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The Ultimate SQL Tutorial

"MySQL is a database management system. A Database Management System
(DBMS) is software that interacts with end users, applications, and the
database itself to capture and analyze data. "
By CodeWithHarry Updated: July 13, 2025

Installing MySQL

What is MySQL workbench?

MySQL Workbench is a visual tool for database architects, developers, and DBAs. It
provides data modeling, SQL development, and comprehensive administration tools for
server configuration, user administration, backup, and much more.

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What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?

A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that interacts with end users,
applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. It allows for the creation,
retrieval, updating, and management of data in databases. If you know one DBMS, you can
easily transition to another, as they share similar concepts and functionalities.

Windows / macOS Installation

1. Download from: [Link]

2. Run the installer and choose Developer Default.

3. Set a root password when prompted.

4. Install MySQL Workbench (optional but helpful GUI).

Linux (Ubuntu) Installation

Follow these steps to install MySQL and create a user:

Step 1: Update Package Index

sudo apt update

Step 2: Install MySQL Server

sudo apt install mysql-server

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Step 3: Secure the Installation

sudo mysql_secure_installation

Choose your options (yes to most).

Step 4: Create a User 'harry'@'localhost'

Log into MySQL:

sudo mysql

Run the following SQL commands:

CREATE USER 'harry'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES ON *.* TO 'harry'@'localhost' WITH GRANT OPTION;
FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
EXIT;

Step 5: Test Login

mysql -u harry -p

Enter the password: password

Make sure to replace 'password' with a secure password of your choice in production
environments.

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Getting Started with MySQL

What is a Database?

A database is a container that stores related data in an organized way. In MySQL, a

database holds one or more tables.

Think of it like:

• Folder analogy:

• A database is like a folder.

• Each table is a file inside that folder.

• The rows in the table are like the content inside each file.

• Excel analogy:

• A database is like an Excel workbook.

• Each table is a separate sheet inside that workbook.

• Each row in the table is like a row in Excel.

Step 1: Create a Database

CREATE DATABASE startersql;

After creating the database, either:

• Right-click it in MySQL Workbench and select "Set as Default Schema", or

• Use this SQL command:

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USE startersql;

Step 2: Create a Table

Now we’ll create a simple users table:

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
gender ENUM('Male', 'Female', 'Other'),
date_of_birth DATE,
created_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
);

This table will store basic user info.

Step 3: Drop the Database

You can delete the entire database (and all its tables) using:

DROP DATABASE startersql;

“Be careful — this will delete everything in that database.”

Data Types Explained

• INT : Integer type, used for whole numbers.

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• VARCHAR(100) : Variable-length string, up to 100 characters.

• ENUM : A string object with a value chosen from a list of permitted values. eg. gender

ENUM('Male', 'Female', 'Other')

• DATE : Stores date values. eg date_of_birth DATE

• TIMESTAMP : Stores date and time, automatically set to the current timestamp when a
row is created.

• BOOLEAN : Stores TRUE or FALSE values, often used for flags like is_active .

• DECIMAL(10, 2) : Stores exact numeric data values, useful for financial data. The first
number is the total number of digits, and the second is the number of digits after the
decimal point.

Constraints Explained

• AUTO_INCREMENT : Automatically generates a unique number for each row.

• PRIMARY KEY : Uniquely identifies each row in the table.

• NOT NULL : Ensures a column cannot have a NULL value.

• UNIQUE : Ensures all values in a column are different.

• DEFAULT : Sets a default value for a column if no value is provided. eg. created_at

TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP , is_active BOOLEAN DEFAULT TRUE

Working with Tables in MySQL

Selecting Data from a Table

Select All Columns

SELECT * FROM users;

This fetches every column and every row from the users table.

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Select Specific Columns

SELECT name, email FROM users;

This only fetches the name and email columns from all rows.

Renaming a Table

To rename an existing table:

RENAME TABLE users TO customers;

To rename it back:

RENAME TABLE customers TO users;

Altering a Table

You can use ALTER TABLE to modify an existing table.

Add a Column

ALTER TABLE users ADD COLUMN is_active BOOLEAN DEFAULT TRUE;

Drop a Column

ALTER TABLE users DROP COLUMN is_active;

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Modify a Column Type

ALTER TABLE users MODIFY COLUMN name VARCHAR(150);

Move a Column to the First Position

To move a column (e.g., email ) to the first position:

ALTER TABLE users MODIFY COLUMN email VARCHAR(100) FIRST;

To move a column after another column (e.g., move gender after name ):

ALTER TABLE users MODIFY COLUMN gender ENUM('Male', 'Female', 'Other')

AFTER name;

Inserting Data into MySQL Tables

To add data into a table, we use the INSERT INTO statement.

Insert Without Specifying Column Names (Full Row Insert)

This method requires you to provide values for all columns in order, except columns with
default values or AUTO_INCREMENT .

INSERT INTO users VALUES

(1, 'Alice', 'alice@[Link]', 'Female', '1995-05-14', DEFAULT);

“Not recommended if your table structure might change (e.g., new columns added later).”

