. When the parameters of a control system are stationary
w.r.t. time.
 [Link] Variant System:
◦ A system is time variant if the input-output
characteristics vary with time:
(x(t+τ)≠y(t+τ)).
System is time variant when the parameters of
a system vary with time e.g.
 Resistance of a coil that tends to change with
time of current flow and therefore heat
generated by the current.
 Parameters of guided missile changes as it
travels and burns the fuel.
d. Linear Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
 We may define a Linear Time Invariant System
as follows:
◦ Let y(t) be the output of the system for an input
x(t) so that L[x(t)]=y(t).
◦ The system is LTI when it satisfies the following
conditions:
 (a) L[x(t+ τ)]=y(t +τ) (Time invariance)
 (b) L[a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x2 (t )] = a1 y1 (t ) + a2 y2 (t ) (Superposition or
additive property)

 It should be noted that many processes of

interest can be approximated by LTI models.
INTRODUCTION
9. System Transfer Function
 When a signal passes through a system, the following
may occurs to it:
◦ a. Amplification or attenuation (Proportional or Identity
operator function).
◦ b. Differentiation (Differentiator function)
◦ c. Integration (Integrator operator function)
 This behavior of the system when a signal is transferred
through the system to the output is referred to as the
Transfer Characteristics of the system.
 The characteristic is also referred to as the Transfer
Function of the system.
INTRODUCTION
Amplification/Attenuation

x(t ) Gain/ Ax (t )
Attenuation
A

System

Differentiation

x(t ) Differential dx (t ) / dt
d/dt

System
INTRODUCTION
Integration
x(t ) Integral  x(t )dt

System
Fig. 13. Effects of a system on a Signal

• The transfer function relates the output to the input.

•It characterizes the behavior of the system it represents.
•We shall call the transfer function of a system G(s).
•Remember that we said the transfer function is developed from a system
modeled by a set of linear differential equations, transformed by Laplace
transforms.
•The transfer function depends only on the system and not upon the form of
input.
•We should remember however that the transfer function is derived by
assuming linearity and zero initial conditions.
INTRODUCTION
 The mathematical model relating the input and
output of a linear and time invariant system is:
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) d m x(t ) d m−1 x(t )
a0 n
+ a1 n −1
+ ... + an y (t ) = b0 m
+ b1 m −1
+ ... + bm x(t )
d t dt d t dt

 where n≥m-1, a condition for a system to be realizable.

 Assuming all initial conditions to be zero, and applying
Laplace transforms we get;

n −1 m −1
a s n
y
 Re-arranging
0 ( s ) + a
the
1 s y ( s ) + ... + a
above relationshipn y ( s ) = b0 s m
x ( s ) +
we obtain;b1 s x( s ) + ... + bm x( s )

b0 s m + b1s m−1 + ... + bm

y( s) = n −1
x( s ) = G ( s ) x( s )
a0 s + a1s + ... + an
n
INTRODUCTION
 The overall transfer function of the system
becomes:
m −1
y ( s) b s m
+ b s + ... + bm
G( s) = = 0 1
n −1
x( s) a0 s + a1s + ... + an
n

 We model such a system by a single block diagram

with one input and one output as follows:

x( s) y( s)
G(s)
 Now, suppose g(s) represents the denominator of G(s)
Fig.14. Transfer Function Representation of a System
and f(s) the numerator of G(s).
INTRODUCTION
 We can rewrite the relationships as:
f ( s) = b0 s m + b1s m−1 + ... + bm
g ( s) = a0 s n + a1s n −1 + ... + an
 We can find roots of these two equations by
equating each one of them to zero.
 The roots of f(s) are called Zeros.
 The roots of g(s) are called Poles.
 These roots have a bearing on the stability and
steady-state gain of a system.
INTRODUCTION
Stability and Steady-State Gain
 The stability of the system is determined by its
characteristic equation:
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) d m x(t ) d m−1 x(t )
a0 n
+ a1 n −1
+ ... + an y (t ) = b0 m
+ b1 m −1
+ ... + bm x(t )
d t dt d t dt
 This is identical to setting the denominator of
the system transfer function equal to zero:
g(s)=0.
 For system stability, the roots of g(s)=0, must be
negative real parts and where they are complex,
they occur as conjugate pairs (poles are real
negative, complex and in conjugate pairs).
INTRODUCTION
 Recall that these roots of g(s)=0 are called poles
of G(s).
 The roots of the numerator f(s)=0 are called zeros
of G(s).
 Note that when counting the roots, repeated
roots (zeros) are counted as separate roots.
INTRODUCTION
 Cascaded Control Systems
 Consider 2 systems with transfer functions G1 ( s )
and G ( s) connected in series.
2

x( s) q(s) y( s)
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s )

Fig. 14. Cascaded Systems

 Assume that there is no interaction or loading

between the blocks and that the individual transfer
functions remain unaltered when the blocks are
linked together.
INTRODUCTION
 Then, q(s) = x(s)G1 (s) and y ( s ) = q( s )G2 (.s )
 It follows that;
◦ y ( s ) = x( s )G1 ( s )G2 ( s )
◦ and
y( s)
◦ = G1 ( s)G2 ( s) .
x( s )
 In general, for n blocks in cascade;
y ( s)
= Gn ( s)Gn −1 ( s)...G2 ( s)G1 ( s)
x( s )
INTRODUCTION
 Paralleled Control Systems
 Assume that G ( s) and G ( s) are connected in parallel.
1 2

q1 ( s )
G1 ( s )

x( s) y( s)

