MEN 320: Fluid Mechanics I

Instructor: Rachid Klaimi, PhD

Main Textbook:
P.M. Gerhart, A.L. Gerhart & J.I. Hochstein, Munson’s Fluid Mechanics,
Global Edition, J. Wiley & Sons, Singapore Pte. Ltd., 2017. ISBN 978-1-119-
24898-9.

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 Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
2.1 Pressure at a Point
2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field
2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
2.4 Standard Atmosphere
2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.6 Manometry
2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices
2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
2.9 Pressure Prism
2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability
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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Recall,

𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴

at a given point acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.

Question:

How does the pressure at a point varies with orientation of plane passing through point?

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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Consider the following fluid element:

• No shearing stress
• Make analysis more general → allow acceleration (moving as a rigid body)
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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Consider the following fluid element:

• Apply Newton’s Second Law of Motion (F = ma):

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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Consider the following fluid element:

• But,

• Therefore,

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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Consider the following fluid element:

• For a fluid point,

δx, δy and δz → 0

• Therefore,

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2.1 Pressure at a Point

Consider the following fluid element:

Pascal’s Law:
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as long as
there are no shearing stresses present.
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2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field

Question:

We know how pressure at a point varies with direction, but How does p vary from point to
point (no shearing stress)?

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2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field

Consider the following fluid element:

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2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field

Consider the following fluid element. It can be

shown that the force acting on the element is:

• The resultant surface force acting on a small

fluid element depends only on the pressure
gradient if there are no shearing stresses
present.

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2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field

Consider the following fluid element. It can be

shown that the force acting on the element is:

• Weight of element:

• Using Newton’s second law, show that

General equation of motion for a fluid

(with no shearing stresses) 12
2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

• For a fluid at rest, a = 0

• Therefore, Fundamental equation for a fluid at rest

• From equation: p depends on z only

• Pressure gradient negative (p decreases

when z increases)

• Equation valid for γ = constant (liquids) and

when γ varies (gases)
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2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid:

Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution

• For incompressible fluid at rest, pressure varies linearly with depth.

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2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid:

• Equation can also be written as

Pressure Head

• Pressure head is the height of a column of fluid of specific weight γ required to give a
pressure difference p1 – p2

• When working with liquids with free surface, let p2 = p0 (which is often patm)

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2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid:

• Pressure in homogeneous & incompressible fluid at

rest independent of shape of container → depends
on depth

• Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal

plane in a given fluid.

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2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid:

Application: Hydraulic Jack:

Ratio A2 /A1 is called mechanical advantage

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2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Compressible Fluid:

• Density changes with p and T → γ no longer constant

• Note: γgas <<< γliq

• When variations in elevation are large (~ thousands of meters)

→ variation in γ need be considered

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2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Compressible Fluid:

• Recall,

• For isothermal conditions, T = T0

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2.4 Standard Atmosphere

• The standard atmosphere is an idealized representation of mean conditions in the earth’s

atmosphere.

• U.S. Standard Atmosphere → idealized representation of middle-latitude, year round

conditions of the earth’s atmosphere.

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2.4 Standard Atmosphere

• Variation of temperature with altitude in the U.S. standard atmosphere.

• For Troposphere:

Ta & pa at sea level

β = 0.0065 K/m

R = 286.9 J/kg. K
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2.5 Measurement of Pressure

• Pressure is designated as either absolute pressure or gage (or vacuum) pressure.

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2.5 Measurement of Pressure

• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer.

• pvapor is usually small → can be neglected

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2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Example 2.3:

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2.6 Manometry

Piezometer Tube

• Using the equation:

where p0 = 0 (gage pressure).

• The pressure at point A is then:

Disadvantages:

• Suitable only if PA > Patm

• P should be small so h1 is acceptable
• Fluid in container must be a liquid (cannot be a gas)
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2.6 Manometry

U-Tube Manometer

• To overcome piezometer tube shortcomings

→ Manometer

• Noting that pressure at equal elevations in a

continuous mass of fluid at rest must be the same,
one can show that:

• Advantage: gage fluid can be different from fluid in container in which pressure is to be
determined (Hg, water …) 26
2.6 Manometry

U-Tube Manometer

• U-Tube manometer is also used to measure

difference in pressure between two containers.

• To compute the pressure difference between A and

B, start at A to show that:

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2.6 Manometry

U-Tube Manometer

• Capillarity due to surface tension at fluid interfaces is usually not considered.

• Gage fluid must be immiscible with respect to other fluids in contact with it.

• For highly accurate measurements, special attention must be given to T since γ changes
with T.

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2.6 Manometry

Inclined-Tube Manometer

• To measure small pressure differences → use inclined-tube manometer

• Note that the pressure difference between (1) & (2) is due to the vertical distance
between the points 29
2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

For fluids at rest:

• Force is perpendicular to surface

• p varies linearly with depth (for incompressible fluids)
• Horizontal surface → p is uniform
• FR = p A acts through centroid → need to determine FR

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

• The magnitude of the resultant force is:

• The y-coordinate of the resultant force is:

• The x-coordinate of the resultant force is:

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

• Ixc represents the moment of inertia (or second moment of area)

with respect to an axis passing through centroid and parallel to x-
axis.

• Ixyc represents the product of inertia with respect to x & y axis

• The point through which the resultant force acts is called center of
pressure (CP).

• Looking at equation of yR , note that as yc increases, CP moves

closer to centroid.

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Geometric Properties of Some Common Shapes:

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Example 2.6:

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2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Example 2.7:

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2.9 Pressure Prism

• The magnitude of the resultant force is:

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2.9 Pressure Prism

• The magnitude of the resultant force is:

• The resultant force is also equal to the volume of the pressure

prism:

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2.9 Pressure Prism

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2.9 Pressure Prism

• Resultant force is also equal to the volume of the pressure prism:

• Location of FR can be obtained by summing moment around some convenient axis:

• The “pressure prism” method can only be applied for problems with submerged rectangular
surfaces.

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2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

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2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface

• At equilibrium, all forces acting on the fluid mass must form a concurrent system (line of
action intersect at a common point).

• FR acts at point O which can be located by summing moments around an appropriate axis.

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Archimede’s principle:

When a stationary body is completely submerged in a

fluid, or floating so that it is only partially submerged,
the resultant fluid force acting on the body is called the
buoyant force.

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Archimede’s principle:

• F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 are forces exerted on

plane surfaces (forces in x-direction not
shown for simplicity)

• W = Weight of parallelepiped – Weight

of body

• FB is the force exerted by body on fluid

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Archimede’s principle:

Horizontal Area of
Parallelepiped

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Archimede’s principle:

• The buoyant force has a magnitude

equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body and is directed
vertically upward.

• Direction of FB is opposite to that

shown on free body diagram (see fig c).

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Archimede’s principle:

• Location of line of action:

• The buoyant force passes through the

centroid of the displaced volume →
Center of buoyancy

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Archimede’s principle:

• Same results apply to floating bodies which are only partially submerged if

• So far, γ is assumed constant.

For cases where γ changes with depth (layered fluid) :

• The magnitude of the buoyant force remains equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid.

• However, the buoyant force does not pass through the centroid.
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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Stability:

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Stability:

It is important for submerged or floating bodies since

centroid and center of buoyancy do not necessarily
coincide.

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Stability:

• A completely submerged body with its center of gravity below its center of buoyancy is in
a stable equilibrium position.

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2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation and Stability

Stability:

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