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Insert by Specifying Column Names (Best Practice)

This method is safer and more readable. You only insert into specific columns.

INSERT INTO users (name, email, gender, date_of_birth) VALUES

('Bob', 'bob@[Link]', 'Male', '1990-11-23');

or for multiple rows:

INSERT INTO users (name, email, gender, date_of_birth) VALUES

('Bob', 'bob@[Link]', 'Male', '1990-11-23'),
('Charlie', 'charlie@[Link]', 'Other', '1988-02-17');

The remaining columns like id (which is AUTO_INCREMENT ) and created_at (which has
a default) are automatically handled by MySQL.

Insert Multiple Rows at Once

INSERT INTO users (name, email, gender, date_of_birth) VALUES

('Charlie', 'charlie@[Link]', 'Other', '1988-02-17'),
('David', 'david@[Link]', 'Male', '2000-08-09'),
('Eva', 'eva@[Link]', 'Female', '1993-12-30');

This is more efficient than inserting rows one by one.

Querying Data in MySQL using SELECT

The SELECT statement is used to query data from a table.

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Basic Syntax

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

To select all columns:

SELECT * FROM users;

Filtering Rows with WHERE

Equal To

SELECT * FROM users WHERE gender = 'Male';

Not Equal To

SELECT * FROM users WHERE gender � 'Female';

� or
SELECT * FROM users WHERE gender � 'Female';

Greater Than / Less Than

SELECT * FROM users WHERE date_of_birth < '1995-01-01';

SELECT * FROM users WHERE id > 10;

Greater Than or Equal / Less Than or Equal

SELECT * FROM users WHERE id � 5;

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SELECT * FROM users WHERE id � 20;

Working with NULL

IS NULL

SELECT * FROM users WHERE date_of_birth IS NULL;

IS NOT NULL

SELECT * FROM users WHERE date_of_birth IS NOT NULL;

BETWEEN

SELECT * FROM users WHERE date_of_birth BETWEEN '1990-01-01' AND

'2000-12-31';

IN

SELECT * FROM users WHERE gender IN ('Male', 'Other');

LIKE (Pattern Matching)

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SELECT * FROM users WHERE name LIKE 'A%'; � Starts with A

SELECT * FROM users WHERE name LIKE '%a'; � Ends with a
SELECT * FROM users WHERE name LIKE '%li%'; � Contains 'li'

AND / OR

SELECT * FROM users WHERE gender = 'Female' AND date_of_birth >

'1990-01-01';

SELECT * FROM users WHERE gender = 'Male' OR gender = 'Other';

ORDER BY

SELECT * FROM users ORDER BY date_of_birth ASC;

SELECT * FROM users ORDER BY name DESC;

LIMIT

SELECT * FROM users LIMIT 5; � Top 5 rows

SELECT * FROM users LIMIT 10 OFFSET 5; � Skip first 5 rows, then get
next 10
SELECT * FROM users LIMIT 5, 10; � Get 10 rows starting from the 6th
row (Same as above)
SELECT * FROM users ORDER BY created_at DESC LIMIT 10;

Quick Quiz

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What does the following queries do?

SELECT * FROM users WHERE salary > 60000 ORDER BY created_at DESC LIMIT
5;

SELECT * FROM users ORDER BY salary DESC;

SELECT * FROM users WHERE salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 70000;

UPDATE - Modifying Existing Data

The UPDATE statement is used to change values in one or more rows.

Basic Syntax

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2
WHERE condition;

Example: Update One Column

UPDATE users
SET name = 'Alicia'
WHERE id = 1;

This changes the name of the user with id = 1 to "Alicia".

Example: Update Multiple Columns

UPDATE users
SET name = 'Robert', email = 'robert@[Link]'

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WHERE id = 2;

Without WHERE Clause (Warning)

UPDATE users
SET gender = 'Other';

“This updates every row in the table. Be very careful when omitting the WHERE clause.”

Quick Quiz: Practice Your UPDATE Skills

Try answering or running these queries based on your users table.

1. Update the salary of user with id = 5 to ₹70,000.

UPDATE users
SET salary = 70000
WHERE id = 5;

2. Change the name of the user with email aisha@[Link] to Aisha Khan .

UPDATE users
SET name = 'Aisha Khan'
WHERE email = 'aisha@[Link]';

3. Increase salary by ₹10,000 for all users whose salary is less than ₹60,000.

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UPDATE users
SET salary = salary + 10000
WHERE salary < 60000;

4. Set the gender of user Ishaan to Other .

UPDATE users
SET gender = 'Other'
WHERE name = 'Ishaan';

5. Reset salary of all users to ₹50,000 (Careful - affects all rows).

UPDATE users
SET salary = 50000;

“Note: This query will overwrite salary for every user. Use with caution!”

DELETE - Removing Data from a Table

The DELETE statement removes rows from a table.

Basic Syntax

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

Example: Delete One Row

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DELETE FROM users

WHERE id = 3;

Delete Multiple Rows

DELETE FROM users

WHERE gender = 'Other';

Delete All Rows (but keep table structure)

DELETE FROM users;

Drop the Entire Table (use with caution)

DROP TABLE users;

“This removes the table structure and all data permanently.”

