CIVIL ENGINEERING – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

3rd to 6th Semester | Comprehensive Study Notes

UNIT 1: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

A. Air Pollution – Sources
Air pollution means the presence of harmful substances in the air that damage health, property, or the
environment.

Natural Sources (occur on their own)

• Volcanic eruptions – release smoke, ash, and sulphur dioxide gas
• Forest fires – produce smoke, CO2, and particulate matter
• Dust storms – carry fine soil and sand particles into the air
• Pollen grains – released by plants and trees (can cause allergies)
• Evaporation of sea water – releases salt particles into the air

Man-Made Sources (caused by human activities)

• Industries & factories – burn coal/oil; release SO2, NO2, CO, dust
• Vehicles & transport – petrol/diesel engines emit CO, hydrocarbons, lead
• Thermal power plants – burn coal to produce electricity; release fly ash, SO2
• Agriculture – burning of crop stubble; use of pesticides
• Domestic (households) – burning firewood, cooking on chulhas, garbage burning
• Construction sites – dust, cement particles, silica in the air

Quick Memory Tip

VIVDP = Volcanic, Industries, Vehicles, Domestic, Power plants → Main man-made air pollution
sources

B. Effects & Control of Air Pollution

Effects on Human Health
• Respiratory diseases – asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer
• Eye irritation and skin diseases
• Lead poisoning – affects brain development in children
• Carbon monoxide poisoning – reduces oxygen in blood

Effects on the Environment

• Acid rain – damages forests, buildings, and aquatic life
• Global warming – trapping of heat by greenhouse gases
• Ozone layer depletion – increases UV radiation reaching Earth
• Smog – reduces visibility; harmful to lungs
Control Measures
• Use of filters & scrubbers in factory chimneys to trap dust/gases
• Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) – trap fine particles with electric charge
• Catalytic converters in vehicles – convert harmful gases to harmless ones
• Switching to CNG, LPG, electric vehicles instead of petrol/diesel
• Planting trees (afforestation) – trees absorb CO2 and purify air
• Strict government laws – pollution control boards, emission standards

C. Noise Pollution – Sources, Effects & Control

Noise pollution means unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that causes discomfort or health
problems. Sound above 85 decibels (dB) for long periods is harmful.

Sources of Noise Pollution

• Transport – vehicles, aircraft, railways (road traffic is #1 source)
• Industries – machines, generators, drilling, hammering
• Construction – bulldozers, concrete mixers, pile driving
• Domestic – loudspeakers, TV, music systems, firecrackers
• Agricultural – tractors, irrigation pumps, threshers

Effects of Noise Pollution

• Hearing loss – temporary or permanent damage to ears
• Sleep disturbance – insomnia, stress, irritability
• Cardiovascular problems – high blood pressure, heart disease
• Psychological effects – anxiety, poor concentration, mental fatigue
• Effects on animals – disturbs communication and migration of birds

Control Measures
• Using sound-absorbing materials (foam, cork) in walls and ceilings
• Setting up green belts / trees near roads and factories (trees absorb sound)
• Silencers on vehicles and industrial machines
• Using ear plugs / ear muffs in noisy work environments
• Strict laws on loudspeaker timings and vehicle horns in city areas

D. Global Warming
Global warming is the gradual rise in Earth's average temperature due to the increasing concentration
of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effect – How It Works

• Sun's energy (short-wave radiation) enters Earth's atmosphere freely
 • Earth absorbs this energy and emits it back as heat (long-wave radiation)
• Greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, water vapour) trap this heat like a blanket
• This natural effect keeps Earth warm – but too much GHGs = global warming

Main Greenhouse Gases

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) – burning of fossil fuels, deforestation
• Methane (CH4) – paddy fields, cattle digestion, landfills
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) – fertilizers, vehicle exhaust
• CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) – old refrigerators, ACs, aerosol sprays

Effects of Global Warming

• Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers → rise in sea level
• Flooding of coastal cities (Mumbai, Kolkata, etc.)
• Changes in rainfall patterns → droughts in some areas, floods in others
• Extinction of species that cannot adapt to higher temperatures
• Increase in frequency of extreme weather – cyclones, heatwaves

Control Measures
• Reduce use of fossil fuels; shift to solar, wind, and hydro power
• Plant more trees and stop deforestation
• International agreements – Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement
• Energy efficiency – LED lights, fuel-efficient vehicles, green buildings

Simple Analogy
Global warming is like leaving a car in the sun with windows closed. Sunlight enters easily but heat
gets trapped inside – Earth's atmosphere does the same with CO2.

