SEDIMENTARY

GEOLOGY: ROCKS,
ENVIRONMENTS AND
STRATIGRAPHY

Michael Rygel and Page Quinton

SUNY Potsdam
Sedimentary Geology: Rocks, Environments
and Stratigraphy

scan for online version of this book

Michael Rygel and Page Quinton

SUNY Potsdam
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
About this Book

Licensing

Adopters

1: Introduction

2: Sediment Creation and Transport

2.1: Weathering
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements

3: Describing Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

3.1: Grain Size
3.2: Particle Morphology
3.3: Composition
3.4: Maturity
3.5: Color

4: Sedimentary Structures
4.1: Stratification
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, and/or Fluctuating Flows
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures

5: Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks

5.1: Sandstones
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
5.3: Mudrocks
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized Clasts

6: Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks

6.1: Composition
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification

7: Chemical, Biochemical, and Other Sedimentary Rocks

7.1: Evaporites
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks

1 [Link]
8: Diagenesis
8.1: Diagenetic Processes
8.2: Diagenetic Structures

9: Fossils
9.1: Types of Fossils
9.2: Types of Preservation
9.3: Describing Fossils
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
9.5: Microfossils
9.6: Trace Fossils
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section

10: Depositional Environments

10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.2: Deserts
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.6: Glacial Environments

11: Sea Level

11.1: Transgressions and Regressions
11.2: Sea Level Terminology

12: Stratigraphy
12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of contacts
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
12.3: Biostratigraphy
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy

13: Sedimentary Basins

13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics
13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Thermal Sag
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or Flexure
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting

14: Appendices
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
14.2: Rock Identification Charts
14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale
14.4: Sieve and Grain Size Terminology
14.5: Geologic Sketches
14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
14.8: Book Content Mapped to ASBOG's Domain C - Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Paleontology

2 [Link]
 14.9: Well Log Interpretation
14.10: Sedimentary Structures Lab Samples

Index

Glossary

Detailed Licensing

3 [Link]
About this Book
1: Preface
There are numerous books about sedimentary rocks and stratigraphy, but their contents are often locked down by vague or
restrictive copyright and not easily used for teaching, coursepacks, etc. This creates a real problem for educators. We found the
following resources particularly inspirational and tried our best to emulate them in this open access resource:
The comprehensive and organized photographs in Dorrik Stow's 2005 book "Sedimentary Rocks in the Field - A Color Guide",
usable and comprehensive photograph collections by Mark Wilson (Wikimedia Commons), James St. John (Flickr), and
Marli Miller (Geology Time Pics). We also have to give a nod to photographs at the intersection of art and science by Jessica
Martin (@jmgeophoto) and Franco Ricci Lucchi's 1995 book "Sedimentographica: A Photographic Atlas of Sedimentary
Structures"
The elegant hand drafted diagrams in Robert Folk's 1968 coursepack for UT Austin "Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks" and
Chelsea Feeney's illustrations in Hyndman and Thomas' 2020 (2nd ed.) book "Roadside Geology of Montana"
The straightforward explanations and diagrams on Lynn Fichter's webpages (much of which was published in Fichter and
Pouche's 1993 book "Ancient Environments and the Interpretation of Geologic History", Brian Rickett's Geological
Digressions webpage, Alessandro Da Mommio's Alex Strekeisen webpage, and Samuele Papeschi's Geology is the Way
website.
The paired photomicrographs and descriptions of sedimentary rocks, fossils, and minerals in Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle's 2003
book "A color guide to the petrography of carbonate rocks" and Adam's et al.'s 1984 book "Atlas of sedimentary rocks under the
microscope"
BOLD indicates sources that make content available either via licensing or for educational use

2: Use, Adoption, and Suggestions

If you use this book, or some part of it, please drop us an email (Michael Rygel - rygelmc@[Link] and Page Quinton -
quintopc@[Link]) to let us know. Please feel free to send us comments or suggestions as well.

3: Book Organization
Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of why sedimentary rocks are important. The rest of the book is organized around four major
themes and a robust set of appendices:

3.1: Origin, description, and interpretation of sedimentary rocks (Chapters 2-8)

In these chapter we discuss the details of sediment ... where it comes from, how it moves, how to describe it, and how to describe
the resulting sedimentary rocks. Ideally, labs to accompany these chapters would focus on hands-on skills including how to use a
petrographic microscope, how to identify common sedimentary structures, and how to quantitatively and qualitatively describe
both rock and unconsolidated sediment.

