TOPIC 1
Introduction to Computer
Systems & Hardware
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Introduction to Computer Science
Comprehensive Study Notes
Covering: Computer Systems · Hardware · Input/Output · Types of Computers · Tech Developments
SECTION 1: Purpose of a Computer System
1.1 What is a Computer System?
A computer system is a combination of hardware and software that works together to receive data,
process it, and produce useful information. The core model of a computer system follows three
fundamental stages:
● Input – Data is entered into the system using hardware input devices.
● Process – The CPU (Central Processing Unit) processes the raw data.
● Output – The processed data (now information) is returned to the user.
💡 Data and information can also be stored on the computer, both during and after processing. Storage
is therefore considered a fourth key function.
The IPO Model (Input → Process → Output)
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Data entered via hardware CPU processes the data; stored Information returned to user via
devices (keyboard, scanner, temporarily in RAM during this screen, printer, speakers, etc.
sensors) stage
Data vs Information — Key Distinction
This is a commonly tested concept. Make sure you can explain the difference clearly:
Term Definition
Data Raw, unorganised facts without context. E.g. "50%" or "200,000" —
these numbers mean nothing on their own.
Information Data that has been processed and given context. E.g. "50% customer
happiness in survey" — now it is meaningful and useful for decisions.
📝 EXAM TIP: You should be able to describe a scenario in terms of data input, processes and
information output. Practice the school, hotel, and supermarket examples below.
Exam Examples: IPO in Real Scenarios
Example 1 — School:
1. INPUT: Teachers use a keyboard to input daily attendance data of pupils.
2. PROCESS: The computer calculates the daily percentage of pupils attending.
3. OUTPUT: A printed daily report of attendance percentages is produced.
Example 2 — Hotel:
4. INPUT: Staff input customer data including length of stay.
5. PROCESS: The computer checks length of stay against the current date.
6. OUTPUT: A morning occupancy report listing which guests are checking out today.
Example 3 — Supermarket:
7. INPUT: A barcode scanner reads the item being purchased.
8. PROCESS: The computer looks up the item price from a database and adds it to a total.
9. OUTPUT: The running total is displayed on screen for both cashier and customer.
1.2 Functions of a Computer System
The four main functions are:
● Input of data
● Processing of data
● Output of information
● Storage of data/information
Storage: Primary vs Secondary
Term Definition
Primary Memory (RAM) Fast, temporary storage used during processing. Volatile — data is lost
when the computer is turned off. Directly accessible by the CPU.
Secondary Storage Permanent, long-term storage. Slower than RAM but higher capacity.
(HDD/SSD) Data is preserved even when power is off.
SECTION 2: Hardware
2.1 What is Hardware?
Hardware refers to all the physical, tangible components that make up or connect to a computer
system. It includes:
● Components inside a computer (internal hardware)
● Devices outside a computer that can be connected and removed (peripherals)
💡 Hardware receives its instructions from software, and must be compatible with the software it works
with. It performs the four main functions: Input, Process, Storage, and Output.
2.2 Internal Hardware Components
The main components inside a modern desktop PC are:
Motherboard
● The main circuit board of the computer — everything connects to it.
● Contains integrated circuits (chips) with miniaturised components: transistors, capacitors,
resistors, wires.
● Connects the CPU, memory, storage drives, expansion cards, and ports.
● Controls communication between all components.
● Peripheral devices also connect to it via connectors like USB.
Bus
● A bus is a communication link between components on the motherboard.
● Carries data, addresses, and control signals between components.
● Contains multiple wires (signal lines) — more wires = more data that can be addressed.
The three main types of bus:
○ Front Side Bus (FSB) — Connects RAM and the CPU (highest data traffic).
○ PCI Bus (Peripheral Component Interconnect) — Connects components like network and
sound cards.
○ Input/Output Bus — Connects the motherboard to peripheral devices.
💡 A 32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory. A 36-bit bus can address 64 GB. A computer
bus is named "bus" because it picks up and drops off data at regular intervals — like a bus schedule.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
● Often called the "brain" of the computer — its primary job is to execute instructions.
● Located on the motherboard; typically a small ceramic square with a silicon chip inside.
● Every action you perform (keypress, mouse click, launching an app) sends instructions to the
CPU.
● Fits into the CPU socket and is protected by a heat sink to manage heat.
Cooling Fan
● CPUs generate significant heat during operation and are prone to overheating.
● A cooling fan (usually mounted directly on the CPU) dissipates heat to prevent damage.
Power Supply Unit (PSU)
● Supplies electrical power to all components in the computer.
● Includes a transformer, voltage control circuitry, and its own cooling fan.
● Converts mains voltage (e.g. 240V AC) into the lower DC voltages required by components.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
● Short-term, volatile memory — holds data temporarily while the computer is working.
