C H A P T E R 13

Solutions for Chapter 13

13.1 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates in which the dielectric
between the plates is either air or some other medium.
The capacitance C is given by C ¼ εoεrA/d, where εo is the absolute permittivity,
εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric medium between the plates, A is the
area of the plates, and d is the distance between them.
Two forms of capacitive device exist which differ according to whether the distance
between the plates is fixed or not.
In the fixed plate type, both the plates are fixed, and the dielectric constant of the
material between the plates is changed in some way.
In the nonfixed plate type, one plate is in fact fixed, and the other plate is moveable.
Variation in capacitance is achieved by changing the position of the moveable plate.
Applications:
Displacement sensors:
Capacitive devices in which the distance between the plates is variable are primarily
used as displacement sensors.
Motion of the moveable capacitive plate relative to a fixed one changes the
capacitance.
Such devices can be used directly as a displacement sensor by applying the motion
to be measured to the moveable capacitor plate.
Capacitive displacement sensors commonly form part of instruments measuring
pressure, sound, or acceleration. More details about these might be expected,
depending on the amount of time allowed to answer the question.
Humidity sensors:
These use the fixed plate type of sensor. The dielectric medium between the plates
is air, and the capacitance varies according to the moisture content in the air. More
details might be expected, depending on the amount of time allowed to answer
the question.
Liquid level sensors:
These also use the fixed plate type of sensor. The dielectric medium between the
plates is part air and part liquid according to the level of the liquid that the device is
inserted in. More details might be expected, depending on the amount of time
allowed to answer the question.

Measurement and Instrumentation. [Link]

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 Chapter 13

13.2 Discussion of the following is expected:

Temperature measurement using resistance thermometers or thermistors.
Displacement measurement using strain gauges or piezoresistive sensors.
Moisture meters that work on the resistance-variation principle.
The amount of detail expected will depend on the amount of time allowed to
answer the question.
13.3 The discussion should cover the following points:
Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance, reluctance, and
eddy currents to indicate the value of the measured quantity, which is usually some
form of displacement.
Suitable explanations of their modes of operation are as follows:
Inductive sensors translate movement into a change in the mutual inductance
between magnetically coupled parts.
An example is the inductive displacement transducer. A labeled sketch similar to
Figure 13.1 in the book should be drawn.
The single winding on the central limb of an “E”-shaped ferromagnetic body is
excited with an alternating voltage.
The displacement to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic plate in close
proximity to the “E” piece.
Movements of the plate alter the flux paths and hence cause a change in the current
flow in the winding.
By Ohm’s law, the current flowing in the winding is given by:
I ¼ V=uL:
For fixed values of w and V, this equation becomes:
I ¼ 1=KL;
where K is a constant.
The relationship between L and the displacement, d, applied to the plate is a
nonlinear one, and hence the output-current/displacement characteristic has to be
calibrated.
The inductance principle is also used in differential transformers to measure trans-
lational and rotational displacements.
Variable reluctance sensors are commonly used to measure rotational velocities.
A labeled sketch of a typical instrument similar to Figure 13.2 in the book should
be drawn.
The coil is wound on a permanent magnet rather than on an iron core as in variable
inductance sensors.
A ferromagnetic gearwheel is placed next to the sensor.
 Solutions for Chapter 13 3

As the tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves toward and away from the pick-up
unit, the changing magnetic flux in the pick-up coil causes a voltage to be induced
in the coil whose magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Thus, the output is a sequence of positive and negative pulses whose frequency is
proportional to the rotational velocity of the gearwheel.
Eddy current sensors are used to measure displacement. A labeled sketch of a
typical instrument similar to Figure 13.3 in the book should be drawn. The sensor
has a probe containing a coil that is excited at a high frequency, which is
typically 1 MHz.
This measures the displacement of the probe relative to a moving metal target.
Because of the high frequency of excitation, eddy currents are induced only in the
surface of the target, and the current magnitude reduces to almost zero at a short
distance inside the target.
This allows the sensor to measure the displacement of very thin targets, such as the
steel diaphragm of a pressure sensor.
The eddy currents alter the inductance of the probe coil, and this change can be
translated into a DC voltage output that is proportional to the distance between the
probe and the target.
It is particularly suited to measuring very small displacements, since measurement
resolution as high as 0.1 mm can be achieved.
The sensor can also work with a nonconductive target if a piece of aluminum tape is
fastened to it.
13.4 The following points are expected in the discussion:
A Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic
field.
To illustrate the mode or operation, the student should draw a labeled sketch similar
to that in Figure 13.4 of the book.
The sensor consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally
with the magnetic field.
This produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly pro-
portional to the magnetic field strength.
For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the output voltage is given
by V ¼ KIB, where K is known as the Hall constant.
The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor
material, as opposed to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a
magnetic field of a given size.
Uses:
A common use of the device is as a proximity sensor, in which the magnetic field is
provided by a permanent magnet that is built into the device. The magnitude of this
4 Chapter 13

