⚛️Chemistry

⚛️Atomic Structure
Definition of an Atom

The smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Simple Atomic Model

An atom consists of:

 A central nucleus
 One or more electrons surrounding the nucleus
What is the Nucleus?

 The central part of an atom.

 Composed of protons and neutrons.
 Contains most of an atom's mass.

This image depicts a 3D representation of an atomic nucleus, comprising

multiple protons and neutrons. The yellow spheres with a black "+" symbol
represent protons, while the orange spheres signify neutrons.

What is a Proton?

 Positively charged particle.

 The proton is illustrated as a yellow circle with
a black plus sign (+) marked on it, set against a green background.

 Found within an atomic nucleus.

What is a Neutron?

 Uncharged particle.
 Found within an atomic nucleus.

The image depicts a pixelated orange sphere

with a subtle gradient effect, against a lime green background, representing
a neutron.

What is an Electron?

 Negatively charged particle.

 Located in shells that surround an atom's nucleus.
Visualizing the Atom

The image depicts a detailed illustration of an atom, showcasing its intricate

structure. At the center, the nucleus is composed of blue and orange
spheres, representing protons and neutrons, respectively. Surrounding the
nucleus are glowing green electron orbits, with small green spheres
indicating the electrons themselves.

Hydrogen

The
image depicts a simplified diagram of a hydrogen atom. Hydrogen has one
proton, one electron, and no neutrons.
 Helium

The image depicts a simplified diagram of a helium atom. Helium has two
electrons, two protons, and two neutrons.

Subatomic Particle Properties

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0 -1
Molecule

A substance that contains 2 or more atoms chemically combined and can

exist alone.

🔢 Atomic Number and Mass Number

Key Definitions

 Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom.
 Mass Number (A): The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Atomic Neutrality

Atoms are neutral because:

  The positive charge of the nucleus (protons) is equal to the total
negative charge of the electrons.
 The number of protons equals the number of electrons; opposite
charges cancel each other out.
Nuclide Notation

General Form

Here's how to interpret nuclide notation:

A (Mass number: protons + neutrons)

X
Z (Atomic number: number of protons)

 A = Mass number (protons + neutrons)

 X = Element symbol
 Z = Atomic number (number of protons)
Example 1: Chlorine (Cl)

37
Cl
17

Number of protons: 17

Number of neutrons: 20 (37 - 17)

Number of electrons: 17 (same as the number of protons in a neutral

atom)
Example 2: Sodium Ion (Na+)

23
Na+
11

 Number of protons: 11
 Number of neutrons: 12 (23 - 11)
 Number of electrons: 10 (1 less than protons due to +1 charge)
Example 3: Oxide Ion (O2-)

16
O2-
8

 Number of protons: 8
 Number of neutrons: 8 (16 - 8)
 Number of electrons: 10 (2 more than protons due to -2 charge)
Electrons in an Atom

 An atom of an element is electrically neutral; the net charge of an

atom is zero.
 An atom has an equal number of protons and electrons.
 number of protons=number of electrons

13 protons (13+)+13 electrons (13−)=013 protons (13+)+13 electrons

 For example, Aluminum has 13 protons and 13 electrons:

(13−)=0
 Mass Number Details
 Represents the number of particles in the nucleus.
 Equals the number of protons + the number of neutrons.
 Atomic Models


 ⚗️Periodic Table
 Modern Periodic Table
 Arranges all the elements in groups according to their properties.
 Horizontal rows are called periods.
 Vertical columns are called groups.
 Groups of Elements
 Group 1: The Alkali metals
 Between groups 2 and 3: The Transition metals
 Group 7: The Halogens
 Group 0: The Noble gases
 Periodic Table Facts
 Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the
outer shell. This number corresponds to their group number.


 Group 1 – The Alkali Metals

 These metals all have one electron in their outer shell.

 Reactivity increases as you go down the group. This is because the
electrons are further away from the nucleus every time a shell is
added, so they are given up more easily.
 They all react with water to form an alkali (hence their name) and
hydrogen.