● Data is lost when the computer is switched off (always save your work!).
● Data can be accessed in any order, hence "random access".
● Measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB) — more RAM = better multitasking.
● Can be extended by physically adding RAM strips (expansion packs).
Hard Drive / Storage
● Permanent, long-term storage for the operating system, software, documents, and files.
● Data is preserved even when the computer is powered off.
● During program execution, data is transferred from the hard drive to RAM.
● Two main types:
○ HDD (Hard Disk Drive) — uses magnetic disks; common in desktop PCs; slower.
○ SSD (Solid State Drive) — no moving parts; faster; common in laptops.
Expansion Cards (PCI Cards)
Expansion slots allow PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) cards to be added to boost or enable
functionality:
Term Definition
Video/Graphics Card Renders images on the monitor. A dedicated GPU (separate from the
(GPU) motherboard) improves performance for gaming and graphic-intensive
work.
Sound Card Produces audio output through speakers or headphones. Useful when
higher audio quality is needed beyond built-in sound.
Network Card (NIC) Enables connection to networks and the internet — either via Ethernet
cable or wirelessly (Wi-Fi).
Ports
● A port is a socket or jack where peripheral hardware plugs into the computer.
● Common port types: USB, HDMI, FireWire, PS/2, Ethernet, SCSI, Parallel, Serial.
2.3 Connectors
A connector is a cable used to connect a component to a peripheral device. Key types:
Term Definition
USB (Universal Serial Bus) The most widely used connector. Transfer speeds up to 480 Mbps.
Can carry power as well as data. A global universal standard.
HDMI High-Definition Multimedia Interface. Transmits digital audio and video.
Used for TVs, monitors, projectors, gaming consoles, Blu-ray players.
Ethernet Wired network connection. Used to connect to routers and networks.
FireWire High-speed connection, common for audio/video transfer devices.
PS/2 Older connector for keyboards and mice (largely replaced by USB).
Serial / Parallel Older connection types, now largely replaced by USB.
SECTION 3: Input & Output Devices
3.1 Input Devices
Input devices allow data to be entered into a computer system and instructions to be issued. Once
input, data is converted to binary form for processing. Different devices can perform the same task (e.g.
keyboard and voice recognition both input text).
Categories of Input Devices
Input devices are grouped by how they input data:
Term Definition
Keys & Buttons Keyboards (QWERTY, ergonomic, braille, chord), numeric keypads,
function keys, cursor keys, remote control keypads.
Pointing Devices Mouse, touchpad, trackball, light pen, touchscreen, joystick, gamepad,
graphics tablet, dataglove.
Visual-Digital Digital cameras, webcams, barcode scanners, QR code scanners,
OCR readers, OMR readers, MICR readers, smart card readers,
sensors.
Speech & Audio Microphone, headset, voice recognition software (continuous, speaker-
dependent, discrete, adaptive).
Head & Eye Assistive devices that track head and eye movements using photo-
electric reflection or electrophysiological sensing.
Biometric Fingerprint scanners, retina scanners, facial recognition — used for
security and authentication.
Key Input Devices — Detailed Notes
● Keyboard: Standard input device with keys for typing and executing commands.
● Mouse: Pointing device that moves a cursor; interacts with graphical elements.
● Touchpad: Touch-sensitive surface on laptops for cursor control.
● Joystick/Gamepad: Used primarily for gaming — analog sticks, buttons, triggers.
● Webcam: Captures live video/images; used for video conferencing and streaming.
● Microphone: Captures audio for voice commands, communication, and recording.
● Touchscreen: Allows direct touch interaction with the display.
● Barcode Scanner: Reads barcodes for product identification and inventory management.
● Graphic Tablet: Artists use a stylus on a pressure-sensitive surface to input drawings.
● MIDI Controller: Musicians use it to input musical data into a computer.
● Digital Camera: Transfers and edits photos when connected to a computer.
3.2 Output Devices
Output devices convert processed information from a computer into a form that the user can
understand — visual, audio, or tactile. Output can be generated automatically by a system without a
user trigger.
Categories of Output
● Visual – monitors, printers, plotters, projectors, digital signage, LED screens.
● Sound – speakers, headphones, alerts, alarms, text-to-speech, digitised speech.
● Tactile – Braille output, haptic feedback (vibrations), VR models.
Key Output Devices — Detailed Notes
Term Definition
Monitor/Display Displays visual information: text, graphics, video. Available as
LED/LCD and others.
Printer Produces hard copies on paper. Types vary (see printer section
below).
Speakers Output audio: music, speech, system sounds, alerts.
Headphones Private audio output; doesn't disturb others.
Projector Displays content on a large surface — used for presentations and
entertainment.
Haptic Devices Provide tactile feedback (e.g. vibrations) to simulate touch sensations.