Best Practices

• Always use WHERE unless you're intentionally updating/deleting everything.

• Consider running a SELECT with the same WHERE clause first to confirm what will be
affected:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE id = 3;

• Always back up important data before performing destructive operations.

Quick Quiz: Practice Your DELETE Skills

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what will happen if you run these queries?

DELETE FROM users

WHERE salary < 50000;

DELETE FROM users

WHERE salary IS NULL;

MySQL Constraints

Constraints in MySQL are rules applied to table columns to ensure the accuracy, validity,
and integrity of the data.

1. UNIQUE Constraint

Ensures that all values in a column are different.

Example (during table creation):

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
);

Add UNIQUE using ALTER TABLE :

ALTER TABLE users

ADD CONSTRAINT unique_email UNIQUE (email);

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2. NOT NULL Constraint

Ensures that a column cannot contain NULL values.

Example:

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL
);

Change an existing column to NOT NULL:

ALTER TABLE users

MODIFY COLUMN name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL;

Make a column nullable again:

ALTER TABLE users

MODIFY COLUMN name VARCHAR(100) NULL;

3. CHECK Constraint

Ensures that values in a column satisfy a specific condition.

Example: Allow only dates of birth after Jan 1, 2000

ALTER TABLE users

ADD CONSTRAINT chk_dob CHECK (date_of_birth > '2000-01-01');

Naming the constraint ( chk_dob ) helps if you want to drop it later.

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4. DEFAULT Constraint

Sets a default value for a column if none is provided during insert.

Example:

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
is_active BOOLEAN DEFAULT TRUE
);

Add DEFAULT using ALTER TABLE :

ALTER TABLE users

ALTER COLUMN is_active SET DEFAULT TRUE;

5. PRIMARY KEY Constraint

Uniquely identifies each row. Must be NOT NULL and UNIQUE.

Example:

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100)
);

Add later with ALTER TABLE :

ALTER TABLE users

ADD PRIMARY KEY (id);

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6. AUTO_INCREMENT

Used with PRIMARY KEY to automatically assign the next number.

Example:

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100)
);

Each new row gets the next available integer value in id .

Summary Table
Constraint Purpose

UNIQUE Prevents duplicate values

NOT NULL Ensures value is not NULL

CHECK Restricts values using a condition

DEFAULT Sets a default value

PRIMARY KEY Uniquely identifies each row

AUTO_INCREMENT Automatically generates unique numbers

SQL Functions (MySQL)

SQL functions help you analyze, transform, or summarize data in your tables.

We'll use the users table which includes:

• id , name , email , gender , date_of_birth , salary , created_at

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1. Aggregate Functions

These return a single value from a set of rows.

COUNT()

Count total number of users:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM users;

Count users who are Female:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM users WHERE gender = 'Female';

MIN() and MAX()

Get the minimum and maximum salary:

SELECT MIN(salary) AS min_salary, MAX(salary) AS max_salary FROM users;

SUM()

Calculate total salary payout:

SELECT SUM(salary) AS total_payroll FROM users;

AVG()

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Find average salary:

SELECT AVG(salary) AS avg_salary FROM users;

Grouping with GROUP BY

Average salary by gender:

SELECT gender, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM users
GROUP BY gender;

2. String Functions
LENGTH()

Length of user names:

SELECT name, LENGTH(name) AS name_length FROM users;

LOWER() and UPPER()

Convert names to lowercase or uppercase:

SELECT name, LOWER(name) AS lowercase_name FROM users;

SELECT name, UPPER(name) AS uppercase_name FROM users;

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CONCAT()

Combine name and email:

SELECT CONCAT(name, ' <', email, '>') AS user_contact FROM users;

3. Date Functions
NOW()

Current date and time:

SELECT NOW();

YEAR() , MONTH() , DAY()

Extract parts of date_of_birth :

SELECT name, YEAR(date_of_birth) AS birth_year FROM users;

DATEDIFF()

Find number of days between today and birthdate:

SELECT name, DATEDIFF(CURDATE(), date_of_birth) AS days_lived FROM users;

TIMESTAMPDIFF()

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Calculate age in years:

SELECT name, TIMESTAMPDIFF(YEAR, date_of_birth, CURDATE()) AS age FROM

users;

4. Mathematical Functions
ROUND() , FLOOR() , CEIL()

SELECT salary,
ROUND(salary) AS rounded,
FLOOR(salary) AS floored,
CEIL(salary) AS ceiled
FROM users;

MOD()

Find even or odd user IDs:

SELECT id, MOD(id, 2) AS remainder FROM users;

5. Conditional Functions
IF()

SELECT name, gender,

IF(gender = 'Female', 'Yes', 'No') AS is_female
FROM users;

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Summary Table
Function Purpose

COUNT() Count rows

SUM() Total of a column

AVG() Average of values

MIN() / MAX() Lowest / highest value

LENGTH() String length

CONCAT() Merge strings

YEAR() / DATEDIFF() Date breakdown / age

ROUND() Rounding numbers

IF() Conditional logic

MySQL Transactions and AutoCommit

By default, MySQL operates in AutoCommit mode. This means that every SQL statement
is treated as a transaction and is committed automatically. However, for more control over
when changes are saved, you can turn AutoCommit off and manage transactions
manually.