field changes when the device becomes close to any ferrous metal object or
boundary.
It is also commonly used in computer keyboard pushbuttons. When a button is
depressed, a magnet attached underneath the button moves past a Hall-effect sensor.
This generates an induced voltage in the sensor which is converted by a trigger
circuit into a digital output. Such pushbutton switches can operate at high fre-
quencies without contact bounce.
13.5 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them.
They can also operate in the reverse mode, where an applied voltage produces an
output force.
Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials. These can be
natural ones such as quartz, synthetic ones such as lithium sulfate, ferroelectric
ceramics such as barium titanate, or polymeric films such as polyvinylidene.
These have an asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a mechanical
force is applied to it.
This distortion causes a reorientation of electric charges within the material,
resulting in a relative displacement of positive and negative charges.
The charge displacement induces surface charges on the material of opposite polar-
ity between the two sides.
By implanting electrodes into the surface of the material, these surface charges can
be measured as an output voltage.
For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:
kFd
V¼
A
where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the material in millimeters, d is
the thickness of the material, and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity
of the induced voltage depends on whether the material is compressed or stretched.
The piezoelectric constant k varies widely between different materials. Typical
values of k are 2.3 for quartz and 140 for barium titanate.
The piezoelectric principle is invertible, and therefore distortion in a piezoelectric mate-
rial can be caused by applying a voltage to it. This is commonly used in ultrasonic trans-
mitters, where it is considered further in the section below on ultrasonic transducers.
Applications:
Ultrasonic transmitters:
In a transmitter, application of a sinusoidal voltage at a frequency in the ultrasound
range causes sinusoidal variations in the thickness of the material in the device and
results in a sound wave being emitted at the chosen frequency.
 Solutions for Chapter 13 5

Ultrasonic receivers:
In a receiver, the sinusoidal amplitude variations in the ultrasound wave received are
translated into sinusoidal changes in the amplitude of the force applied to the piezo-
electric transducer.
Displacement transducers:
Any translational movement in the transducer is translated into a mechanical force
that is applied to the piezoelectric transducer. Such transducers are used particularly
as part of devices measuring acceleration, force, and pressure.
13.6 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Explanation:
Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance when they are
stretched or strained.
They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range of 0e50 mm,
and are typically used as part of other transducers, for example, diaphragm pressure
sensors that convert pressure changes into small displacements of the diaphragm.
Measurement inaccuracies as low as 0.15% of full scale reading are achievable,
and the quoted life expectancy is usually three million reversals.
Mode of operation:
The traditional type of strain gauge consists of a length of metal resistance wire
formed into a zigzag pattern and mounted onto a flexible backing sheet.
The wire is nominally of circular cross-section.
As strain is applied to the gauge, the shape of the cross section of the resistance
wire distorts, changing the cross-sectional area.
As the resistance of the wire per unit length is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, there is a consequential change in resistance.
The inputeoutput relationship of a strain gauge is expressed by the gauge factor,
which is defined as the change in resistance (R) for a given value of strain (S), i.e.,
gauge factor ¼ dR/dS.
When used to measure displacement, strain gauges are bonded to the object whose
displacement is to be measured.
The process of bonding presents a certain amount of difficulty.
The resistance of the gauge is usually measured by a DC bridge circuit, and the
displacement is inferred from the bridge output measured.
Problems with wire-type gauges:
It is difficult to form a piece of resistance wire into the required shape.
Consequently, wire-type gauges are relatively expensive.
Also, the gauge factor of wire-type gauges is relatively small. In consequence, since
the maximum voltage that can be applied is limited because the maximum current
6 Chapter 13

that can be allowed to flow in a strain gauge is 50 mA or less, amplification has to