3.2: Fossils and depositional environments (Chapters 9-10)

As Charles Lyell said, “the present is the key to the past” and we will take a tour of modern environments and then think about
what they might look like if preserved in the geologic record. Practical skills in associated labs should include facies analysis,
linking processes to environments, and core description and analysis.

3.3: Sea level and stratigraphy (Chapters 11-12)

In the third portion of the book we will gain an understanding of the spatial and temporal relationships between units, learn how to
lump packages of rock together based on genetic relationships, lithologic similarity, fossil content, and/or age. Ideally, associated
labs would focus on correlation exercises and cross sections.

1 [Link]
3.4: Sedimentary Basins (Chapter 13)
This is a stand alone chapter where we remix existing content to provide a refresher on plate tectonics and then go on to describe
the plate tectonic setting and general architecture of the major types of sedimentary basins.

3.5: Appendices
We provide a robust, and ever-growing, collection of materials in the appendices as a way to provide background information that
one might have learned in introductory physical and historical geology courses as well as other information allied to this course that
does not neatly fall into one of the sections listed above.

4: About the Authors

Dr. Michael Rygel holds a B.S. in Geology and Planetary Science from the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown, a Ph.D. from
Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia), was a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, and is a
Professional Geologist (NYS). He is a Professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at SUNY Potsdam and
teaches courses on Earth history, sedimentary geology, structural geology, GIS, and introductory courses. He worked as a
consultant for Devon Energy from 2011-2013 and spends his summers (since 2011) co-teaching Indiana University's "Field
Geology in the Northern Rocky Mountains" (X429) course. He is a Past-President of the New York State Council of Professional
Geologists and served as an Associate Editor for the Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences and the Journal of Sedimentary Research.
He has deep ties to the steel mills and coal mines of western Pennsylvania and his research focuses on understanding the Paleozoic-
aged rocks that these industries were built on. Specifically, he is a sedimentologist and stratigrapher that specializes in
understanding ancient environments. Past research projects have focused on outcrops in the coal-bearing rocks in the Appalachian
Basin (PA-WV) and Maritimes Basin (Atlantic Canada) as well as coeval ancient glacial deposits in southeastern Australia. His
current research focuses on the sedimentology and stratigraphy of Late Paleozoic carbonates in Montana, west Texas, and New
Mexico.

Dr. Page Quinton holds a B.S. in Geology from Columbus State University and M.S. and Ph.D degrees from the The University of
Missouri. She is an Associate Professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at SUNY Potsdam and teaches
courses in Earth history, geochemistry, paleontology, scientific writing, and a variety of introductory courses. She serves as the
STEM Coordinator at SUNY Potsdam and facilitates hundreds of K-12 students visiting the SUNY Potsdam campus every year.
Since 2016 she has co-taught Indiana University's "Field Geology in the Northern Rocky Mountains" (X429) course.
She is a stable isotope geochemist that studies the connection between the carbon cycle, ancient climate change, and major mass
extinction events. Recent work has included research focusing on the role of climate change in the dinosaur mass extinction event,
understanding the impact of early land plants on shallow seas, and understanding the connection between sea level change and
carbon cycling. This work has taken her to Australia, Canada, all over the US (Montana, New Mexico, Texas, and numerous other
locations).

2 [Link]
5: Artificial Intelligence
All of the written content of this book was written by Rygel and Quinton or adapted from other OER resources. Given the lack of
formal copyediting, we ran content through ChatGPT and ask it to look for typos, repeated words, and to make minor editorial
suggestions to improve clarity and flow. In some cases, we used the "AI Coauthor" function of Libretexts to generate tags for each
pages and as a strating point for page summaries. We individually vetted all AI suggestions. None of the images or diagrams that
were generated by AI.

6: Acknowledgements
This work was made possible by NSF Grant #2042276 to Quinton and Rygel and sabbaticals granted by SUNY Potsdam.

7: Readings and Resources

Carbonate World webpage: [Link]
SEPM's stratigraphy webpage - [Link]
Sedimentary Rocks entry on the Geology is the Way webpage: [Link]
Alek Strekeisen's webpage entries dedicated to sedimentary rocks: [Link]

3 [Link]
Licensing
A detailed breakdown of this resource's licensing can be found in Back Matter/Detailed Licensing.

1 [Link]
1: Introduction
Sedimentary rocks are composed of material derived from the weathering and erosion of other, older rocks. They cover the vast
majority of the terrestrial surface of the Earth and are an important archive of the history of life on Earth, ancient environments and
processes, and are of profound economic and environmental significance. This book is a first step in learning how to "read the
rocks” and understand the stories they tell us.