1. Disabling AutoCommit

When AutoCommit is off, you can explicitly control when to commit or rollback changes.

To disable AutoCommit:

SET autocommit = 0;

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This turns off AutoCommit, meaning that changes you make won't be saved to the database
unless you explicitly tell MySQL to commit them.

“Important: Until you execute a COMMIT , your changes are not permanent.”

2. COMMIT — Save Changes to the Database

Once you’ve made changes and you’re confident that everything is correct, you can use
the COMMIT command to save those changes.

To commit a transaction:

COMMIT;

This saves all the changes made since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK . After this point, the
changes become permanent.

3. ROLLBACK — Revert Changes to the Last Safe Point

If you make an error or decide you don't want to save your changes, you can rollback the
transaction to its previous state.

To rollback a transaction:

ROLLBACK;

This undoes all changes since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK .

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Example Workflow

Here’s a simple example of using COMMIT and ROLLBACK in a transaction:

1. Turn off AutoCommit:

SET autocommit = 0;

2. Make some changes (e.g., updating a salary):

UPDATE users SET salary = 80000 WHERE id = 5;

3. Decide whether to commit or rollback:

• If you’re happy with the changes, run:

COMMIT;

• If you’re not happy and want to revert the changes, run:

ROLLBACK;

4. Enabling AutoCommit Again

If you want to turn AutoCommit back on (so that every statement is automatically
committed), you can do so with:

SET autocommit = 1;

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Best Practices

• Use COMMIT when you want to make changes permanent.

• Use ROLLBACK to discard changes if something goes wrong.

• Consider disabling AutoCommit when performing complex updates to avoid saving

partial or incorrect data.

Understanding PRIMARY KEY in MySQL

A PRIMARY KEY is a constraint in SQL that uniquely identifies each row in a table. It is
one of the most important concepts in database design.

What is a Primary Key?

• A PRIMARY KEY :

• Must be unique

• Cannot be NULL

• Is used to identify rows in a table

• Can be a single column or a combination of columns

• Each table can have only one primary key

Example:

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100)
);

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How Is PRIMARY KEY Different from UNIQUE ?

At first glance, PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE might seem similar since both prevent duplicate
values. But there are important differences:

Feature PRIMARY KEY UNIQUE

Must be unique Yes Yes

Allows NULL values No Yes (one or more NULLs allowed)

How many allowed Only one per table Can have multiple

Required by table Recommended, often required Optional

Dropping Cannot be easily dropped Can be dropped anytime

Example with UNIQUE

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
name VARCHAR(100)
);

In this example:

• id is the unique identifier for each row.

• email must be unique, but is not the primary key.

Can I Drop a PRIMARY KEY?

Yes, but it is more restricted than dropping a UNIQUE constraint.

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ALTER TABLE users DROP PRIMARY KEY;

“This may fail if the primary key is being used elsewhere (like in a foreign key or
auto_increment column).”

To drop a UNIQUE constraint:

ALTER TABLE users DROP INDEX email;

Auto Increment

In MySQL, a PRIMARY KEY is often used with the AUTO_INCREMENT attribute to

automatically generate unique values for new rows.

CREATE TABLE users (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100)
);

This means that every time you insert a new row, MySQL will automatically assign a unique
value to the id column. You can change the starting value of AUTO_INCREMENT using:

ALTER TABLE users AUTO_INCREMENT = 1000;

Key Takeaways

• Use PRIMARY KEY for the main identifier of a row.

• Use UNIQUE for enforcing non-duplicate values in other columns (like email or
phone).

• You can have only one primary key, but you can have many unique constraints.

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Foreign Keys in MySQL

A foreign key is a column that creates a link between two tables. It ensures that the value
in one table must match a value in another table.

This is used to maintain data integrity between related data.

Why Use Foreign Keys?

Imagine this scenario:

You have a users table. Now you want to store each user's address. Instead of putting
address columns inside the users table, you create a separate addresses table, and link
it to users using a foreign key.

Creating a Table with a Foreign Key

Let’s create an addresses table where each address belongs to a user.

CREATE TABLE addresses (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
user_id INT,
street VARCHAR(255),
city VARCHAR(100),
state VARCHAR(100),
pincode VARCHAR(10),
FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id)
);

Explanation:

• user_id is a foreign key.

• It references the id column in the users table.

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• This ensures that every address must be linked to a valid user.

Dropping a Foreign Key

To drop a foreign key, you need to know its constraint name. MySQL auto-generates it if
you don’t specify one, or you can name it yourself:

CREATE TABLE addresses (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
user_id INT,
CONSTRAINT fk_user FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id)
);

To drop it:

ALTER TABLE addresses

DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_user;

Adding a Foreign Key Later (Using ALTER)

Suppose the foreign key was not defined during table creation. You can add it later
using ALTER TABLE :

ALTER TABLE addresses

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_user FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id);

Adding ON DELETE Action

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By default, if you delete a user that has related addresses, MySQL will throw an error. You
can control this behavior with ON DELETE .