be applied to the output. This adds to the cost of using wire-type strain gauges.
How problems are overcome:
Newer metal-foil types of strain gauge are much easier to manufacture and are
therefore cheaper. Their active element consists of a piece of metal foil cut into
a zigzag pattern. Cutting a foil into the required shape is much easier than forming
a piece of resistance wire into the required shape.
Semiconductor types of strain gauge are also now available. They have piezoresistive
elements. Compared with metal gauges, they have a much superior gauge factor
(up to 100 times better), but they are more expensive. One disadvantage they have is
that, while metal gauges have an almost zero temperature coefficient, semiconductor
types have a relatively high temperature coefficient.
13.7 Discussion of the following applications is expected:
Strain gauges are devices that are used to detect very small displacements, usually
in the range of 0e50 mm.
They are typically used as part of other transducers, for example diaphragm pres-
sure sensors that convert pressure changes into small displacements of the
diaphragm.
They are also used as part of devices measuring acceleration, force, and pressure.
The amount of detail expected in explaining these applications will depend on
the amount of time allowed to answer the question.
13.8 Discussion of the following points is expected:
A piezoresistive sensor is one in which the resistance varies when the sensor is
compressed or stretched.
It is made from semiconductor material in which a p-type region has been diffused
into an n-type base.
There is a large change in the resistance of this semiconductor material when the
sensor is compressed or stretched. This resistance change is predominantly caused
by the piezoresistive effect, rather than by the dimensional changes that cause a
change in resistance in metal strain gauges.
Uses:
It is frequently used as a strain gauge, where it produces a significantly higher
gauge factor than that given by metal wire or foil gauges. Also, measurement uncer-
tainty can be reduced down to 0.1%.
It is also used in semiconductorediaphragm pressure sensors and in semiconductor
accelerometers.
13.9 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Optical sensors give immunity to electromagnetically induced noise.
They also provide greater safety than electrical sensors when used in hazardous
environments.
 Solutions for Chapter 13 7

Optical sensors are based on the transmission of path light between a light source
and a light detector.
The transmitted light can travel along either an air or a fiber-optic cable.
Mode of operationdAir-path sensors:
Air-path sensors involve the transmission of light across air between a light source
and a light detector.
Light sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-filament
lamps, laser diodes, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Unfortunately, as the light from tungsten lamps is usually in the visible part of the
light frequency spectrum, it is prone to interference from the sun and other sources.
Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred as a light
source. These emit light in a narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are
not affected by sunlight.
The main forms of light detector used with air-path optical systems are photo-
conductors (photoresistors), photovoltaic devices (photocells), phototransistors, and
photodiodes.
Photoconductive devices convert changes in incident light into changes in resis-
tance, with the resistance reducing according to the intensity of light to which they
are exposed. They are made from various materials such as cadmium sulfide, lead
sulfide, and indium antimonide.
Photovoltaic devices are made from various types of semiconductor material. Their
basic mode of operation is to generate an output voltage whose magnitude is a
function of the magnitude of the incident light that they are exposed to.
Photodiodes are devices where the output current is a function of the amount of
incident light. Again, they are made from various types of semiconductor material.
A Phototransistor is effectively a standard bipolar transistor with a transparent
case that allows light to reach its baseecollector junction. It is more sensitive to
light than a photodiode, particularly in the infrared region, but it has a slower
response time. It is an ideal partner for infrared LED and laser-diode light
sources.
Mode of operationdFiber-optic sensors:
Fiber-optic sensors use fiber-optic cable to transmit light between a source and a
detector. The cable used can be made from either plastic or glass fibers, or a
combination of the two, though it is now rare to find cables made only from glass
fibers since these are very fragile.
Cables made entirely from plastic fibers have particular advantages for sensor appli-
cations because they are cheap and have a relatively large diameter of 0.5e1.0 mm,
making connection to the transmitter and receiver easy.
However, plastic cables cannot be used in certain hostile environments, where they
would be severely damaged.
Two major classes of fiber-optic sensor exist, intrinsic sensors and extrinsic sensors.
In intrinsic sensors, the fiber-optic cable itself is the sensor, whereas in extrinsic
8 Chapter 13

