18.6.

3 Describe male and female reproductive system of humans; U

Male reproductive system

It consists of external genitalia
which consists of
1) Testes
2) Male copulatory organ.
Male reproductive organs are for intercourse, reproduction and urination
Testes
• Small, solid and oval bodies.
• Testes are developed inside the abdomen but come to lie, before birth, in the scrotum.
Since the sperms are unable to develop at body temperature for sperm development.
• This location keeps the testes cooler than the core of the body and provides optimum
temperature for sperm development.
• Testes produce testosterone hormone, which controls the development of secondary sex
characters.
Scrotum
A sac-like pouch located behind the penis that holds each testes and helps regulate temperature for sperm production.
Seminiferous tubules
• Testes are packed with tightly coiled seminiferous tubules.

Seminiferous Germinal produce Differentiated into Primary

Spermatogonia
tubules epithelium spermatocytes

Secondary
spermatocytes Mature sperms
and spermatids

• Sertoli cells secretes fluid.

• That fluid provides liquid medium, protection and nourishment to sperms while they
are in the tubules.
• Interstitial cells of seminiferous tubules secretes testosterone.
Epididymis
• 6 meters long thin tube.
• In epididymis sperms undergo complete development and become motile.
• It forms a coil compact mass, which lies attached to the testis.

Vas deferens
• The sperms leave epididymis through a duct called the vas deferens.
• Vas deferens opens into urethra.
Urethra
• It is a tube which comes from bladder.
• It runs through and opens at the tip of the penis.
• It is also called urinogenital duct.
• Urinogenital duct is a common tube for the urinary and reproductive discharge.
Penis
• It is external genitalia.
• Also called copulatory organ.
• It transfer the sperms into the female reproductive tract.
Urethra

Penis
Sperm
• The microscopic cells produced by the male's testicles which can fertilize the
female's ovum.
• They are tiny, living cells 100 times smaller than a pencil dot. (the smallest
cell in a mans body
• Enough sperm would fit on the head of a pin to re-populate the earth if each
sperm fertilized an egg.
• It is destroyed by warm body temperature, acidic environment. It can survive
in a women’s body for 5-8 days.
• Any sperm not ejaculated are passed in the urine.
 Glands of male reproductive system
Prostate gland
•The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate.
• Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm.

Cowper's gland or Bulbourethral gland

•These are pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland.
•These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra.
•This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual
drops of urine in the urethra.
Seminal Vesicles
Two small glands that secrete a fluid that nourishes and enables the sperm to move.
SEMEN:
A combination of fluid that is produced in the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper's gland. This
fluid nourishes and helps sperm move through the urethra.
EJACULATION
The passage of sperm from the penis, a result of a series of muscular contractions.
 Vas deferens Seminal vesicle

Prostate gland

Bulbourethral gland

Epididymis
Urethra

Testis
Penis
Scrotum
 Hormonal control of male reproductive functions

1. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Secreted from hypothalamus.
Controls the release of the FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.

2. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Stimulates spermatogenesis by stimulating the sertoli cells to complete the development of sperms from
spermatids.

3. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

It stimulates Leydig cells to release testosterone.

4. Testosterone
It causes the growth and development of germinal epithelium to form sperms.

5. Inhibin
It is produced by sertoli cells.
It serves to control the spermatogenesis at normal rate.
TIME LINE:

Infancy
Erections begin
Ages 11-14
Secondary sex characteristics appear
Ages 13-16
Sperm produced in adult amounts (puberty)
Late teens
Peak sexual urges for boys throughout life.
 Female reproductive system

The female reproductive system consists of

 Internal reproductive organs
Ovaries
Oviduct
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
 External genitalia

Female reproductive organs are for intercourse, reproduction, urination pregnancy and childbirth.
Ovaries
Small oval and solid structures present on both side of the uterus. Two solid egg-shaped structures. They are
attached to the uterus by ligaments. They are the counterpart of the male testicles. On average, 11 out of 20
ovulation cycles (55%) occur from the right ovary.

Location
Present in lower part of the body cavity.
Size
about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick. Ovary
Function
 Shelter and protect the eggs.

 Produce female reproductive hormones.

Estrogen
Progesterone
Relaxin (loosens the pelvic ligaments so they can stretch during child birth)
Inhibin (prevents the pituitary gland from producing hormones)

 Release one egg, or sometimes more, each menstrual cycle.

OVA
 The female reproductive cell.
 They are the largest cells in the female body. (about the size of a grain of sand.)
 The female baby is born with all the ova she will ever have (about 200,000 in each
ovary).
 About 400-500 ova mature and are released over a lifetime
Formation of ovum in the human ovary

Before birth (During fetal development)

In Primordial Primary Primordial
Oogonia
Ovary Germ cells oocytes follicle

 At birth, the ovary contains around 400 000 primordial follicles which contain primary oocytes.