Example with ON DELETE CASCADE :

If you want addresses to be automatically deleted when the user is deleted:

CREATE TABLE addresses (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
user_id INT,
street VARCHAR(255),
city VARCHAR(100),
state VARCHAR(100),
pincode VARCHAR(10),
CONSTRAINT fk_user FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id) ON
DELETE CASCADE
);

Or alter it later:

ALTER TABLE addresses

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_user FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users(id) ON
DELETE CASCADE;

Other ON DELETE Options

ON DELETE Option Behavior

CASCADE Deletes all related rows in child table

SET NULL Sets the foreign key to NULL in the child table

RESTRICT Prevents deletion of parent if child exists (default)

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Summary

• Foreign keys connect tables and enforce valid references.

• You can create them inline or with ALTER TABLE .

• You can drop them by name.

• Use ON DELETE to control what happens when the parent row is deleted.

SQL JOINs in MySQL

In SQL, JOINs are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on related
columns — usually a foreign key in one table referencing a primary key in another.

We’ll use the following two tables:

users table

id name

1 Aarav

2 Sneha

3 Raj

addresses table

id user_id city

1 1 Mumbai

2 2 Kolkata

3 4 Delhi

Note: user_id is a foreign key that references [Link] .

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1. INNER JOIN

Returns only the matching rows from both tables.

SELECT [Link], [Link]

FROM users
INNER JOIN addresses ON [Link] = addresses.user_id;

Output:

name city

Aarav Mumbai

Sneha Kolkata

“ Raj is excluded because there is no matching address. Delhi is excluded because

its user_id (4) is not in users .”

Visual Representation:

users addresses
�� ��
| 1 | | 1 |
| 2 | | 2 |
| | | |
� only matching pairs

2. LEFT JOIN

Returns all rows from the left table ( users ), and matching rows from the right table
( addresses ). If no match is found, NULLs are returned.

SELECT [Link], [Link]

FROM users
LEFT JOIN addresses ON [Link] = addresses.user_id;

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Output:

name city

Aarav Mumbai

Sneha Kolkata

Raj NULL

“ Raj is shown even though he doesn’t have an address.”

Visual Representation:

users addresses
�� ��
| 1 | | 1 |
| 2 | | 2 |
| 3 | | |
� all users + matched addresses (or NULL)

3. RIGHT JOIN

Returns all rows from the right table ( addresses ), and matching rows from the left table
( users ). If no match is found, NULLs are returned.

SELECT [Link], [Link]

FROM users
RIGHT JOIN addresses ON [Link] = addresses.user_id;

Output:

name city

Aarav Mumbai

Sneha Kolkata

NULL Delhi

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“ Delhi is shown even though it points to a user_id that doesn't exist.”

Visual Representation:

users addresses
�� ��
| 1 | | 1 |
| 2 | | 2 |
| | | 4 |
� all addresses + matched users (or NULL)

Summary Table
JOIN Type Description

INNER JOIN Only matching rows from both tables

LEFT JOIN All rows from left table + matching from right

RIGHT JOIN All rows from right table + matching from left

SQL UNION and UNION ALL

The UNION operator in SQL is used to combine the result sets of two or more SELECT
statements. It removes duplicates by default.

If you want to include all rows including duplicates, use UNION ALL .

Example Scenario

You already have a users table for active users. Now, we’ll create an admin_users table
to store users who are administrators or have special roles. We will then combine the
names from both tables using UNION .

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Step 1: Create the admin_users Table

CREATE TABLE admin_users (

id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(100),
email VARCHAR(100),
gender ENUM('Male', 'Female', 'Other'),
date_of_birth DATE,
salary INT
);

Step 2: Insert Sample Data into admin_users

INSERT INTO admin_users (id, name, email, gender, date_of_birth, salary)

VALUES
(101, 'Anil Kumar', 'anil@[Link]', 'Male', '1985-04-12', 60000),
(102, 'Pooja Sharma', 'pooja@[Link]', 'Female', '1992-09-20',
58000),
(103, 'Rakesh Yadav', 'rakesh@[Link]', 'Male', '1989-11-05', 54000),
(104, 'Fatima Begum', 'fatima@[Link]', 'Female', '1990-06-30',
62000);

Step 3: Use UNION to Combine Data

Let’s combine the active and admin user names.

SELECT name FROM users

UNION
SELECT name FROM admin_users;

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This returns a single list of unique names from both tables.

UNION ALL Example

If you want to keep duplicate names (if any), use UNION ALL .

SELECT name FROM users

UNION ALL
SELECT name FROM admin_users;

Using More Than One Column

You can also select multiple columns as long as both SELECT queries return the same
number of columns with compatible types.