G2 ( s ) q2 ( s )

Fig. 15. Paralleled Control Systems

 Since x(s) is common to the two systems;

INTRODUCTION
q1 ( s ) = x( s )G1 ( s )
q2 ( s ) = x( s)G2 ( s )
y ( s ) = q1 ( s ) + q2 ( s ) = x( s )G1 ( s ) + x( s)G2 ( s )

 Therefore, the overall transfer function is:

y(s)
= G1 ( s) + G2 ( s)
x( s )
 In general, for n blocks in parallel;

y( s)
= G1 ( s) + G2 ( s) + ...Gn ( s) .
x( s )
INTRODUCTION
 Closed-Loop Control System
 Consider a closed-loop system with negative feedback loop or
control.
 Let the forward transfer function be G(s).
 Let H(s) be the transfer function of the feedback
network/system/device.
Error detector/
summing junction
x( s) e( s ) y( s)
+ G (s)
-

z (s)
H (s)
[Link]-Loop Control System
INTRODUCTION
 From the diagram above we can deduce the
overall transfer gain/function of the system as
follows:
e( s ) = x ( s ) − z ( s ) (1)
z (s) = y(s) H (s) (2)
y ( s ) = e( s )G ( s ) (3)
 We therefore need to come up with a relationship
including x(.s ), y ( s ), G ( s )andH ( s)
 Substituting (1) in (3) we get:
y ( s ) = [ x( s ) − z ( s )]G ( s ) (4)
INTRODUCTION
 Substituting for z(s) in (4), we get:
y ( s ) = [ x( s ) − y ( s ) H ( s )]G ( s ) (5)
 Equating and dividing we obtain:
y(s) G(s)
= = G ' ( s)
x( s) 1 + H ( s )G ( s ) (6)

 The overall transfer function/gain of the closed

loop control system is given G ( sas:
) '

G( s)
G ( s) =
'
(7)
1 + H ( s)G ( s)
INTRODUCTION
 Note: The characteristic equation of this system is:
 1 + H ( s )G ( s ) = 0
Now, for unity-feedback,
H (s) = 1
Therefore, G ' (s) =
G(s)
1 + G ( s)

x( s) y( s)
G (s)
 10. Effects of feedback in Control Systems
 Feedback effects in control systems is more complex than mere
reduction of system error.
 Feedback also affects system performance characteristics such as
stability, bandwidth, overall gain, impedance and sensitivity.
 a. Effects on overall Gain: Negative feedback reduces gain of a
non-feedback system due to the introduction of (1+GH) in the
denominator of the transfer function.
 In positive feedback, the gain of the system is increased due to the
introduction of (1-GH) in the denominator of the non-feedback
transfer function.
 Positive feedback causes the system to be unstable and may drive
the system into oscillations (regeneration).
 Feedback can increase the gain of a system in one frequency range
and decrease it in another.
INTRODUCTION
 b. Effects on Stability: Feedback can improve stability or be
harmful to stability when not properly applied.
 Generally one of the conditions for instability is when GH=-1 and
overall gain is infinity (favorable condition for oscillations).
 There are many other conditions that may be used to determine
system stability, including the determination and location of poles
and zeros of the transfer function.
 c. Effects on Sensitivity: In general, a good control system
should be very insensitive to parameter variations but sensitive to
input commands.
 Since GH is a function of frequency, positive or negative values of
GH may cause the system to be sensitive to some frequency
range and less sensitive to others.
 Feedback, therefore, can increase or decrease sensitivity of a
system.
INTRODUCTION
 d. Effect on External Disturbance or Noise:
 Physical systems are subject to some extraneous
signals or noise.
 Sources of noise include thermal noise voltages in
electronic circuits, and brush or commutator
noise in electric motors.
 External disturbances such as wind acting on the
antenna are quite common in control systems.
 Control systems should be designed so that they
are insensitive to noise and disturbances but
sensitive to input commands.
INTRODUCTION
 e. Effect on bandwidth, impedance, transient
and frequency response:
 In general, feedback has an effect on such
performance characteristics as bandwidth,
impedance, transient response and frequency
response.
 This is so because G and H are a function of
frequency.
Questions
 Q1. Define the following:
◦ a. System
◦ b. Linear System.
◦ c. Linear Time Invariant System.
◦ d. Control System.
◦ e. Open-loop system.
◦ f. Closed-loop system.
◦ g. System transfer function.
 [Link] are the benefits of control in control
systems?
 Q3. How can an open-loop control system be
converted into a closed-loop system?
 Q4. What are the requirements of a control
system?
 Q5. List and briefly explain the design process of
a feedback control system.
 Q 6. For a system with transfer function given by;
4s + 15s + 5
2
G( s) = 2
s( s + 3s + 2)
a. Determine if the system is stable or not.
b. Determine the number of zeros and poles of
the system.
 Q7. Consider a servomechanism (closed-loop
control system) depicted by block diagram
below:
Error detector/
Amplifier and System or Plant
summing junction Control (Includes actuator)
x( s) e( s ) q(s) y( s)
+ K(s) G(s)

H(s)

Measuring Device

 Show that the overall transfer function of the closed-loop

control servo control system is: G ' ( s) =
G( s) K ( s)
1 + G(s) K (s) H (s)
 What is the characteristic equation of the system?
 Q8. Describe briefly the effects of feedback on
closed-loop control systems.