Potassium+water→potassium
 For example:

hydroxide+hydrogenPotassium+water→potassium hydroxide+hydrogen


 2K(s)+2H2O(l)→2KOH(aq)+H2(g)2K(s)+2H2 O(l)→2KOH(aq)+H2 (g)

 Group 0 – The Noble Gases
 All of the noble gases have a full outer shell, so they are very
unreactive.
 They all have low melting and boiling points.
 They exist as single atoms rather than diatomic molecules.
 Helium is lighter than air and is used in balloons and airships (as well
as for talking in a silly voice).
 Argon is used in light bulbs (because it is so unreactive), and argon,
krypton, and neon are used in fancy lights.
 Group 7 – The Halogens

 Reactivity decreases as you go down the group. This is because the

electrons are further away from the nucleus, and so any extra
electrons aren’t attracted as much.
 They exist as diatomic molecules (so that they both have a full outer
shell).


 Fluorine and chlorine are liquid at room temperature, and bromine is a
gas.
 Periods and Groups
 PERIOD: There are seven periods.
o The first period contains 2 elements: hydrogen and helium.
o Periods 2 and 3 contain 8 elements each and are called short
periods.
o Periods 4 and 5 contain 18 elements each and are called long
periods.
o Elements in the same period have the same number of electron
shells.
 GROUPS: Groups are labeled with Roman numerals, and there are 8 in
number. The last group is called group O. A vertical column of
elements in the periodic table is called a group. Elements in the same
group have the same number of electrons in the outer shells. The
elements in the same group of the table have similar chemical
properties. The noble gases are a group of very unreactive elements.
 Family Names of Elements
 Elements in group 1 are called alkali metals.
 Group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals.
 Elements in group 7 are called halogens (salt formers).
 Periodic Law & Element Classification 🧪
 The Periodic Law states that the physical and chemical properties of
elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.
 Metals vs. Non-metals ⚔️
 Metals
 Metals make up about 2/3 of the periodic table.
 They are elements whose atoms react by losing electrons.
 Metals typically occupy groups I to III.
 Examples include Na, Mg, Al, K, Ca, Be, Sc, Cu, and Zn.
 Non-metals
 Located in the top right-hand corner of the periodic table.
 They are elements whose atoms react by accepting electrons.
 Non-metals usually occupy groups V to VII.
 Examples include N, O, P, Cl, S, and C.
 Metalloids
 Elements possessing both metallic and non-metallic properties.
 Found in Group IV.
 Examples include B, Si, Ge, Sb, etc.
 Used in the semiconductor industry for computer chips, lasers for
compact disc players, and light meters for cameras.
 Electronic Configuration ⚛️
 Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in an atom
based on their energy levels. It determines the properties of the
elements.
 Electronic configuration: The arrangement of electrons in an atom
based on their energy levels.
 Electrons occupy a series of shells arranged around the nucleus.
Shells closer to the nucleus have lower energy levels. Electronic
configuration provides detailed information about an element,
including its atomic number, group, period, and valency.
 

 The image presents a detailed representation of the atomic structure

of Potassium (K), showing the arrangement of its 19 electrons in shells
around the nucleus. The diagram enhances the understanding of how
electron shells are structured, with the inner shells having lower
energy levels and the outer shells having higher energy levels,
influencing the element's chemical properties. For Potassium, the
electronic configuration is 2, 8, 8, 1.
 Shell Filling Rules
 The first electron shell can hold a maximum of two electrons.
 The second electron shell can hold a maximum of eight electrons.
 The third electron shell can also hold a maximum of eight electrons.
 The fourth electron shell can also hold eight electrons.
Electronic Configurations of the First 20 Elements

Atomic Number Element Electronic Configuration Group Period

1 H 1 I 1
2 He 2 0 1
3 Li 2,1 I 2
4 Be 2,2 II 2
5 B 2,3 III 2
6 C 2,4 IV 2
7 N 2,5 V 2
8 O 2,6 VI 2
9 F 2,7 VII 2
10 Ne 2,8 0 2
11 Na 2,8,1 I 3
12 Mg 2,8,2 II 3
13 Al 2,8,3 III 3
14 Si 2,8,4 IV 3
15 P 2,8,5 V 3
16 S 2,8,6 VI 3
17 Cl 2,8,7 VII 3
18 Ar 2,8,8 0 3
19 K 2,8,8,1 I 4
20 Ca 2,8,8,2 II 4
Ions and Radicals ➕➖

Ions

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that carries an electric charge, either

positive or negative.

 Ions are formed when neutral atoms lose or gain electrons.