SELECT name, salary FROM users

UNION
SELECT name, salary FROM admin_users;

Adding separate roles

SELECT name, 'User' AS role FROM users

UNION
SELECT name, 'Admin' AS role FROM admin_users;

Using Order By with UNION

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SELECT name FROM users

UNION
SELECT name FROM admin_users
ORDER BY name;

Rules of UNION

1. The number of columns and their data types must match in all SELECT statements.

2. UNION removes duplicates by default.

3. UNION ALL keeps duplicates.

When to Use UNION

• When you have two similar tables (like current and archived data).

• When you need to combine filtered results (e.g., high-salary users from two sources).

• When performing cross-category reporting.

Summary
Operator Behavior

UNION Combines results, removes duplicates

UNION ALL Combines results, keeps duplicates

Self JOIN in MySQL

A Self JOIN is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.

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This is useful when rows in the same table are related to each other. For example, when
users refer other users, and we store the ID of the person who referred them in the same
users table.

Step 1: Add a referred_by_id Column

We’ll extend the existing users table to include a column called referred_by_id , which
holds the id of the user who referred them.

ALTER TABLE users

ADD COLUMN referred_by_id INT;

This column:

• Will be NULL for users who were not referred.

• Will contain the id of another user who referred them.

Step 2: Insert Referral Data (Optional)

Assuming id = 1 is the first user, and referred others:

UPDATE users SET referred_by_id = 1 WHERE id IN (2, 3); � User 1

referred Users 2 and 3
UPDATE users SET referred_by_id = 2 WHERE id = 4; � User 2
referred User 4

Step 3: Use a Self JOIN to Get Referrer Names

We want to get each user’s name along with the name of the person who referred them.

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SELECT
[Link],
[Link] AS user_name,
[Link] AS referred_by
FROM users a
LEFT JOIN users b ON a.referred_by_id = [Link];

Explanation:

• a refers to the user being queried.

• b refers to the user who referred them.

• LEFT JOIN is used so that users with NULL in referred_by_id are also included.

Sample Output:

id user_name referred_by

1 Aarav NULL

2 Sneha Aarav

3 Raj Aarav

4 Fatima Sneha

Summary

• Use Self JOIN when you need to join a table with itself.

• In referral-based relationships, store the referrer’s id in the same table.

• Use aliases like a and b to differentiate the two instances of the same table.

MySQL Views

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A view in MySQL is a virtual table based on the result of a SELECT query. It does not
store data itself — it always reflects the current data in the base tables.

Views are useful when:

• You want to simplify complex queries

• You want to reuse logic

• You want to hide certain columns from users

• You want a "live snapshot" of filtered data

Creating a View

Suppose we want a view that lists all users earning more than ₹70,000.

CREATE VIEW high_salary_users AS

SELECT id, name, salary
FROM users
WHERE salary > 70000;

Querying the View

SELECT * FROM high_salary_users;

This will return all users from the users table where salary is above ₹70,000.

Demonstrating That a View is Always Up-To-Date

Let’s see what happens when the underlying data changes.

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Step 1: View before update

SELECT * FROM high_salary_users;

Output:

id name salary

2 Sneha 75000

5 Fatima 80000

Step 2: Update a user's salary

UPDATE users
SET salary = 72000
WHERE name = 'Raj';

Step 3: Query the view again

SELECT * FROM high_salary_users;

New Output:

id name salary

2 Sneha 75000

5 Fatima 80000

3 Raj 72000

“Notice how Raj is now included in the view — without updating the view itself. That’s
because views always reflect live data from the original table.”

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Dropping a View

To remove a view:

DROP VIEW high_salary_users;

Summary

• Views act like saved SELECT queries

• Views are not duplicated data

• Changes to base tables are reflected automatically

• Great for simplifying complex queries or creating filtered access

MySQL Indexes

Indexes in MySQL are used to speed up data retrieval. They work like the index of a book
— helping the database engine find rows faster, especially for searches, filters, and joins.

Viewing Indexes on a Table

To see the indexes on a table, use:

SHOW INDEXES FROM users;

This shows all the indexes currently defined on the users table, including the
automatically created primary key index.

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Creating a Single-Column Index

Suppose you're frequently searching users by their email . You can speed this up by
indexing the email column.

CREATE INDEX idx_email ON users(email);

What this does:

• Creates an index named idx_email

• Improves performance of queries like:

SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = 'example@[Link]';

Important Notes

• Indexes consume extra disk space

• Indexes slow down INSERT , UPDATE , and DELETE operations slightly (because the
index must be updated)

• Use indexes only when needed (i.e., for columns used in WHERE , JOIN , ORDER BY )

Creating a Multi-Column Index

If you often query users using both gender and salary , a multi-column index is more
efficient than separate indexes.

CREATE INDEX idx_gender_salary ON users(gender, salary);

Usage Example:

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SELECT * FROM users

WHERE gender = 'Female' AND salary > 70000;

This query can take advantage of the combined index on gender and salary .

Index Order Matters

For a multi-column index on (gender, salary) :

• This works efficiently:

WHERE gender = 'Female' AND salary > 70000

• But this may not use the index effectively:

WHERE salary > 70000

Because the first column in the index ( gender ) is missing in the filter.