Braille Display Converts digital text into Braille characters for visually impaired users.
Digital Signage Large electronic displays for public advertising or information.
Notification Lights LEDs that show status (power, Wi-Fi, battery) — found on laptops and
phones.
3.3 Types of Printer
You need to know the different types and be able to select the right one based on user requirements:
Printer Type How it Works Best For Considerations
Inkjet Sprays tiny ink High-quality colour prints, Cheaper upfront; ink
droplets onto paper photos, graphic-intensive cartridges expensive;
work slower; prone to clogging
Laser Uses laser + toner to Text documents, office Higher initial cost; cheaper
produce high-speed use, high-volume black & per-page; fast; durable;
prints white printing toner lasts longer
Thermal Heats coated paper Point-of-sale receipts, No ink needed; fades over
to produce an image labels time; cannot print on
normal paper
3D Printer Builds 3D physical Prototyping, Slow; materials can be
objects layer by layer manufacturing, education expensive; specialist
from digital design software required
3.4 Removable Storage Devices
These can be connected via insertion into a port or drive:
● USB Memory Sticks / SD Cards — small, portable, plug-and-play.
● CD-ROM, DVD, Blu-ray — optical discs for data, music, video, software.
● External Hard Drives — large capacity portable storage.
SECTION 4: Types of Computer System
4.1 Categorising Computer Systems
Computer systems can be categorised by three criteria:
● Application — what the system is used for
● Size — physical dimensions
● Power — speed of processing
By Application
Term Definition
Standalone A single computer not linked to other systems.
Network Two or more computer systems linked together to share resources and
data.
General Purpose Designed to perform a wide variety of tasks (e.g. a personal computer).
Embedded System A computer integrated into a device to control a specific function (e.g. a
washing machine controller).
By Size (Largest to Smallest)
● Supercomputer — the largest and most powerful; used for scientific simulations and complex
calculations.
● Mainframe — large, powerful; used for enterprise-scale data processing (banks, airlines).
● Server / Desktop Tower — standard computers for businesses and homes.
● Laptop / Notebook / Netbook — portable personal computers.
● Tablet / Handheld / Games Console — touchscreen-based portable devices.
● Smartphone — pocket-sized computers with full OS capabilities.
● Smartwatch — the smallest; wrist-worn computers with limited but growing functionality.
Specific Types of Computer
Term Definition
Personal Computer (PC) Traditional desktop computer designed for individual use.
File Server Manages and distributes files within a network.
Mainframe High-performance computer for large-scale data processing
(enterprise-level).
Microcontroller Small computer embedded in electronic devices to control specific
functions.
Quantum Computer Experimental; uses quantum bits (qubits) for extremely complex
calculations.
Raspberry Pi / SBC Single-Board Computer — compact, affordable; used for education and
Term Definition
DIY projects.
Embedded System Computer integrated into everyday devices and industrial machines.
4.2 Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a computer designed to perform a dedicated function or set of functions within
a larger system. Unlike general-purpose computers, embedded systems are tailored for a specific task.
Examples of Embedded Systems:
● In-car GPS navigation systems
● Smartphones
● Tablets
● Smart TVs
● Pacemakers (critical medical devices)
● Point-of-Sale (POS) systems in retail
● Gaming consoles
● Washing machines, microwave ovens
💡 Embedded systems are everywhere. Any device with a dedicated computer inside it — from a traffic
light controller to a coffee machine — is an embedded system.
SECTION 5: Wearable & Accessible Hardware
5.1 Wearable Hardware
Recent advances in miniaturisation have enabled computers to be worn on the body. Wearable
hardware includes:
Term Definition
Smartwatches Worn on the wrist; offer fitness tracking, notifications, and app support.
Fitness Trackers Monitor physical activity: steps, distance, heart rate.
Smart Clothing Embedded sensors in clothing to track health metrics or posture.
Hearables Ear-worn devices (wireless earbuds) with fitness tracking and voice
assistants.
VR/AR Headsets Head-worn devices that immerse users in virtual or augmented
environments.
Smart Jewellery Rings, bracelets, necklaces with embedded tech for notifications or
fitness.
Term Definition
Wearable Cameras Compact cameras worn on the body (e.g. action cameras, body
cameras).
Wearable GPS Trackers Track location; useful for hiking, child safety, or pet tracking.
Wearable Chargers Accessories like wristbands that can charge electronic devices on the
go.
5.2 Accessible Hardware (Assistive Technology)
Hardware should be usable by as many people as possible. Accessible hardware (also called assistive
technology) ensures people are not excluded from using computers due to disability.
● Developments in accessible hardware have enabled people with disabilities to study, work,
shop, and communicate via computer.
● Input devices: touchscreens, ergonomic keyboards, alternatives to mice (e.g. eye-tracking).
● Output devices: screen magnifiers, Braille embossers (convert text to Braille on paper).