sensors, the fiber-optic cable is only used to guide light to/from a conventional
sensor.
In intrinsic sensors, the physical quantity being measured causes some measurable
change in the characteristics of the light transmitted by the cable. The modulated light
parameter can be either the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength, or transit time.
A particularly useful feature of intrinsic fiber-optic sensors is that they can, if
required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to 1 m.
Light intensity is the simplest parameter to manipulate in intrinsic sensors because
only a simple source and detector are required. This is often used in various forms
of switch, in which the light path is simply blocked and unblocked as the switch
changes state.
Modulation of the intensity of transmitted light also takes place in various simple
forms of proximity, displacement, acceleration, pressure, pH, and smoke sensors.
Phase modulation normally requires a coherent (laser) light source. It can provide
very high sensitivity in displacement measurement but cross sensitivity to tempera-
ture and strain degrades its performance.
Devices using polarization modulation require special forms of fiber that maintain
polarization. Polarization changes can be effected by electrical fields, magnetic
fields, temperature changes, and mechanical strain. Each of these parameters can
therefore be measured by polarization modulation.
Various devices that modulate the wavelength of light are used for special purposes.
However, the only common wavelength-modulating fiber-optic device is a form of
laser Doppler flowmeter.
Extrinsic fiber-optic sensors use a fiber-optic cable, normally a multimode one,
to transmit modulated light from a conventional sensor such as a resistance
thermometer.
A major feature of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places that are otherwise
inaccessible, such as to measure temperature by transmitting radiation from within
objects like jet engines and electrical transformers to a radiation pyrometer located
outside.
13.10 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Operation:
Air-path sensors involve the transmission of light across air between a light source
and a light detector.
Light sources:
Light sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-filament
lamps, laser diodes, and LEDs.
Unfortunately, as the light from tungsten lamps is usually in the visible part of the
light frequency spectrum, it is prone to interference from the sun and other sources.
 Solutions for Chapter 13 9

Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred as a light
source. These emit light in a narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are
not affected by sunlight.
Light detectors:
The main forms of light detector used with air-path optical systems are photo-
conductors (photoresistors), photovoltaic devices (photocells), phototransistors, and
photodiodes.
Photoconductive devices convert changes in incident light into changes in resis-
tance, with the resistance reducing according to the intensity of light to which they
are exposed. They are made from various materials such as cadmium sulfide, lead
sulfide, and indium antimonide.
Photovoltaic devices are made from various types of semiconductor material. Their
basic mode of operation is to generate an output voltage whose magnitude is a
function of the magnitude of the incident light that they are exposed to.
Photodiodes are devices where the output current is a function of the amount of
incident light. Again, they are made from various types of semiconductor material.
A Phototransistor is effectively a standard bipolar transistor with a transparent case
that allows light to reach its baseecollector junction. It has an output in the form of
an electrical current and could be regarded as a photodiode with an internal gain.
This gain makes it more sensitive to light than a photodiode, particularly in the
infrared region, but it has a slower response time. It is an ideal partner for infrared
LED and laser-diode light sources. It is particularly suitable for use in conjunction
with infrared LED or laser-diode light sources.
13.11 This question is quite suitable for use as the basis for a student assignment. (If
used as a formal examination question, the amount of detail expected in the
answer depends on the time allowed to answer the question)
Appropriate points which might be expected in the discussion include:
Fiber-optic sensors can use fiber-optic cable to transmit light between a source and
a detector.
Fiber-optic cables can be made from either plastic or glass fibers or a combination
of the two, though it is now rare to find cables made only from glass fibers, since
these are very fragile.
Cables made entirely from plastic fibers have particular advantages for sensor appli-
cations because they are cheap and have a relatively large diameter of 0.5e1.0 mm,
making connection to the transmitter and receiver easy.
However, plastic cables cannot be used in certain hostile environments where they
would be severely damaged.
The only significant difficulty in designing a fiber-optic sensor is in ensuring that
the proportion of light entering the cable is maximized.
10 Chapter 13

Two major classes of fiber-optic sensor exist, intrinsic sensors and extrinsic sensors.
Intrinsic sensors:
In intrinsic sensors, the fiber-optic cable itself is the sensor. The physical quantity
being measured causes some measurable change in the characteristics of the light
transmitted by the cable. The modulated light parameter can be either the intensity,
phase, polarization, wavelength, or transit time of the light.
Sensors that modulate light intensity tend to use mainly multimode fibers, but only
monomode cables are used to modulate other light parameters.
A particularly useful feature of intrinsic fiber-optic sensors is that they can, if
required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to 1 m.
Light intensity is the simplest parameter to manipulate in intrinsic sensors because
only a simple source and detector are required. Various forms of switch are the
simplest form of these, as the light path is simply blocked and unblocked as the
switch changes state.
Modulation of the intensity of transmitted light also takes place in various simple
forms of proximity, displacement, pressure, pH, and smoke sensors.
In pressure sensors, the refractive index of the fiber, and hence the intensity of light
transmitted, varies according to the mechanical deformation of the fibers caused by
pressure. In the pH probe, the amount of light reflected back into the fibers depends
on the pH-dependent color of the chemical indicator in the solution around the
probe tip. Finally, in a form of smoke detector, two fiber-optic cables placed either
side of a space detect any reduction in the intensity of light transmission between
them caused by the presence of smoke.
A simple form of accelerometer can be made by placing a mass subject to the accel-
eration on a multimode fiber, such that the force exerted by the mass on the fiber
causes a change in the intensity of light transmitted.
The variable shutter sensor consists of two fixed fibers with two collimating lenses
and a variable shutter between them. Movement of the shutter changes the intensity
of light transmitted between the fibers. This is used to measure the displacement of
various devices such as Bourdon tubes, diaphragms, and bimetallic thermometers.
Another type of sensor uses cable where the core and cladding have similar refrac-
tive indices but different temperature coefficients. This is used as a temperature
sensor. Temperature rises cause the refractive indices to become even closer
together, and losses from the core to increase, thus reducing the quantity of light
transmitted.
The cross-talk sensor measures several different variables by modulating the
intensity of light transmitted. It consists of two parallel fibers that are close
together and where one or more short lengths of adjacent cladding are removed
from the fibers. When immersed in a transparent liquid, there are three different
 Solutions for Chapter 13 11