Dropping an Index

To delete an index:

DROP INDEX idx_email ON users;

Summary

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Feature Description

SHOW INDEXES View current indexes on a table

CREATE INDEX Create single or multi-column indexes

DROP INDEX Remove an index

Use when Query performance on large tables is a concern

Avoid on Columns that are rarely queried or always unique

Subqueries in MySQL

A subquery is a query nested inside another query. Subqueries are useful for breaking
down complex problems into smaller parts.

They can be used in:

• SELECT statements

• WHERE clauses

• FROM clauses

Example Scenario: Salary Comparison

Suppose we want to find all users who earn more than the average salary of all users.

Scalar Subquery Example

This subquery returns a single value — the average salary — and we compare each user's
salary against it.

SELECT id, name, salary

FROM users

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WHERE salary > (

SELECT AVG(salary) FROM users
);

Explanation:

• The inner query: SELECT AVG(salary) FROM users returns the average salary.

• The outer query selects all users with a salary greater than that average.

Subquery with IN

Now let's say we want to find users who have been referred by someone who earns more
than ₹75,000.

SELECT id, name, referred_by_id

FROM users
WHERE referred_by_id IN (
SELECT id FROM users WHERE salary > 75000
);

Explanation:

• The inner query: SELECT id FROM users WHERE salary > 75000 returns a list of
user IDs (referrers) who earn more than ₹75,000.

• The outer query selects users whose referred_by_id is in that list.

Other Places Subqueries Are Used

You can also use subqueries:

• Inside SELECT columns (called scalar subqueries)

• In the FROM clause to create derived tables

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Example in SELECT :

SELECT name, salary,

(SELECT AVG(salary) FROM users) AS average_salary
FROM users;

This shows each user's salary along with the overall average.

Summary
Subquery Type Use Case

Scalar Subquery Returns one value (e.g. AVG, MAX)

Subquery with IN Returns multiple values

Subquery in SELECT Shows related calculated value

Subquery in FROM Acts as a virtual table

Subqueries are powerful tools when filtering based on computed or dynamic conditions.

GROUP BY and HAVING in MySQL

The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows that have the same values in specified
columns. It is typically used with aggregate functions like COUNT , SUM , AVG , MIN , or
MAX .

The HAVING clause is used to filter groups after aggregation — similar to how WHERE
filters individual rows.

Example Table: users

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Assume this is your users table:

id name gender salary referred_by_id

1 Aarav Male 80000 NULL

2 Sneha Female 75000 1

3 Raj Male 72000 1

4 Fatima Female 85000 2

5 Priya Female 70000 NULL

GROUP BY Example: Average Salary by Gender

SELECT gender, AVG(salary) AS average_salary

FROM users
GROUP BY gender;

Explanation:

• This groups users by gender.

• Then calculates the average salary for each group.

GROUP BY with COUNT

Find how many users were referred by each user:

SELECT referred_by_id, COUNT(*) AS total_referred

FROM users
WHERE referred_by_id IS NOT NULL
GROUP BY referred_by_id;

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Output:

referred_by_id total_referred

1 2

2 1

HAVING Clause: Filtering Groups

Let’s say we only want to show genders where the average salary is greater than
₹75,000.

SELECT gender, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM users
GROUP BY gender
HAVING AVG(salary) > 75000;

Why not WHERE ?

• WHERE is used before grouping.

• HAVING is used after groups are formed — it's the only way to filter aggregated
values.

Another Example: Groups with More Than 1 Referral

SELECT referred_by_id, COUNT(*) AS total_referred

FROM users
WHERE referred_by_id IS NOT NULL
GROUP BY referred_by_id
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;

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Summary
Clause Purpose Can use aggregates?

WHERE Filters rows before grouping No

GROUP BY Groups rows based on column values N/A

HAVING Filters groups after aggregation Yes

Use GROUP BY to organize data, and HAVING to filter those groups based on aggregate
conditions.

ROLLUP

To get subtotals and grand totals, you can use ROLLUP :

SELECT gender, COUNT(*) AS total_users

FROM users
GROUP BY gender WITH ROLLUP;

Explanation:

• This will give you a count of users by gender, along with a grand total for all users.

Stored Procedures in MySQL

A stored procedure is a saved SQL block that can be executed later. It's useful when you
want to encapsulate logic that can be reused multiple times — like queries, updates, or
conditional operations.

Why Change the Delimiter?

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By default, MySQL uses ; to end SQL statements.

But when defining stored procedures, we use ; inside the procedure as well. This can
confuse MySQL. To avoid this, we temporarily change the delimiter (e.g. to $$ or // )
while creating the procedure.

Syntax for Creating a Stored Procedure

DELIMITER $$

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name()

BEGIN
� SQL statements go here
END$$

DELIMITER ;

After the procedure is created, we reset the delimiter back to ; .

Creating a Procedure with Input Parameters

Let’s say you want to create a stored procedure that inserts a new user into the users
table.

Example:

DELIMITER $$

CREATE PROCEDURE AddUser(

IN p_name VARCHAR(100),
IN p_email VARCHAR(100),
IN p_gender ENUM('Male', 'Female', 'Other'),
IN p_dob DATE,

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IN p_salary INT
)
BEGIN
INSERT INTO users (name, email, gender, date_of_birth, salary)
VALUES (p_name, p_email, p_gender, p_dob, p_salary);
END$$

DELIMITER ;

This creates a procedure named AddUser that accepts five input parameters.