 Learning Objectives
Summarize the distribution of sedimentary rocks on the surface of the Earth and the relative abundance of the different
sedimentary rock types
Explain why sedimentary rocks provide important information about the ancient environments and ecosystems
Summarize the economic, industrial, and practical importance of sedimentary rocks

1.1: Abundance and distribution

Figure : Sedimentary cover of North America (USGS via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).
Sediment and sedimentary rocks cover the majority of the surface of the Earth; they cover about 70% of the continents and about
90% of the seafloor. Although widespread, they represent a relatively thin veneer and make up approximately 8% of the crust and
less than 1% of our planet's total volume.
The geologic record of sedimentary rocks is skewed toward younger rocks and relatively fine grained rocks deposited in ocean
basins and rapidly subsiding areas of sedimentary basins. Although conglomerates and breccias are striking, they form in proximal
areas that are not likely to be preserved whereas mudrocks, sandstones and limestones are deposited in more distal areas that are
more likely to subside and be preserved as part of a sedimentary basin. Numerous workers have provided estimates of the relative
abundance of the different types of sedimentary rocks; although the numbers vary widely, the general patterns agree:
Mudrocks: 50-80%
Sandstones: 10-30%
Carbonates: ~10%
Conglomerates and breccias: ~1%
All others together: ~1%

1.1 [Link]
1.2: Historical archive
Sedimentary rocks are deposited at the surface of the Earth and provide an important archive of information about the Earth's past.
Their composition and texture contain important clues about tectonics, paleoclimate, and processes that were active at the surface
of the Earth when they were deposited. The overwhelming majority of the fossil record is contained in sedimentary rocks and thus
they record both the history of the Earth and the history of life on Earth.

1.3: Natural resources

1.3.1: Energy Resources

Figure : Sources of US energy consumption, 2022 (Energy Information Administration via U.S. energy facts explained; public
domain)
In terms of the economic significance of sedimentary rocks, most people immediately think of energy resources from fossil fuels
including coal, oil, and natural gas. As eloquently described in Richard Alley's book "Earth - The Operator's Manual" these energy
resources fueled the industrial revolution and are largely responsible for the convenient, comfortable, and cheap energy intensive
world that many of us live in today. Although kicking the carbon habit is a challenging but necessary step to safeguard our future,
fossil fuels still represent the majority (~79% in 2022) of the US energy mix and will likely continue to contribute to it for decades
to come.
Uranium ore can come from a variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary sources, but well over half of the world's known
sources come from sandstones.

1.2 [Link]
 Figure : A portion of the Signal Hill, CA oilfield circa 1923 (Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs Division via
Wikimedia Commons; public domain)

1.3.2: Industrial materials

Sediments and sedimentary rocks are important sources of material for the construction of roads and buildings. Some specific
examples include:
Limestone is used to make the binding agent in cement and concrete, building stone and facade, and as a flux in steel making
Sandstone is used for a building stone and facade
Gypsum is used for plaster and drywall
Rock salt is used for road de-icing and a food additive
Kaolinite and other clays are used for brick and the manufacturing of paper, paint, ceramics, plastics, healthcare products and
numerous other applications
Sand and gravel are used for concrete, filtration, and grading for roads and foundations.
Pitch is used in asphalt and road construction

Figure : Limestone quarry near Bellefont, PA (Dhaluza via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 3.0)

1.3.3: Minerals
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are also important hosts for economically important minerals. Banded iron formations are an
important source of iron ore, bauxites are an ore for aluminum, and sedimentary phosphorites are an important source of

1.3 [Link]
phosphorous.

1.3.4: Water, soil, and geomorphology

Inherently, sedimentary rocks have the potential to be more porous and permeable than crystalline rocks. Consequently, they are
very important for groundwater recharge and storage and provide natural filtration as water slowly moves through ore spaces.
Given their widespread distribution, the physical characteristics of sediment and sedimentary rocks represent the starting point for
soil development; characteristics like mineralogy, grain size, and sorting are important factors that influence the nature of the
resulting soils. From a geomorphology perspective, the physical characteristics of sedimentary rocks influences their resistance to
erosion which can cause things like karst topography (limestones), susceptibility to mass movement (mudrocks and poorly
consolidated materials), and the distribution of ridges, valley, cliffs, etc.

Figure : Landslides at La Conchita, CA in 1995 and 2005 were caused by unusually heavy rainfall infiltrating poorly
consolidated sediments of the Pico and Monterrey Formations (USGS via Landslide Hazard Program; public domain).