E. Acid Rain
Acid rain is rainfall that is more acidic than normal due to the presence of sulphuric acid and nitric acid
dissolved in it. Normal rainwater has a pH of ~5.6; acid rain has a pH below 5.6.

How Acid Rain is Formed

• Factories and vehicles release Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) into the air
• These gases react with water vapour and oxygen in the atmosphere
• SO2 + water → Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
• NOx + water → Nitric Acid (HNO3)
• These acids fall as rain, snow, or fog → ACID RAIN

Effects of Acid Rain

• On water bodies – kills fish and aquatic organisms by making water acidic
• On soil – makes soil acidic, reduces fertility, kills useful soil bacteria
 • On forests – damages leaves, weakens trees, kills forests
• On buildings – corrodes marble, limestone, and metal structures (e.g., Taj Mahal is affected!)
• On health – skin irritation, eye problems when in contact with acidic water

Control
• Reduce SO2 and NOx emissions from industries and vehicles
• Use of limestone (lime) in chimneys to neutralise acid gases
• Use of scrubbers and catalytic converters

F. Ozone Hole
The ozone layer is a protective shield of ozone (O3) gas located 15–35 km above Earth in the
stratosphere. It absorbs 97–99% of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.

What is the Ozone Hole?

• It is NOT a literal hole – it means a region where the ozone layer has become very thin
• First discovered over Antarctica in the 1980s
• It has also been detected over the Arctic and some other regions

Cause – CFCs are the Main Culprit

• CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) released from refrigerators, ACs, and aerosol sprays
• CFCs drift up to the stratosphere and break down when hit by UV radiation
• Each CFC molecule can destroy thousands of ozone molecules
• Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 (ozone is broken down by chlorine atoms)

Effects of Ozone Depletion

• Increased UV-B radiation reaching Earth's surface
• Higher risk of skin cancer and cataracts in humans
• Weakening of immune system
• Damage to crops and phytoplankton (base of marine food chain)

Solution – Montreal Protocol

• 1987 international agreement to phase out CFC production worldwide
• Replacement by HFCs and HFOs which are ozone-friendly
• The ozone hole is slowly healing – expected to recover by 2065

Remember
Acid rain = SO2 + NOx reaction with water | Ozone hole = CFCs destroying O3 | Global warming =
GHGs trapping heat. These are three DIFFERENT but related problems.
UNIT 2: SOLID WASTES FROM SOCIETY
A. Solid Waste Management – Introduction
Solid waste management means collecting, treating, and disposing of solid materials that are discarded
as useless after use, in a manner that is safe for the environment and public health.

B. Definitions – Key Terms

Refuse General term for all solid waste from homes, shops, and institutions
(includes all types below)

Rubbish Non-food, non-decomposable waste – paper, plastic, glass, metal, wood,

rubber

Garbage Food waste and vegetable/kitchen waste that decomposes quickly

(organic matter)

Ashes Residue from burning coal, wood, or other fuels; often contains fine
particles and minerals

C. Constituents (Components) of Solid Wastes

Biodegradable (can decompose naturally)
• Food scraps, vegetable peels, fruit waste
• Paper and cardboard
• Garden waste – leaves, grass clippings, branches

Non-biodegradable (do NOT decompose easily)

• Plastics – bags, bottles, packaging (take 400–1000 years to break down!)
• Metals – tin cans, aluminium, iron scrap
• Glass – bottles, mirrors, windowpanes
• Rubber – tyres, footwear