 These primary oocytes do not undergo further mitotic division, and they remain arrested in the
prophase stage of meiotic division I, until sexual maturity.
 After birth, at the time of puberty

Primordial Secondary Graffian follicle

follicles (containing Primary
follicle (Containing secondary oocyte)
primary oocyte) follicle

• In human only one ovum is usually discharged from the ovary at one time, this phenomenon is
called Ovulation.
 At birth (no further development
Primordial
follicle
Primary
oocytes

until sexual maturity)

Oogonia

Primordial
germ cell

Primordial follicles
Containing primary oocytes
Oviduct
• Are pair of tubes.
• Oviduct is generally called fallopian tube or uterine tube.
Size
Each oviduct is about 10cm long.
Structure
• It is divided into 3 regions (Infundibulum, Ampulla and Isthmus).
Function
• It transfer developing ovum from ovary towards the uterus.
• The fertilization of the ovum takes place in the proximal part of the oviduct.

Isthmus
Ampulla
Fallopian tube

Infundibulum

Fimbriae
Uterus
• Muscular but distensible sac.
• Also known as the womb.

Shape
• Small pear shaped organ.

Size
8 cm long, 5 cm across, and 4 cm thick.

Structure
The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers.

a. Perimetrium; The outermost thin covering layer.

b. Myometrium; The middle thick muscular layer.
c. Endometrium; The inner spongy layer.
• The uterus has four parts: the fundus, corpus (Body), isthmus, and
cervix.
Functions of the Uterus
The uterus carries out many functions
• Site of menstruation.
• Implantation site of the embryo.
• Provides protection and support for the fetus to grow.
• Helps in child birth.
Cervix
• At the bottom of uterus is a narrow opening the cervix.
• It is the lowest region of the uterus; it attaches the uterus to the vagina.

Functions
• Produce cervical mucus which helps sperm travel from the vagina into the uterus.
• During labor allow the baby to pass through the birth canal.
Vagina
• Cervix leads into a muscular tube called vagina.

Functions
• It is used for the reception of sperms and delivery of foetus.
• Urethra and vagina have independent openings to the exterior.
 18.6.4 Explain different stages of reproductive cycle and its hormonal control in human female; U

Female reproductive cycle

1) Oestrous cycle.
2) Ovarian cycle.

1) Oestrous cycle
• Oestrous cycle ensures that mature egg is available for fertilization.
• This cycle occurs only once a year in some mammals and in others twice a year and in some
more often.
• During the breeding season, when eggs mature the hormonal secretion in females initiates
certain behavioral changes, indicating their readiness for mating and they are said to be in
heat.
Example: Mammals

Hormonal Females becomes

Egg become
Breeding season changes in ready for mating
mature
female (in heat)
2) Ovarian cycle
• In female one egg is released from an ovary once about every 28 days this is often called ovarian cycle.

• In females the production of egg is a cyclic activity.

• This cycle involves changes in the structure and function of the whole reproductive system it is called
menstral cycle.
Events of menstrual cycle

• The events of the menstral cycle involves;

• A) The ovaries (Ovarian cycle)
• B) The uterus (Uterine cycle or menstrual cycle)

• It is regulated by pituitary gonadotropins.

Four phases of menstral cycle
Phase 1
1) Follicular phase
Puberty

Pituitary gland

Follicle stimulating Produce

Ovary
hormone (F.S.H) Oestrogen

One follicle (Graafian Stimulates the Inhibits

follicle) grow with primary endometrium secretion of
oocytes (Rest of them F.S.H from
degenerates known as pituitary
Atresia)
Phase 2
2) Ovulation phase Decrease in F.S.H + Increase in Estrogen

Pituitary
secretes L.H

Ovulation
(Release of ovum
from the Graafian
follicle)
 Phase 3
Follicle cells
3) Corpus luteum phase (after releasing ova)
• Longest period or phase.
Becomes

Corpus luteum
(yellowish glandular structure)
produce

Progesterone

Develops endometrium
of uterus
Corpus albicans is the white degenerated fibrous body. If the ovum does not fertilize, corpus luteum degenerates into a
corpus albicans.
Phase 4
4) Menstruation phase
If no fertilization occurs

Corpus leuteum degenerates

Progesterone secretion
diminishes

Breakdown of endometrium and discharge of

internal lining of endometrium and blood (3-7
days)
 Menstruation

Luteal
phase Follicular
phase

Ovulation
phase
 Hormonal control of reproductive cycle of female
1)F.H.S Stimulates the follicles
Stimulates the secretion of estrogen from ovary.