1.4: Resources and Readings

Geology of Uranium Deposits by the World Nuclear Association
Chapter thumbnail shows the Chinle Badlands in Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, Utah (U.S. Department of the
Interior via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

This page titled 1: Introduction is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

1.4 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

2: Sediment Creation and Transport

Sediment is formed by the weathering of existing rocks and minerals. This sediment can be eroded (transported from one location
to another) in a variety of ways by moving fluids or under the direct influence of gravity. Sediment will eventually be deposited and
might eventually be transformed into sedimentary rock.

 Learning Objectives
Explain the difference between physical and chemical weathering and provide examples of each.
Define the most important properties of fluids and sedimentary particles and use this knowledge to make predictions about
how these properties will influence fluid motion and sediment transport.
Describe, identify, and explain the differences between the three types of fluid flow transport
Describe, identify, and explain the differences between the four types of sediment gravity flows

2.1: Weathering
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements

Chapter thumbnail shows a boulder split by frost wedging (Dominicus Johannes Bergsma via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0).

This page titled 2: Sediment Creation and Transport is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

1
2.1: Weathering
2.1.1: Physical Weathering
Physical weathering occurs when existing rocks are mechanically broken into smaller pieces with little or no chemical change. The
most important types of physical weathering include freeze-thaw (expansion of cracks via freezing of water), biological activity,
changes in volume via wetting and drying (especially important with mudrocks), and stress relief weathering. Locally, physical
weathering via thermal expansion and contraction and the growth of salt crystals may be important in deserts and coastal areas,
respectively.

Figure : Examples of physical weathering. A) Boulder split by frost wedging (Dominicus Johannes Bergsma via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0), B) Tree roots can enhance existing fractures (Don Graham via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 2.0),
C) Half Dome in Yosemite National Park is an exfoliation dome caused by stress relief weathering (HylgeriaK via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0), D) Salt weathering happens when salt water spray blows on to porous rocks. When the water
evaporates, salt crystals grow and break apart connections between grains (Bagamatuta via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

2.1.2: Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the chemical and/or mineralogical alteration of a rock; it can take place via in situ alteration of minerals or
by the removal/relocation of dissolved substances.
Solution (aka dissolution) is a type of chemical weathering that takes place when material is dissolved in water, a process that is
enhanced if the water is slightly acidic. Common examples of dissolution include halite in water and the dissolution of marble by
acid rain.

2.1.1 [Link]
Hydrolysis is a type of chemical weathering that takes place when acid and water react with a mineral to form clay minerals, silica,
and to release ions into solution (commonly K, Na, and Ca). The most common example is the weathering of feldspar to form clay,
a process that results in large amount of fine-grained particles and dissolved material.
Oxidation occurs when compounds lose or share electrons with oxygen, the transformation from pyrite to hematite is a common
and important example.

Figure : Types of chemical weathering. A) 800 years of solution weathering have made this marble tombstone almost illegible
(Palauenc05 via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0), B) The light colored layers within this bed of coal are bentonites, which
form when feldspar-rich volcanic ash undergoes hydrolysis and transforms into clay (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 3.0), C) Acid mine drainage discharging from an exposed shaft in an abandoned coal mine. Oxidation of pyrite (FeS2)
causes the precipitation of orange ferric hydroxide (FeOH3) seen in the foreground (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 3.0)
The processes of physical and chemical weathering commonly act together to speed the breakdown of rocks and minerals.
Fractures formed by physical weathering can dramatically increase the surface area of a rock. The increased surface area
exposes more of the rock to chemical weathering, which may result in further physical destruction of the rock. This
interrelationship of physical and chemical weathering can be seen when fractured blocks develop rounded corners (spheroidal
weathering); the increased surface area to volume ratio near the corners results in preferential weathering. Deeply weathered rocks
commonly develop a rounded shape because a sphere has the lowest surface area to volume ratio of any shape.

Figure : Notable patterns and processes caused by weathering. A) Spheroidal weathering happens as weathering preferentially
acts on the corners and edges of rocks. The longer these fractured rocks are exposed the more round they become (Joachim
Himmeröder via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 2.0 DE), B) Physical and chemical weathering are acting together to degrade
this once details sandstone sculpture (Slick via Wikimedia Commons; CC0 1.0).