Hazardous Wastes
• Batteries (contain lead, mercury)
• Paints, solvents, pesticides, chemicals
• Medical/biomedical waste – syringes, medicines, blood-soaked items

D. Sources of Solid Wastes

• Residential/Domestic – kitchen waste, packaging, newspapers, clothing
 • Commercial – offices, shops, restaurants, markets
• Industrial – factory waste, packaging materials, chemical containers
• Institutional – hospitals, schools, government buildings
• Construction & demolition – concrete, bricks, soil, tiles
• Agricultural – crop residues, pesticide containers, animal waste
• Municipal – street sweepings, park waste, waste from public toilets

E. Collection of Solid Wastes

Collection means gathering waste from its point of generation and transporting it to a central point for
treatment or disposal.

Methods of Collection
• House-to-house collection – waste picked up from individual households daily/weekly
• Community bins / dustbins – large containers placed at street corners; people deposit waste
• Block collection – vehicles stop at fixed points; residents bring waste to them
• Segregation at source – separate collection of wet (organic) and dry (recyclable) waste

F. Methods of Treatment & Disposal of Solid Waste

1. Open Dumping (Oldest method – NOT recommended)

• Waste is dumped in open land without treatment
• Causes pollution of soil, groundwater, and air
• Attracts rats, flies, mosquitoes → spread of disease
• Only used where no better option exists

2. Sanitary Landfill (Improved Dumping)

• Waste is deposited in layers in a specially prepared site
• Each layer of waste is covered with soil to reduce smell and pests
• Site is lined with impermeable material (clay/plastic) to prevent groundwater pollution
• After filling, site can be converted to a park or sports ground

3. Composting (Best for organic/wet waste)

• Biological decomposition of organic waste by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi)
• Produces compost – a rich, natural fertilizer for agriculture
• Types: pit composting, windrow composting, vermicomposting (using earthworms)
• Reduces waste volume by up to 50%; improves soil health

4. Incineration (Burning)
• Waste is burned at very high temperatures (800–1000°C) in specially designed furnaces
• Reduces waste volume by 90%; kills pathogens (germs)
 • Useful for medical/hospital waste and hazardous materials
• Disadvantage – produces ash and some harmful gases; expensive

5. Recycling
• Waste materials are converted into new products
• Paper → recycled paper; metals → melted and reused; glass → new glass products
• Reduces need for raw materials and saves energy

6. Biogas / Anaerobic Digestion

• Organic waste is decomposed without oxygen to produce biogas (methane)
• Biogas used as fuel for cooking and electricity generation
• Residue (slurry) used as fertilizer

Best Practice – 3R Approach

REDUCE (produce less waste) → REUSE (use items again) → RECYCLE (convert waste to new
products). Always follow this priority order.

G. Types of Hazardous Wastes

• Chemical wastes – acids, alkalis, solvents, paints, detergents
• Radioactive wastes – from nuclear power plants, X-ray machines, hospitals
• Biomedical/Clinical wastes – used syringes, contaminated bandages, surgical waste
• Electronic waste (E-waste) – old computers, mobile phones, TVs (contain lead, mercury)
• Industrial toxic wastes – heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, arsenic)
• Agricultural wastes – unused pesticides, herbicides, fertilizer containers

H. Characteristics of Hazardous Wastes

A waste is classified as hazardous if it has one or more of the following properties:

Ignitability Can catch fire easily – e.g., petrol, solvents, paints

Corrosivity Can destroy materials or burn skin – e.g., strong acids, alkalis

Reactivity Can explode or produce toxic gases – e.g., dynamite, certain chemicals

Toxicity Poisonous to living beings – e.g., lead, mercury, arsenic compounds

Infectivity Contains disease-causing microorganisms – e.g., biomedical waste

I. Treatment & Disposal of Hazardous Waste

 • Physical treatment – filtration, sedimentation, centrifugation to separate contaminants
• Chemical treatment – neutralisation of acids/alkalis; precipitation of heavy metals
• Biological treatment – using microbes to break down organic toxic compounds
• Incineration at high temperature – destroys pathogens and organic toxins
• Secure landfill – specially designed landfill with multiple layers to prevent leaching
• Deep well injection – liquid hazardous waste pumped deep underground (controversial)
• Encapsulation – waste sealed in concrete or glass to prevent leaching

UNIT 3: ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

A. Environmental Sanitation – Definition & Importance
Environmental sanitation means controlling and managing the physical, chemical, and biological factors
in the human environment that may cause disease or be harmful to health. It includes clean water
supply, sewage disposal, solid waste management, and personal hygiene.