2) L.H Initiates ovulation.

3) Oestrogen Develop secondary sexual characteristic.

Stimulates the endometrium to vascularize.
Enhance the secretion of L.H.
Inhibits secretion of F.S.H from pituitary.

4) ProgesteroneDevelops endometrium.
18.6.5 Differentiate between menstrual cycle and oestrous cycle; U
Woman’s Cycle

Day 1 – Menstruation begins (bleeding)

Day 5 – Menstruation is usually ended
Day 14 – Ovum has matured and bursts out of

the ovary

Day 15 – After 24 hours the egg is done

Day 26 – In the absence of fertilization,

Estrogen/progesterone levels drop

and the endometrium lining breads TIME LINE:
down
Ages 9-12
Day 28 – Menstruation begins again. Secondary sex characteristics appear
Ages 11-14
Menstrual cycle begins
Late 20-30's
Peak sexual urges
Ages 45-55
Menopause (cycle stops, but sex urge continues)
Menopause
• The end of fertility.
• Takes place at the age of 50s.
 18.6.6 Define conception, implantation, pregnancy and gestation; K
Conception/fertilization
• Fertilization in human being is more commonly called ‘Conception”.

Implantation
• After fertilization in oviduct the zygote begins to divide and forms a
ball of cells called blastocyst.
• Blastocyst travels down the oviduct and reaches the uterus to be
embedded in its wall this process is called implantation
Pregnancy
The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus is
called pregnancy.

Gestation
The period starting from conception up to the birth of a baby is
called gestation.
It lasts about 270 days in human beings.
 18.6.7 Describe the roles of placenta, umbilical cord and extraembryonic coats; U

Placenta
• The tissue that attaches the embryo to the wall of the uterus is called the Placenta.
Structure
• Flat pie shaped structure.
• It has millions of blood vessels.
Function
• Supply food and oxygen to baby.
• Also carry carbon dioxide and waste.
• It produces following hormones.
a) Progesterone : Maintains pregnancy.
b)Human placental lactogen: along with Prolactin or luteotropic hormone
(LTH) from pituitary stimulates mammary glands development in
preparation for lactation.
Fetus
• From the beginning of the 3rd month of pregnancy the
human embryo is referred as the fetus.
• Most of the major organs are formed by the 12th weeks
of pregnancy and the reminder of the gestation period is
taken up by growth.
Umbilical cord
• A rope like structure formed from an extra-embryonic
membrane the allantois is called umbilical cord.
• It contains blood vessels, which carry food and oxygen
from placenta to embryo and CO2 and other wastes from
embryo back to placenta.
• It serves as a supply line between the embryo and its
mother.
Extra embryonic coats/ membranes
All are not part of body of the embryo.
1) Amnion
2) Chorion
3) Allantois

Amnion
• It surrounds the embryo.
• As its cavity becomes fluid filled it is called amnion sac or amniotic
sac.
• The amniotic fluid keeps the embryo moist and protects the embryo
from any injury by acting like a fluid cushion.

Chorion and Allantois

• Both protects and assist the nutrition and excretion of the embryo.
• Allantois forms umbilical cord.
 18.6.8 Explain the role of different hormones in birth; U
When development is completed
Fetal pituitary is stimulated
Birth
Produce ACTH(Adrenocorticotrophic hormone)

Stimulates fetal adrenal gland

Produce corticosteroids

It cross placenta

Enters to maternal blood

Decrease in progesterone production

Pituitary of mother produce oxytocin

Birth of baby
Induce labor
Contraction of uterus
Oxytocin
Cervix dilates
After birth
• Within 10-45 minutes after birth, the uterus contracts and separate the
placenta from the uterus wall.
• Placenta than passes out through the vagina this is called after birth.
• Bleeding is controlled by the contraction of smooth muscle fibers which
completely surrounds all uterine blood vessels supplying the placenta.
• Average loss of blood is about 350cm3.
 18.6.9 Define lactation and colostrum; K

Lactation
• After the birth of baby as soon as the umbilical cord is cut, food supply to the new
born is disconnected.
• It is now feed on a nutrition fluid the milk produced in the mammary glands of the
mother.
• Prolactin hormone from pituitary gland target mammary gland to produce milk.
• Release of milk from the mammary gland is brought about by the contraction of its
muscle under the influence of Oxytocin hormone.

Colostrum
Also known as first milk,
• It is the first form of milk produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including humans) immediately
following delivery of the newborn.
• It contains higher amounts of white blood cells and antibodies than mature milk, and is especially high in
immunoglobulin A (IgA), which coats the lining of the baby's immature intestines, and helps to prevent pathogens
from invading the baby's system.
 18.6.10 Explain in-vitro fertilisation; U
Test tube babies
•Sometimes oviduct blockage in female leads to Infertility, it is overcome by a technique called “In-
vitro fertilization.”