effects that each cause a variation in the intensity of light transmitted. Thus, the
sensor can perform three separate functions. Firstly, it can measure temperature
according to the temperature-induced variation in the refractive index of the
liquid. Secondly, it can act as a level detector, as the transmission characteristics
between the fibers change according to the depth of the liquid. Thirdly, it can
measure the refractive index of the liquid itself when used under controlled tem-
perature conditions.
Phase modulation normally requires a coherent (laser) light source. It can provide
very high sensitivity in displacement measurement, but cross sensitivity to tempera-
ture and strain degrades its performance. Additional problems are maintaining fre-
quency stability of the light source and manufacturing difficulties in coupling the
light source to the fiber. Various versions of this class of instrument exist to measure
temperature, pressure, acceleration, strain, magnetic fields, and electric fields. Field-
generated quantities such as electric current and voltage can also be measured.
In each case, the measurand causes a phase change between a measuring and a
reference light beam that is detected by an interferometer.
Devices using polarization modulation require special forms of fiber that maintain
polarization. Polarization changes can be effected by electrical fields, magnetic
fields, temperature changes, and mechanical strain. Each of these parameters can
therefore be measured by polarization modulation.
Various devices that modulate the wavelength of light are used for special purposes.
However, the only common wavelength-modulating fiber-optic device is a form of
laser Doppler flowmeter.
Fiber-optic devices using modulation of the transit time of light are uncommon
because of the speed of light. Measurement of the transit time for light to travel
from a source, be reflected off an object, and travel back to a detector, is only viable
for extremely large distances.
(Greater discussion of these applications might be expected depending on the
time allowed to answer the question, and particularly if the question is used as
the basis for a student assignment.)
Extrinsic sensors:
Extrinsic fiber-optic sensors use a fiber-optic cable, normally a multimode one, to
transmit modulated light from a conventional sensor such as a resistance
thermometer.
A major feature of extrinsic sensors, which makes them so useful in such a large
number of applications, is their ability to reach places that are otherwise inacces-
sible. One example of this is the insertion of fiber-optic cables into the jet engines
of aircraft to measure temperature by transmitting radiation into a radiation pyrome-
ter located remotely from the engine. Fiber-optic cable can be used in the same way
12 Chapter 13

to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme

electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible.
Piezoelectric sensors lend themselves particularly to use in extrinsic sensors because
the modulated frequency of a quartz crystal can be readily transmitted into a fiber-
optic cable by fitting electrodes to the crystal that are connected to a low power
LED. Resonance of the crystal can be created either by electrical means or by
optical means using the photothermal effect. (The photothermal effect describes the
principle where, if light is pulsed at the required oscillation frequency and directed
at a quartz crystal, the localized heating and thermal stress caused in the crystal
results in it oscillating at the pulse frequency). Piezoelectric extrinsic sensors can be
used as part of various pressure, force, and displacement sensors. At the other end
of the cable, a phase locked loop is typically used to measure the transmitted
frequency.
Fiber-optic cables are also now commonly included in digital encoders, where the
use of fibers to transmit light to and from the discs allows the light source and
detectors to be located remotely. This allows the devices to be smaller, which is a
great advantage in many applications where space is at a premium.
13.12 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Operation:
Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz, that is, above the
sonic range that humans can usually hear.
Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one device that transmits an ul-
trasound wave and another device that receives the wave.
Changes in the measured variable are determined either by measuring the change in
time taken for the ultrasound wave to travel between the transmitter and receiver, or
alternatively, by measuring the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted
wave.
The most common form of ultrasonic element is a piezoelectric crystal contained in
a casing. Such elements can operate interchangeably as either a transmitter or a
receiver. They are available with operating frequencies that vary between 20 kHz
and 15 MHz.
Capacitive ultrasonic elements also exist. These consist of a thin, dielectric mem-
brane between two conducting layers. The membrane is stretched across a backplate
and a bias voltage is applied. When a varying voltage is applied to the element, it
behaves as an ultrasonic transmitter and an ultrasound wave is produced. The
system also works in the reverse direction as an ultrasonic receiver. Elements with
resonant frequencies in the range between 30 kHz and 3 MHz can be obtained.
Signal levels at the output of ultrasonic measurement systems are usually of low
amplitude and are therefore prone to contamination by electromagnetic noise.
 Solutions for Chapter 13 13