Necessity and Importance

• Prevents waterborne diseases (cholera, typhoid, dysentery) – caused by contaminated water
• Prevents vector-borne diseases (malaria, dengue) – by eliminating breeding grounds
• Protects groundwater and surface water from contamination
• Improves quality of life and increases life expectancy
• Reduces healthcare costs by preventing disease outbreaks
• Supports economic development – healthy people are more productive
• Required by law – municipalities must maintain sanitation standards

Key Facts
According to WHO, poor sanitation is the single largest cause of illness in developing countries. About
2.4 billion people worldwide still lack access to basic sanitation. In India, Swachh Bharat Mission
focuses on achieving total sanitation coverage.

B. Types of Privies (Latrines)

A privy or latrine is a basic sanitation facility for the disposal of human excreta. Different types are
designed for different conditions.

1. Aqua Privy
An Aqua Privy is a latrine connected directly above or very close to a water-sealed tank (septic-like
chamber).

Construction Working
• Seat/pan sits above a water-filled tank • Drop pipe • Excreta drops into water-filled tank • Water seal
extends into water (water seal) • Tank connected to prevents smell and flies • Anaerobic bacteria
soak pit/drain decompose the waste

Advantages Disadvantages
 • No offensive smell (water seal) • No fly nuisance • • Needs regular water supply • Tank needs periodic
Low maintenance • Suitable where water is available desludging • Risk of groundwater contamination •
Not suitable for rocky or high water-table areas

2. Bore Hole Latrine

A Bore Hole Latrine is a simple latrine where a deep, narrow hole is bored into the ground and a
seat/slab is placed over it.

Construction Working
• Hole bored 3–8 metres deep, 30–40 cm diameter • • Waste falls directly into the bored hole • Soil acts
Concrete or wooden slab with keyhole opening on as natural filter and purifier • Bacteria in soil
top • Simple superstructure (walls, roof) for privacy decompose organic matter • When full, hole sealed
and new one dug

Advantages Disadvantages
• Very cheap and simple to construct • No water • Smell and fly nuisance (no water seal) • Risk of
needed • Suitable for rural and remote areas • Easy groundwater pollution • Cannot be used in
to relocate when full waterlogged or rocky soil • Limited capacity

Aqua Privy vs Bore Hole Latrine – Quick Comparison

Feature Aqua Privy Bore Hole Latrine
Water requirement Yes (needs water seal) No (dry latrine)

Smell control Good (water seal) Poor (open hole)

Cost Moderate Very low

Suitable for Semi-urban areas Rural/remote areas

Fly nuisance Less More

Groundwater risk Moderate Higher

Capacity Large (tank) Limited (small hole)

📚 Exam Preparation Summary

Air Pollution: Know sources (natural & man-made), effects on health & environment, control
measures. | Noise Pollution: Sources, effects (hearing loss, hypertension), and controls. | Global
Warming: Greenhouse gases, greenhouse effect, consequences, solutions. | Acid Rain: SO2 + NOx +
water → H2SO4 + HNO3; effects on Taj Mahal, forests, water bodies. | Ozone Hole: CFCs destroy
O3; UV radiation; Montreal Protocol. | Solid Waste: Definitions (refuse/rubbish/garbage/ashes),
sources, collection, disposal methods (landfill, composting, incineration). | Hazardous Waste: Types, 4
characteristics (ICRT), treatment. | Sanitation: Aqua privy vs Bore hole latrine – construction, working,
advantages, disadvantages.

Notes prepared for SCTE, Assam – Civil Engineering 3rd to 6th Semester