2.1.2 [Link]
2.1.3: Some Generalizations
CLimate, Organisms, Relief, Parent material, and Time are the variables that influence the weathering of rock and the creation of
the resulting soils; the acronym CLORPT is commonly used to remember these processes (Jenny, 1941, Factors of Soil Formation).
Climate, particularly temperature and precipitation, probably exerts the most profound influence by controlling the type, speed, and
nature of chemical weathering. Despite the complexities inherent in the system, generalizations can be made:
Because rocks and minerals are most stable under conditions closest to those under which they formed, Bowen’s Reaction
Series provides a general framework for predicting igneous rocks' resistance to chemical weathering. Iron-rich ultramafic rocks
formed at high temperatures are particularly prone to chemical weathering; silica-rich felsic rocks and minerals formed at
relatively low temperatures tend to be the most resistant.
Quartz, rutile, anatase, magnetite, and zircon are some of the most common stable minerals formed from melts.
With the notable exception of chert, minerals formed by precipitation (halite, gypsum, etc.) tend to be easily dissolved and
prone to weathering.
Feldspars are prone to hydrolysis and are rapidly destroyed in humid climates.
Sandstones are common ridge-formers in humid climates; Carbonates are common ridge-formers in arid and semi-arid climates
but are valley-formers in humid climates
Generally speaking, increasing the temperature and the amount water tends to increase chemical weathering rates.

This page titled 2.1: Weathering is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

2.1.3 [Link]
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
Water, air, ice, and gravity are agents of sediment transport (erosion). Although they have very different physical properties, the
first three are all fluids because they flow when shear stress is applied to them. As these materials flow, generally in response to
gravity, they can transport sediment. Sediment can also move in direct response to gravity without the aid of a fluid – If you don't
believe that, just roll a rock down a hill or push it off the edge of a table! Although the fluid is not needed, its presence can facilitate
movement by decreasing friction along existing planes of weakness.

2.2.1: Density and Viscosity

Density and viscosity are the properties of a fluid that most profoundly influence the way in which it flows and its capacity for
sediment transport. Density is a measure of mass per unit volume (ex: g/cm3). Liquids (water) have a much higher density than
gasses (air) and most naturally occurring solids (minerals) have a higher density than liquid water. One noteworthy exception is
water ice, this solid form of water floats because it has a lower density than the liquid form.
Viscosity is the measure of a substance’s internal resistance to flow (commonly measured as kg/(m·s) or m2/s). Fluids with a high
viscosity have a high resistance to flow; those with a low viscosity have a low resistance to flow. Honey has a much higher
viscosity than liquid water, which in turn has a much higher viscosity than air. The viscosity of a given material can also change
with temperature; syrup stored in a refrigerator has a higher viscosity than syrup that has been warmed.

2.2.2: Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow

Fluid flow occurs in two very different modes (laminar and turbulent flow) depending primarily on the flow velocity, fluid
viscosity, and flow depth. The differences in flow conditions are best considered in terms of flow lines, which represent the paths of
individual particles and can be visualized by adding dye tracer from a point source within the water column. Laminar flow occurs
where flow lines are broadly parallel to one another, curve smoothly around obstructions and do not form eddies behind them, and
stay at the same orientation through time. Laminar flow can be created when flow smoothly streams out of a faucet or where a
smooth body moves through shallow water. Turbulent flow exists where flow lines cross and become indistinct, form eddies behind
obstructions, or show random changes in direction at a given location through time. Turbulent flow can be generated by increasing
flow out of a faucet until it becomes chaotic and contains air.
Reynolds Number is a dimensionless number that quantifies the balance between viscous forces (tendency for particles to smoothly
shear past one another) and inertial forces (tendency for moving particles to resist changes in velocity and direction). Laminar flow
exists where viscous forces dominate and the fluid moves in an organized fashion; turbulent flow exists where inertial forces and
chaotic motion dominate. Reynolds Number can be calculated by the following equation:

where:
V = flow velocity
D = flow depth
ρ = density
µ = viscosity
In nature, the transition between laminar and turbulent flow happens at Reynolds Number values of 500 to 2000. Values of less
than 500 are typically laminar and represent organized flow with relatively little capacity for sediment transport. Values above 2000
are typically turbulent and are much more effective at transporting sediment. This equation shows that increasing variables in the
numerator (flow velocity, depth, or density) and/or decreasing viscosity would tend to push the flow toward turbulent conditions
and increase its potential for sediment transport.

2.2.1 [Link]
Figure : Examples of laminar and turbulent flow. A) Photograph showing the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a
plume of air rising from a candle. The plume starts of as laminar but transitions to turbulent in the top 1/3 of the frame (Gary
Settles via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Water flowing over the left side of the dam starts of as laminar and transitions
to turbulent flow downstream. Water flowing over the right side of the dam almost immediately transitions to turbulent flow
(Tangopaso via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

Why Laminar Flow is AWESOME - Smart…

Smart…

Video : Why laminar flow is awesome! Great flume- and field-based examples of laminar and turbulent flow.