Because of this, it is necessary to use special precautions such as making ground

(earth) lines thick, using shielded cables for transmission of the signal from the
ultrasonic receiver, and locating the signal amplifier as close to the receiver as
possible.
A potentially serious form of noise is background ultrasound produced by
manufacturing operations in the typical industrial environment that many ultrasonic
range measurement systems operate. Analysis of industrial environments has shown
that ultrasound at frequencies up to 100 kHz is generated by many operations, and
some operations generate ultrasound at higher frequencies up to 200 kHz. There is
not usually any problem if ultrasonic measurement systems operate at frequencies
above 200 kHz, but these often have insufficient range for the needs of the measure-
ment situation. In these circumstances, any objects that are likely to generate energy
at ultrasonic frequencies should be covered in sound-absorbing material such that
interference with ultrasonic measurement systems is minimized. The placement of
sound-absorbing material around the path that the measuring ultrasound wave
travels along contributes further toward reducing the effect of background noise.
Uses:
Ultrasonic devices are used in many fields of measurement, particularly for
measuring fluid flow rates, liquid levels, and translational displacements.
Fuller details of these might be expected depending on the time allowed to answer
the question.
13.13 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Transmission speed:
The transmission speed of an ultrasound varies according to the medium through
which it travels. It travels through solid materials like wood and metal much faster
than through air. It also travels through water about four times faster than through
air.
When transmitted through air, the speed of ultrasound is affected by environmental
factors such as temperature, humidity, and air turbulence. Of these, temperature has
the largest effect. The velocity of sound through air varies with temperature accord-
ing to:
V ¼ 331:6 þ 0:6T m=s

where T is the temperature in  C. Thus, even for a relatively small temperature

change of 20  C from 0 to 20  C, the velocity changes from 331.6 m/s to 343.6 m/s.
Humidity changes have a much smaller effect on speed.
Changes in air pressure itself have negligible effect on the velocity of ultrasound.
Similarly, air turbulence normally has no effect unless the turbulence involves cur-
rents of air at different temperatures.
14 Chapter 13

Directionality:
An ultrasound element emits a spherical wave of energy, although the peak energy
is always in a particular direction.
The magnitude of energy emission in any direction is a function of the angle made
with respect to the direction that is normal to the face of the ultrasonic element.
The peak emission occurs along a line that is normal to the transmitting face of the
ultrasonic element, and this is loosely referred to as the “direction of travel.”
However, it should be noted that air currents can deflect ultrasonic waves such that
the peak emission is no longer normal to the face of the ultrasonic element.
It is useful to treat the transmission as a conical volume of energy, with the edges of
the cone defined as the transmission angle where the amplitude of the energy in the
transmission is 6 dB compared with the peak value (i.e., where the amplitude of
the energy is half that in the normal direction).
Using this definition, a 40-kHz ultrasonic element has a transmission cone of 50 ,
and a 400 kHz one element has a transmission cone of 3 . Thus the directionality
(cone angle of transmission) reduces as the nominal frequency of the ultrasound
transmitter increases.
However, the cone angle also depends on factors other than the nominal frequency,
particularly on the shape of the transmitting horn in the element, and different
models of ultrasonic element with the same nominal frequency can have substan-
tially different cone angles.
13.14 Discussion of the following points is expected:
The basic principles of an ultrasonic range sensor are to measure the time between
transmission of a burst of ultrasonic energy from an ultrasonic transmitter and
receipt of that energy by an ultrasonic receiver.
Then, the distance d can be calculated from:
d ¼ vt

where v is the ultrasound velocity, and t is the measured energy transit time.
The difficulty in applying this equation is the variability of v with temperature.
One solution to this problem is to include an extra ultrasonic transmitter/receiver
pair in the measurement system in which the two elements are positioned at a
known distance apart. Measurement of the transmission time of energy between this
fixed pair provides the necessary measurement of velocity, and hence compensation
for any environmental temperature changes.
The degree of directionality in the ultrasonic elements used for range measurement
is unimportant as long as the receiver and transmitter are positioned carefully so as
to face each other exactly (i.e., such that the “normal” lines to their faces are
coincident).
 Solutions for Chapter 13 15