Calling the Procedure

You can call the procedure using:

CALL AddUser('Kiran Sharma', 'kiran@[Link]', 'Female', '1994-06-15',

72000);

This will insert the new user into the users table.

Notes

• Input parameters are declared using the IN keyword.

• Stored procedures are stored in the database and can be reused.

Viewing Stored Procedures

SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS WHERE Db = 'startersql';

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Dropping a Stored Procedure

DROP PROCEDURE IF EXISTS AddUser;

Summary
Command Purpose

DELIMITER $$ Temporarily change statement delimiter

CREATE PROCEDURE Defines a new stored procedure

CALL procedure_name(...) Executes a stored procedure

DROP PROCEDURE Removes an existing procedure

Triggers in MySQL

A trigger is a special kind of stored program that is automatically executed (triggered)

when a specific event occurs in a table — such as INSERT , UPDATE , or DELETE .

Triggers are commonly used for:

• Logging changes

• Enforcing additional business rules

• Automatically updating related data

Basic Trigger Structure

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

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AFTER INSERT ON table_name

FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
� statements to execute
END;

Triggers can be fired:

• BEFORE or AFTER an event

• On INSERT , UPDATE , or DELETE

Scenario: Log Every New User Insertion

Suppose we want to log every time a new user is inserted into the users table. We'll
create a separate table called user_log to store log entries.

Step 1: Create the Log Table

CREATE TABLE user_log (

id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
user_id INT,
name VARCHAR(100),
created_on TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
);

Step 2: Create the Trigger

We now define a trigger that runs after a new user is added.

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DELIMITER $$

CREATE TRIGGER after_user_insert

AFTER INSERT ON users
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO user_log (user_id, name)
VALUES ([Link], [Link]);
END$$

DELIMITER ;

Explanation:

• AFTER INSERT means the trigger fires after the user is inserted.

• NEW refers to the new row being added to the users table.

• We insert the new user's ID and name into the user_log table.

Step 3: Test the Trigger

CALL AddUser('Ritika Jain', 'ritika@[Link]', 'Female', '1996-03-12',

74000);

Now check the user_log table:

SELECT * FROM user_log;

You should see Ritika's info automatically logged.

Dropping a Trigger

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If you need to remove a trigger:

DROP TRIGGER IF EXISTS after_user_insert;

Summary
Trigger Component Description

BEFORE / AFTER When the trigger runs

INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE What kind of action triggers it

[Link] Refers to the new row (for INSERT , UPDATE )

[Link] Refers to the old row (for UPDATE , DELETE )

FOR EACH ROW Executes for each affected row

More on MySQL

This section covers some essential MySQL features and operators that help you write more
powerful and flexible queries.

1. Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine multiple conditions in a WHERE clause.

Operator Description Example

AND All conditions must be true salary > 50000 AND gender = 'Male'

OR At least one condition is true gender = 'Male' OR gender = 'Other'

NOT Reverses a condition NOT gender = 'Female'

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2. Add a Column to an Existing Table

Use ALTER TABLE to add a column:

ALTER TABLE users

ADD COLUMN city VARCHAR(100);

This adds a new column named city to the users table.

3. Wildcard Operators

Wildcards are used with the LIKE operator for pattern matching in text.

Wildcard Description Example

% Matches any sequence WHERE name LIKE 'A%' (starts with A)

_ Matches a single character WHERE name LIKE '_a%' (second letter is 'a')

4. LIMIT with OFFSET

LIMIT is used to limit the number of rows returned. OFFSET skips a number of rows
before starting to return rows.

SELECT * FROM users

ORDER BY id
LIMIT 5 OFFSET 10;

This skips the first 10 rows and returns the next 5.

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Alternative syntax:

SELECT * FROM users

ORDER BY id
LIMIT 10, 5;

This also skips 10 and returns 5 (syntax: LIMIT offset, count ).

5. DISTINCT Keyword

DISTINCT is used to return only unique values.

SELECT DISTINCT gender FROM users;

Returns a list of unique gender values from the users table.

6. TRUNCATE Keyword

TRUNCATE removes all rows from a table, but keeps the table structure.

TRUNCATE TABLE users;

• Faster than DELETE FROM users

• Cannot be rolled back (unless in a transaction-safe environment)

7. CHANGE vs MODIFY Column

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Both CHANGE and MODIFY are used to alter existing columns in a table, but they work
slightly differently.

CHANGE: Rename and change datatype

ALTER TABLE users

CHANGE COLUMN city location VARCHAR(150);

This renames city to location and changes its type.

MODIFY: Only change datatype

ALTER TABLE users

MODIFY COLUMN salary BIGINT;

This changes only the datatype of salary .

Conclusion

In this tutorial, we've covered the essentials of SQL, including how to create and manage
databases, tables, and records. With this knowledge, you can start building and querying
your own databases effectively.

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