Examples of ions:

 Sodium ion: Na+Na+ (+1 charge)

 Potassium ion: K+K+ (+1 charge)
 Magnesium ion: Mg2+Mg2+ (+2 charge)
 Aluminum ion: Al3+Al3+ (+3 charge)
 Chloride ion: Cl−Cl− (-1 charge)
 Sulfide ion: S2−S2− (-2 charge)
 Nitride ion: N3−N3− (-3 charge)
Types of Ions

o Examples: Na+Na+, K+K+, Al3+Al3+, Mg2+Mg2+

 Cations: Positively charged ions.

o Examples: Cl−Cl−, S2−S2−, N3−N3−

 Anions: Negatively charged ions.
 Simple Ions

o Examples: Na+Na+, Mg2+Mg2+, Al3+Al3+, Cl−Cl−, S2−S2−,

 Ions made up of a single element.

N3−N3−
Radicals (Polyatomic Ions)

A radical or polyatomic ion is an ion made up of two or more elements

that react as a single unit with a charge.

Examples of radicals:

NO3−NO3− : nitrate ion (trioxonitrate (V) ion)

PO43−PO43− : phosphate ion (tetraoxophosphate (V) ion)


ClO3−ClO3− : chlorate ion (trioxochlorate (V) ion)



HCO3−HCO3− : hydrogen carbonate ion (hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV)




HSO4−HSO4− : hydrogen sulfate ion (hydrogen tetraoxosulphate(VI)

ion)


 MnO4−MnO4− : permanganate ion (tetraoxomanganate(VII) ion)

ion)

Valency (Combining Power) 💪

Valency is the combining power of an element.

Metals have positive valencies, while non-metals have negative valencies.

Valencies of Some Elements

 0: Rare gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, etc.)

 1: K, Na, H, Ag, Hg, Li, Cl, F, Cu, etc.
 2: Mg, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu, O, Ni, C, etc.
 3: Al, Fe, Cr, P, etc.
 4: C, S, Pb, Sn, etc.
 5: N, P
 6: S, Cr
 7: Mn
Valency Examples Illustrated with Hydrogen

H2OH2 O
Compound Number of H atoms Element Valency of Element
2 Oxygen -2
 HClHCl
NH3NH3
1 Chlorine -1

CH4CH4
3 Nitrogen -3

CaH2CaH2
4 Carbon 4

PH3PH3
2 Calcium +2

NaHNaH
3 Phosphorus -3
1 Sodium +1
Elements with Variable Valencies

Elements that exhibit more than one valency are said to have variable
valencies.

Element Valencies
Cu 1, 2
Iron 2, 3
Mercury 1, 2
Phosphorus 3, 5
Tin 2, 4
Nitrogen 3, 5
Sulphur 2, 4, 6
Lead 2, 4
Manganese 2, 4, 7
Chromium 3, 6
Carbon 2, 4
Valencies of Some Radicals

NH4+NH4+
Radicals Valencies

OH−OH−
+1

ClO3−ClO3−
-1

NO3−NO3−
-1

SO42−SO42−
-1

HCO3−HCO3−
-2

HSO4−HSO4−
-1

MnO4−MnO4−
-1

CO32−CO32−
-1

SO32−SO32−
-2

PO43−PO43−
-2
-3
Valency Terminology

 Monovalent/Univalent: Valency of one

 Divalent: Valency of two
 Trivalent: Valency of three
 Tetravalent: Valency of four
Writing Chemical Formulae of Compounds 📝

Rules for Writing Formulae

1. The sum of positive valencies in a compound must equal the sum of

negative valencies.
2. The number of atoms of the constituent element is written as a
numerical subscript after the element.
3. Use brackets if a radical occurs more than once, with the subscript
written after the bracket.
General Example

formula of the compound is AyBxAy Bx .

If element A has a valency of x and element B has a valency of y, the

Specific Examples

ions: Ca2+Ca2+, Br−Br−; Ca2+Ca2+, N3−N3−; Na+Na+, SO42−SO42− ;

Write the formula of the compounds formed between the following pairs of

NH4+NH4+ , CO32−CO32− .

Solutions

1. Ca2+Ca2+ and Br−Br−

Formula: Ca1Br2=CaBr2Ca1 Br2 =CaBr2

a. Ca has a valency of 2, and Br has a valency of 1.

2. Ca2+Ca2+ and N3−N3−

b.

Formula: Ca3N2Ca3 N2
a. Ca has a valency of 2, and N has a valency of 3.

Na+Na+ and SO42−SO42−

b.

a. Na has a valency of 1, and SO4SO4 has a valency of 2.

3.