Thus, directionality imposes no restriction on the type of element suitable for range
measurement.
However, element choice is restricted by the attenuation characteristics of different
types of element, and relatively low frequency elements have to be used for the
measurement of large ranges.
Improvement of measurement resolution and accuracy:
The best measurement resolution that can be obtained with an ultrasonic ranging
system is equal to the wavelength of the transmitted wave.
As wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, high frequency ultrasonic
elements would seem to be preferable to achieve high resolution measurements.
Unfortunately, choice of element also depends on the required range of measure-
ment since the range of higher frequency elements is much reduced compared with
low frequency ones due to the greater attenuation of the ultrasound wave as it
travels away from the transmitter.
Thus, choice of element frequency has to be a compromise between measurement
resolution and range.
The best measurement accuracy obtainable is equal to the measurement resolution
value, but this is only achieved if the electronic counter used to measure the trans-
mission time starts and stops at exactly the same point in the ultrasound cycle
(usually the point in the cycle corresponding to peak amplitude is used).
However, the sensitivity of the ultrasonic receiver also affects measurement accu-
racy. It takes about three cycles for the peak amplitude of the ultrasound wave to
reach a maximum. The first and second peaks of the wave are less than the final
peak amplitude.
The receiver must be sensitive enough to detect the peak of the first cycle, which is
easily achievable for measurement of relatively short ranges.
Unfortunately, if the range of measurement is large, attenuation of the ultrasound
wave may cause the amplitude of the first cycle to become less than the threshold
level that the receiver is set to detect. In this case, only the second cycle will be
detected, and there will be an additional measurement error equal to one wavelength.
For large transmission distances, even the second cycle may be undetected, meaning
that the receiver only “sees” the third cycle.
13.15 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Signal levels at the output of ultrasonic measurement systems are usually of low
amplitude and are therefore prone to contamination by electromagnetic noise.
The effect of noise can be reduced in several ways:
(a) making ground (earth) lines thick
(b) using shielded cables for transmission of the signal from the ultrasonic receiver
(c) locating the signal amplifier as close to the receiver as possible
16 Chapter 13

Background ultrasound produced by manufacturing operations in the typical indus-

trial environment that many ultrasonic range measurement systems operate is
another potentially serious form of noise.
Analysis of industrial environments has shown that ultrasound at frequencies up to
100 kHz is generated by many operations, and some operations generate ultrasound
at higher frequencies up to 200 kHz.
There is not usually any problem if ultrasonic measurement systems operate at fre-
quencies above 200 kHz, but these often have insufficient range for the needs of the
measurement situation.
The actions taken to overcome this problem include:
(a) Covering any objects that are likely to generate energy at ultrasonic fre-
quencies in sound-absorbing material such that interference with ultrasonic
measurement systems is minimized.
(b) Placing sound-absorbing material around the path that the measurement ultra-
sound wave travels along. Because ultrasonic energy is emitted at angles other
than the direction that is normal to the face of the transmitting element, a
problem arises in respect of energy that is reflected off some object in the envi-
ronment around the measurement system and back into the ultrasonic receiver.
This has a longer path than the direct one between the transmitter and receiver and
can cause erroneous measurements in some circumstances.
One solution to this is to arrange for the transmission-time counter to stop as soon
as the receiver first detects the ultrasound wave. This will usually be the wave that
has traveled along the direct path, and so no measurement error is caused as long as
the rate at which ultrasound pulses are emitted, such that the next burst is not
emitted until all reflections from the previous pulse have died down. However, in
circumstances where the direct path becomes obstructed by some obstacle, the
counter will only be stopped when the reflected signal is detected by the receiver,
giving a potentially large measurement error.
13.16 Discussion of the following points is expected:
The Doppler effect describes the apparent change in frequency of the wave when
there is relative motion between the transmitter and receiver. If a continuous ultra-
sound wave with velocity v and frequency f takes t seconds to travel from a source S
to a receiver R, then R will receive ft cycles of sound during time t.
Suppose now that R moves toward S at velocity r (with S stationary). R will receive
rt/l extra cycles of sound during time t, increasing the total number of sound cycles
received to ( ft þ rt/l).
With ( ft þ rt/l) cycles received in t seconds, the apparent frequency f 0 is given by:
ft þ rt=l rf f ðr þ vÞ
f0 ¼ ¼ f þ r=l ¼ f þ ¼
t v v
 Solutions for Chapter 13 17