•Parental sperm and ovum is fertilized in vitro-outside the female body and the zygote is implanted
back into the mother uterus.
•Placenta established and remaining development takes place in the body of the mother leading to
normal birth.
Infertility
Inability to conceive a child after one year of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse
Causes of male infertility:
Abnormal sperm production(Quality, concentration, motility)
Total sperm count
Oligospermia (a low sperm count, is a medical condition where a man has fewer than 15
million sperm per milliliter of semen)
Azoospermia (Azoospermia is the medical term used when there are no sperm in the
ejaculate. It can be “obstructive,” where there is a blockage preventing sperm from entering
the ejaculate, or it can be “nonobstructive” when it is due to decreased sperm production by
the testis.)
Ejaculation disorders:
Retrograde ejaculation(Sperm entering in bladder instead of expelled)
Erectile dysfunction
Obstruction:
Blockage in male reproductive tract
Life style factors: Alcohol, smoking, drug usage, obesity.
Causes of female infertility

Ovulation disorder
Fallopian tube blockage
Uterine or cervical issues
Endometriosis
Age related factor
 18.6.11 Describe causes, symptoms and prevention of sexually transmitted
diseases, i.e. a. gonorrhoea b. syphilis c. genital herpes d. acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS); U

Sexually transmitted diseases(STD)

Unhealthy attitude and low moral values leads to STD.

1)Gonorrhoa
2)Syphilis
3)Genital herpes
4)AIDS
1) Gonorrhea
Cause
Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gram positive bacterium)
Effects

In males
•It affects the mucous membrane of urinogenital duct.
•Bacteria cause wounds in genital tubes.
•Infected males experience burning sensation during urination.
•Can cause infertility.

•In females
•It infects oviducts become damaged and blocked.
•Can cause infertility.
•An infected mother can transmit these bacteria to her own newborn baby.
•New born infant may acquires serious eye infections if they pass through the infected birth canal.
•Baby can become blind if not treated immediately.
Prevention
• Use precautions for mating.
• Limit your number of sex partners.
• Partners are tested for sexually transmitted infections.
• Don't have sex with someone who appears to have a sexually transmitted infection. ...
2) Syphilis
Cause
Treponema pallidum(spirochaeta)
Effects
•It damaged the reproductive organ, Eyes, Bones, Joints, central nervous,
system, Heart, Skin.
•Become fatal for infected man and women but also to their newborn babies.
•Swollen lymph nodes, hair loss, blindness, seizures, deafness

Treatment Prolonged use of antibiotics.

3) Genital herpes
Cause
• Herpes simplex type II virus.
Effect
• Cause painful blisters and ulcers on and around external genital organs.
• From mother it is transferred to infant during birth, causing damage to
eyes and central nervous system of the infant.
4) AIDS (Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome)
Cause
HIV (Human immune deficiency virus)
Effects
It destroys patient’s immune system and exposes infected person to all type of infections.

Ways of transmission
• Genital and other body fluids .
• Unscreened blood transfusion.
• Reuse of syringe needles .
• New born can also become infected through placenta of HIV infected mother.

Treatment
The vaccine for its cure is not yet available through research is on.
Miscarriage
• Miscarriage is the loss of a fetus before the 20th weeks of pregnancy.
• More than 80% of miscarriages occur within the first three months of
pregnancy.
Causes
1) Chromosomal abnormality
2) Hormonal problems
3) Infection
4) Lifestyle
5) Stress
6) Exposure to radiation or toxic substances
7) Maternal age
Abortion
Abortion is the ending of pregnancy either due to natural reasons or through human
intervention.
Miscarriage Abortion
1 Accidental expulsion of the fetus. Termination of pregnancy either due to natural
reasons or through human intervention.

2 Woman does not have control over the Therapeutic abortion may be done when the
event.(Woman is not capable of pregnancy endangers both the mother and the fetus,
supporting a fetus due to some health in that case saving the mother’s life is the priority.
conditions.)

3 Occurs during the first trimester

(3 months)
 18.6.12 Differentiate between spontaneous and induced abortion; U

Induced abortion

An abortion, is when an embryo or fetus and placenta are removed

from the uterus either by medicine or a surgical procedure.
Spontaneous abortion
• Medical professionals use the term “spontaneous abortion” to refer to miscarriage.

• Most miscarriages occur because the fetus isn't developing as expected.

• About 50 percent of miscarriages are associated with extra or missing chromosomes.
• Most often, chromosome problems result from errors that occur by chance as the
embryo divides and grows — not problems inherited from the parents.