2.2.2 [Link]
2.2.3: Settling Velocity
Stoke’s Law is an equation that shows the relationship between settling velocity, fluid density, particle density, and particle size.
This equation is used for small particles (<0.1 mm diameter) where it is assumed that the particles are spherical and that the water
moving around them is experiencing laminar flow. Given these assumptions, settling velocity can be calculated as follows:

where:
V is the settling velocity
ρs is the density of the particle
ρf is the density of the liquid
g is the gravitational constant
D is the diameter of the sphere
μ is the viscosity of the liquid
Effectively, this equation tells us that, for small particles, the most important factors are the diameter of the particle and the
difference in density between the particle and the fluid. It also tells us that increasing the viscosity of the fluid decreases the settling
velocity.

Stokes' Law – explaining the science

Tetra Pak

Watch on

Video : A plain language explanation of Stoke's Law.

For particles larger than very fine sand, turbulent flow around the particle is more likely and the viscosity of the fluid becomes less
important. In this case, its best to use a modified version of the equation:

where:
V is the settling velocity
R is the specific gravity of the particle
D is the diameter of the particle
μ is the viscosity of the liquid

2.2.3 [Link]
g is the gravitational constant
This equation is very similar to the one for smaller particles. The big take away from it is that the extra variables in the
denominator factor in the drag that comes with larger particles (by increasing the value of the denominator you decrease the settling
velocity). Taken together, these equations tell us several basic, but important, things about how particles behave when settling out
of the water column:

[Link]: Size
Bigger particles settle out faster than smaller ones (if all other variables are held constant). Some representative settling velocities
for different sizes of spherical quartz particles are:
0.001 mm (clay) = 0.0001 cm/s
0.01 mm (silt) = 0.01 cm/s
1 mm (sand) = 15 cm/s
10 mm (pebble) = 71 cm/s
The relationship between particle size and settling velocity explains why the largest clasts are found at the bottom of graded beds
and why many sedimentary rocks are at least moderately sorted.

[Link]: Density
Particles with a high density settle out faster than those with a low density. The relationship between density and settling velocity
explains why, in beach sands, relatively small grains of dark magnetite (density = 5.21 g/cm3) commonly occur with much larger
quartz grains (density = 2.65 g/cm3).

[Link]: Shape
It is also worth noting that particle shape can profoundly influence settling velocity and that these differences in shape are not
factored in to the simplified equations provided above. Many sandstones contain broadly spherical sand grains of a certain size
fraction mixed with considerably larger sheet-like grains of mica. The flat shape of the mica grains greatly increases the drag force
which slows it's descent. The overall result is that, from a hydrodynamic perspective, large platy grains settle out at a velocity
similar to smaller, spherical grains.

2.2.4: Froude Number: Supercritical vs. Subcritical Flow

Perhaps the most abstract fluid flow concept is that of supercritical and subcritical flow – conditions that can be quantified using
the Froude Number:

Where: Fr is Froude Number (dimensionless)

V is flow velocity
g is the gravitational constant
L is flow depth
This number quantifies the relationship between inertial forces (tendency for moving particles to resist changes in velocity and
direction) and gravitational forces (downward attraction toward the Earth). In terms of what this means to flowing water,
calculation of Froude Number reveals whether a wave (generated by a disturbance or obstruction) is capable of moving upstream.
A Froude number of less than one indicates tranquil, subcritical flow where the wave could move upstream and influence material
upstream of it (wave velocity > current velocity). A Froude Number of greater than one indicates supercritical flow where wave
energy cannot move upstream and cannot exert an upstream influence (current velocity>wave velocity).
A disturbance in supercritical flow (Fr>1) is analogous to sounding an air horn out the window of a supersonic jet; the sound waves
will immediately fall behind and will never get ahead of the jet. A more sedimentological example is to think about throwing a

2.2.4 [Link]
pebble into a river; if the ripples can move upstream the flow is tranquil (Fr<1), if they cannot, the flow is supercritical (Fr>1).
Standing waves in a rapidly moving current form when the flow is transitional between these two states (Fr=1).

Different Types of Flow - Supercritical a…

a…

Video : Flume examples of supercritical, critical, and subcritical flow as well as examples of hydraulic jumps and how
obstructions interact with different types of flow.