(Since frequency, wavelength, and velocity are related according to the relation
1 ¼ f .)
l v
The frequency difference Df can be expressed as:
f ðv þ rÞ fr
Df ¼ f 0  f ¼ f ¼ ;
v v
from which the velocity of the receiver r can be expressed as:
r ¼ vDf =f
Similarly, it can be shown that, if R moves away from S with velocity r, f 0 is
given by:
f ðv  rÞ
f0 ¼
v
and
fr
Df ¼ 
v
If the ultrasound source moves toward the stationary receiver at velocity s, it will
move a distance st in time t, and the ft cycles that are emitted during time t will be
compressed into a distance (vt-st).
Hence, the apparent wavelength l0 will be given by:
vt  st v  s
l0 ¼ ¼ :
ft f
This can be expressed alternatively as f 0 ¼ lv0 ¼ v vf s :
Similarly, with S moving away from R, it can be shown that f 0 ¼ v vfþ s :
Thus, the velocity of an ultrasound receiver moving with respect to an ultrasound
source can be calculated from the measured ratio between the real and apparent fre-
quencies of the wave.
Use:
This is used in devices like the Doppler shift flowmeter.
(Depending on the time allowed to answer the question, details about the use in
a Doppler shift flowmeter might be expected.)
13.17 Discussion of the following points is expected:
Why are nuclear sensors not in common use?
Mode of operation:
The principle of operation of nuclear sensors is very similar to optical sensors in
that radiation is transmitted between a source and a detector through some medium
18 Chapter 13

in which the magnitude of transmission is attenuated according to the value of the

measured variable.
Cesium-137 is commonly used as a gamma-ray source, and a sodium iodide device
is commonly used as a gamma-ray detector.
The detector gives a voltage output that is proportional to the radiation incident
upon it.
Uses:
(a) measuring the level of liquid in storage tanks in a noninvasive way
(b) measuring mass flow rate
(c) medical scanning applications
What restricts their application?
Nuclear sensors are not used commonly for three main reasons:
(a) They are very expensive.
(b) The safety regulations that govern their use are very strict and difficult to satisfy.
(c) Although special low level radiation sources are now available that largely
overcome the safety problems, the low output level means that measurements
are then prone to contamination by background radiation.
13.18 Discussion of the following points is expected:
What are microsensors and what advantages do they have compared to conventional
sensors? How are they made and what applications are they used in?
What are microsensors?
Microsensors are two and three dimensional micromachined structures.
They are part of the wider class of MEMS devices (micro-electro-mechanical
system devices) that also includes microactuators.
Typical sizes of MEMS microsensors range between 10 mm (0.01 mm or 105 m)
and 5 mm.
Even smaller NEMS devices (nano-electro-mechanical system devices) are now
available, which vary from 1 to 100 nm in size (109 m to 107 m).
Advantages over conventional sensors:
Their advantages over conventional sensors include:
smaller size
improved performance
better reliability
lower production costs
How are they made?
The defining feature of any MEMS device is an element with some sort of mechani-
cal functionality integrated with microelectronics.
Microsensors can be regarded as miniature transducers, since they convert energy in
the form of a measured mechanical signal into energy in electrical form.
 Solutions for Chapter 13 19

Individual devices vary from simple ones where the mechanical part does not move
to much more complex ones involving several moving elements.
Microsensors are usually constructed from a silicon semiconductor material but are
sometimes fabricated from other materials such as metals, plastics, polymers,
glasses, and ceramics that are deposited on a silicon base.
Microengineering techniques are an essential enabling technology for microsensors,
which are designed so that their electromechanical properties change in response to
a change in the measured parameter.
Many of the techniques used for integrated circuit (IC) manufacture are also used in
sensor fabrication, common techniques being crystal growing and polishing, thin
film deposition, ion implantation, wet and dry chemical and laser etching, and
photolithography. However, apart from standard IC production techniques, some
special techniques are also needed in addition to produce the 3D structures that are
unique to some types of microsensors.
Applications:
MEMS devices to measure temperature, pressure, force, acceleration, rotational ve-
locity, humidity, sound, magnetic fields, radiation, and optical, biological, biomed-
ical, and chemical parameters are either in production or at advanced stages of
research.
NEMS devices are typically used as accelerometers, biological sensors, and sensors
for airborne chemicals.