● Notetakers: portable devices for users with visual impairments.
5.3 Criteria for Selecting Hardware
When choosing hardware, consider the following factors:
Criterion What to Consider
Capacity How much data can the device store or process?
Speed How quickly does the device perform its function?
Portability Can the device be easily moved or used on the go?
Durability How robust is the device? Will it withstand wear and tear?
Reliability How consistently does the device perform without failure?
Accessibility Can people with disabilities use this hardware comfortably?
Cost Is the device within budget? Consider both upfront and ongoing costs.
SECTION 6: Technological Developments
6.1 Modern Developments in Computer Systems
Computer systems today are vastly different from those of even 10 years ago. Key areas of
development:
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
● AI computers are specifically designed to handle AI and machine learning tasks.
● Require powerful CPUs, large RAM, and fast storage to process complex algorithms.
● Applications: self-driving cars, image recognition, natural language processing, ChatGPT, etc.
Internet of Things (IoT)
● A rapidly growing network of connected objects that collect and exchange data in real time
using embedded sensors.
● Examples: smart thermostats, connected fridges, smart lighting, connected cars.
● Key sectors driving IoT: business, medicine, farming.
● Computer systems are evolving to support constant internet connectivity.
Nanotechnology
● Deals with manipulating technology at the nanoscale — individual atoms or molecules.
● Chips, phones, and wearable tech are getting increasingly smaller thanks to nanotechnology.
● Medical research is exploring computer chips implanted in the brain to assist with neurological
diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
4G / 5G Mobile Technology
Term Definition
4G Fourth generation mobile network. Download speeds up to 100 Mbps
or more.
5G Fifth generation. Theoretical peak speeds of multiple gigabits per
second. Enables AR, VR, 8K streaming, and advanced automation.
6G Currently in development — expected to further revolutionise
connectivity.
Big Data
Big data refers to extremely large and complex datasets that cannot be managed with traditional tools.
Characterised by the "Three Vs":
● Volume — massive amounts of data, beyond traditional database capacity.
● Velocity — the speed at which data is generated, collected, and processed.
● Variety — data comes in diverse formats (text, video, sensor readings, social media, etc.).
Growth of the Internet
● Over 5.35 billion internet users worldwide today.
● Global internet user growth at approximately 1.8% per year.
● The internet has transformed shopping, music, television, and the way we work.
💡 The internet has fundamentally changed how society functions — and this rate of change continues
to accelerate.
SECTION 7: Exam Preparation & Quick Revision
7.1 Topic Summary — Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
● Describe the purpose of a computer system.
● Identify types of computers for different functions.
● Describe an embedded system and provide examples of where it is used.
● Describe the main hardware components of a desktop PC: motherboard, bus, ports, CPU, hard
disk, cooling fan, RAM, power supply, graphics card.
● Define "hardware" and "peripheral" and identify methods of connecting peripherals.
● Describe a range of input and output peripheral devices and justify the choice of device for a
particular purpose.
7.2 Topic Exam Questions (Practice)
📝 EXAM TIP: Try to answer these before checking your notes!
● Q1: What are the three main components of any computer system?
● Q2: Describe three input devices and state their primary purpose.
● Q3: Describe three storage devices.
● Q4: Explain why hardware needs to be accessible.
● Q5: Describe the term "Internet of Things".
7.3 Key Terms Glossary
Term Definition
Computer System A combination of hardware and software that receives, processes,
stores, and outputs data.
Hardware The physical components of a computer system, both internal and
external.
Software Programs and operating information used by a computer.
CPU (Processor) The "brain" of the computer — executes all instructions.
RAM Volatile short-term memory used during processing. Lost on shutdown.
ROM Read-Only Memory — permanent memory that holds startup
instructions.
Motherboard The main circuit board connecting all computer components.
Bus A communication pathway between components on the motherboard.
Peripheral Any hardware device connected externally to a computer (printer,
Term Definition
keyboard, etc.).
Input Device Hardware used to enter data into a computer system.
Output Device Hardware used to communicate processed information from a
computer to the user.
Embedded System A computer within a device designed for a specific dedicated function.
IoT Internet of Things — a network of everyday objects connected to the
internet.
Big Data Extremely large datasets characterised by Volume, Velocity, and
Variety.
USB Universal Serial Bus — the standard connector for most modern
peripherals.
HDMI High-Definition Multimedia Interface — carries digital audio and video
signals.
Nanotechnology Technology developed and applied at atomic/molecular scale.
Assistive Technology Hardware/software designed to help people with disabilities use
computers.
HDD Hard Disk Drive — magnetic storage, common in desktops. Slower but
affordable.
SSD Solid State Drive — faster, no moving parts, common in laptops.
GPU Graphics Processing Unit — handles rendering of images and video.