Formula: Na2(SO4)1=Na2SO4Na2 (SO4 )1 =Na2 SO4

NH4+NH4+ and CO32−CO32−
b.

a. NH4NH4 has a valency of 1, and CO3CO3 has a valency of 2.

4.

b. Formula: (NH4)2(CO3)1=(NH4)2CO3(NH4 )2 (CO3 )1 =(NH4 )2 CO3

Rusting of Iron ⚙️

Rusting

Rusting is a type of oxidation.

Conditions for Rusting

 Presence of water
 Presence of oxygen

Classworks and Homeworks

Week 1: Atomic Structure

Classwork:

1. Define an atom.

a. Answer: The smallest unit of an element that can participate in a

chemical reaction, made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

2. Define a molecule.

a. Answer: A group of two or more atoms chemically bonded

together (e.g., O₂).

3. List the main constituents of an atom.

a. Answer: Protons, neutrons, electrons.

Homework:

1. State three properties of each sub-atomic particle.

a. Answer:

i. Proton: +1 charge, mass = 1 amu, in nucleus.

ii. Neutron: 0 charge, mass = 1 amu, in nucleus.

iii. Electron: -1 charge, negligible mass, orbits nucleus.

 2. Draw the atomic models of hydrogen and helium.

a. Answer:

i. Hydrogen: 1 proton, 1 electron, no neutrons.

ii. Helium: 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 2 electrons.

Week 2: Atomic and Mass Numbers

Classwork:

1. Define (I) mass number (II) atomic number.

a. Answer:

i. (I) Mass number = protons + neutrons.

ii. (II) Atomic number = number of protons.

2. Calculate protons, neutrons, and electrons for:

a. ²³Na: 11p, 12n, 11e.

b. ⁴⁰Ca²⁺: 20p, 20n, 18e (lost 2e).

Homework:

An element X has 22 protons, 24 neutrons, 22 electrons.

1. Atomic number of X?

a. Answer: 22.

2. Mass number of X?

a. Answer: 22 + 24 = 46.

3. Represent X symbolically.

a. Answer: ⁴⁶X₂₂.
Week 3: Periodic Table

Classwork:

1. Define the periodic table.

a. Answer: A chart organizing elements by atomic number and

properties.

2. State the modern periodic law.

a. Answer: Element properties repeat periodically with atomic

number.

3. Complete the table:

Group Family Name

1 Alkali metals

Alkaline earth
2
metals

7 Halogens

0 Noble gases

Homework:

1. Name 3 elements in Period 2 and 3.

a. Answer: Period 2: Li, Be, B; Period 3: Na, Mg, Al.

2. Give two examples of:

a. Alkali metals: Na, K.

b. Noble gases: He, Ne.

Week 4: Electronic Configuration

Classwork:

Give electronic configuration, group, and period for:

1. Al (Z=13): 2,8,3 (Group 3, Period 3).

2. Ca (Z=20): 2,8,8,2 (Group 2, Period 4).

Homework:

Elements X (2,8,8,2) and Y (2,8,6).

1. Group and period for X and Y?

a. Answer:

i. X: Group 2, Period 4.

ii. Y: Group 6, Period 3.

2. Atomic numbers: X = 20, Y = 16.

Week 5: Ions and Radicals

Classwork:

1. Define ions.

a. Answer: Charged atoms (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻).

2. Types of ions: Cations (+ve), anions (-ve).

Homework:

1. Define radicals.

a. Answer: Charged groups of atoms (e.g., SO₄²⁻).

2. Examples:
 a. Sulfate (SO₄²⁻), old name: sulfate, IUPAC: tetraoxosulfate(VI).

Week 6: Valency

Classwork:

1. Define valency.

a. Answer: Combining capacity of an element (e.g., O = 2).

Homework:

1. Explain variable valency.

a. Answer: Some elements (e.g., Fe, Cu) show multiple valencies

(Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺).

Week 8: Chemical Formulae

Classwork:

1. Formula for X²⁺ + Y³⁻: X₃Y₂.

2. Calcium sulfide (Ca²⁺ + S²⁻): CaS.

Homework:

1. Write formulae:

a. Calcium bromide: CaBr₂.

b. Ammonium carbonate: (NH₄)₂CO₃.

Week 10: Rusting

Classwork:

1. Conditions for rusting: Oxygen + water.

2. Prevention methods: Painting, galvanizing.

Homework:

1. Similarities (burning/respiration): Both use oxygen and release

energy.