2.2.5: Sediment Entrainment

Fluid dynamics matter because fluids (air, ice, and water) are important to sediment transport. Whether or not one of these flowing
fluids gets things moving is determined by the balance between forces that are preventing movement (gravity, friction, cohesion)
and the forces that are contributing to movement (drag, lift forces c/o Bernoulli’s Principle).

Floating Balls - Bernoulli's Principle Visu…

Visu…

Video : An overview of Bernoulli's Principle with numerous examples.

If we were engineers, or just really interested, we could sit down and calculate these forces if we knew the properties of the liquid
(shear stress, fluid viscosity) and the particle (shape, size, and density). But, we are not going to bother with that because many of
them are difficult to predict or impractical to predict in nature.
Instead, we will rely on the Hjulstrom diagram to give us a sense of whether or not things are being eroded or deposited. This plot
of grain size versus velocity is useful because it allows us to make some basic predictions based on particle size and flow velocity.
Overall, what you can see is that it takes faster flow to move bigger particles … except for the case of mud where sediment
cohesion makes particles stick together.

2.2.5 [Link]
 Figure :Hjulstrom diagram the relationship between particle size and the tendency to be eroded, transported, or deposited at
different current velocities. Figure from Steven Earle via Physical Geology (2nd); CC BY 4.0)

2.2.6: Readings and Resources

Froude and Reynolds Number
Settling Velocity
Calculations using Stoke's Law
Explanation of the Hjulstrom Diagram

This page titled 2.2: Fluid Mechanics is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

2.2.6 [Link]
2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport
Fluid flow transport happens when sediment is being carried along with fluids that are responding to gravity. If there is no motion
in the fluid then there is no movement of sediment. Sediment can get carried along with these moving fluids in the three main ways
described below.

Figure : Sediment transport in a stream via bedload, suspended load, and dissolved load. Image from Steven Earle via
Physical Geology (2nd); CC BY 4.0.

2.3.1: Dissolved Load

The products of chemical weathering result in ions that are dissolved in water. These dissolved materials remain aloft in the water
even if it is completely still, the only way to get them out is by a change in concentration and/or biological activity. If the water
moves, then dissolved materials are transported along with it.

2.3.2: Suspended Load

Suspended load happens when (usually) silt- and clay-sized particles are held aloft in the water column by the turbulence of flow
conditions. Unlike dissolved load, suspended load will settle out if the water stops moving.

2.3.3: Bedload
Bedload transport happens when larger particles (usually sand and gravel) move along with the fluid through some combination of
rolling, sliding, creeping, impacts, saltation, eddies, etc.

Underwater video of sediment transp

hightideexp

Watch on

Video : Bedload sediment transport in an Alaskan stream.

2.3.1 [Link]
 Figure : Sediment-laden waters from the Mississippi River dumping into the Gulf of Mexico. Although all three forms of fluid
flow transport are happening in this image, suspended load (the brown plumes) is the most striking (Mississippi River Sediment
Plume by NASA Earth Observatory; public domain).

This page titled 2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

2.3.2 [Link]
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
It does not always take moving water to get sediment transport to happen. Sometimes materials move under the direct influence of
gravity … this is the process of gravity mass movement. Fluid may play a role by reducing internal friction and supporting grains,
but its not what’s driving movement. We will consider the three main types of gravity mass movements described below.

2.4.1: Rockfall
Rockfalls happen when gravity causes rocks to free fall or roll down steep slopes. Fluid is not needed for this motion to occur, but
it's presence can lubricate clasts and thus encourage movement.

Spectacular Rockslide in Switzerland

DonQuijoteTV

Watch on

Video : Rockfall in the Swiss Alps

Figure : Rockfall closed a portion of Oregon 138E in March, 2017 (Rock blocks OR 138E by Oregon Department of
Transportation, CC BY 2.0).

2.4.2: Slides, Glides, and Slumps

Although it might be important to tease them apart if you were doing surficial mapping, we will consider slides, glides, and slumps
together. All of them represent movement of material that happens when there is shear deformation along discrete planes with little
internal deformation.

2.4.1 [Link]
 Figure : Slide and debris flow at LaConchita, CA (La Conchita by R.L. Schuster (U.S. Geological Survey), public domain).

2.4.3: Sediment Gravity Flows

Figure : Types of sediment gravity flows, sediment support mechanisms, and resulting deposits (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Diagram after Middleton and Hampton (1976).

2.4.2 [Link]
Sediment gravity flows are the final category of gravity mass movements and because they are often preserved in the sedimentary
record we will explore them in more detail and talk about the different types. In all cases, they requires massive internal
deformation and separation of the parent mass into discrete particles to form a mixture of particles and the fluid. Generally
speaking, this is a very fluid type of motion where grains supported by collision with each other and by the fluid. The main
distinguishing factor between the different types is the mechanism by which the particles are supported.

[Link]: Mud flows and debris flows

Mudflows and debris flows (we will treat them as synonymous) happen when a dense muddy matrix (a slurry of sediment and
water) is capable of moving and supporting large clasts. They can be subaerial or subaqueous. Although we cannot embed it in this
page, there is a great video of an active debris flow available on Youtube via Storyful at Debris Flow in Illgraben.
Debris flow deposits are typically poorly sorted, have a sandy/muddy matrix, show little internal organization, and often have large
“floating” clasts.

Figure : Debris flow deposits. A) Breccia formed in an alluvial fan with floating angular clasts encased within a fine-grained
muddy matrix (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 ). B) Deep water debris flow deposits with blocks of
carbonate floating within siltstone matrix (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0).

[Link]: Grain flows

Grain flows happen when cohesionless (dry) sediment is supported in the air by grain-to-grain collisions. Grain flow deposits are
generally thin (a few cm thick), lobe-shaped in 3D, and are typically sandy with massive or inverse grading.

Grain ow in dry eolian sand

Video : Grainflow in dry desert sand.

2.4.3 [Link]
 Figure : A) Lobe-shaped grainflow deposits on the lee side of an eolian dune, White Sands National Park, NM (Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Reverse grading in eolian strata of the Jurassic Carmel Formation. Up is to the
top of the image; a typical package of reverse graded sediment consists of a light color dusty zone that passes upward into
increasing coarse sand (dark; Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Liquefied Flows

Disturbances like earthquakes or crashing storm waves can cause saturated sediments to compact in the subsurface. When this
happens, the upward movement of intergranular water can temporarily supports sediment grains to create liquefied flows. The
resulting deposits typically have massive soft-sediment deformation (flame structures, load structures, convolute laminae) and
possibly sand volcanoes at the surface.

SCHWING: Fluidized Bed Principle

Video : Liquidized/fluidized flows interacting with large particles and layered sediment.

2.4.4 [Link]
 Christchurch Sand Volcanoes eruptin
boxter1977

Watch on

Video : Eruption of sand volcanoes after an earthquake in New Zealand.

Figure : Liquefied flows. A) Modern sand volcano caused by soil liquefaction following an earthquake in New Zealand
(Martin Luff via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Soft sediment deformation caused by dewatering in the Permian Booti
Booti Sandstone (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0).

[Link]: Turbidity currents

Turbidity currents happen where sediment is held aloft by turbidity within the fluid. The result is that you have a relatively dense
fluid with sediment and water that flows in response to gravity, typically downslope through less dense clean water. The resulting
deposits show normal grading (coarsest grains at the bottom) and an overall fining upwards trend. These coarse-fine successions
are commonly referred to as Bouma sequences. Remember from earlier in this chapter that Stoke's Law tells us that the biggest
particles settle out first.

2.4.5 [Link]
 Turbidity Currents
Teijen1

Watch on

Video : Turbidity current in a flume.

Figure : Diagram showing a complete Bouma sequence formed by the passage of a turbidity current (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

2.4.6 [Link]
 Figure : Outcrop example a Bouma sequence formed by a turbidity current (Mikesclark via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA
3.0).

2.4.4: Readings and Resources

Dasgupta, P. and Manna, P., 2011, Geometrical mechanism of inverse grading in grain-flow deposits: An experimental
revelation, Earth-Science Reviews, v. 104, no. 1-3, p. 186-198.
Middleton, G.V. and Hampton, M.A., 1976, Subaqueous sediment transport and deposition by sediment gravity flows in
Stanley, D.H. and Swift, D.J.P. (eds.), Marine sediment transport and environmental management, Wiley, New York, p. 197-
218.
Geological Digressions, Sedimentary structures: Turbidites
USGS, Landslide Types and Processes

This page titled 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

2.4.7 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

3: Describing Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

The size, shape, and composition of particles are the most important characteristics for the description and classification of
sediment and sedimentary rock. Specific characteristics include particle size and size distribution, grain shape and the nature of any
edges, and the maturity of a sample as recorded by the composition of framework grains and interstitial material.

 Learning Objectives
Classify sediment and sedimentary rocks using an Udden-Wentworth grain size chart
Convert between millimeters and phi units
Describe grains using sorting and rounding terminology
Discuss how composition and/or grain size is used to classify sedimentary rocks and provide examples
Describe specimens using the concepts of compositional and textural maturity and make general interpretations about what
these properties record in terms of environments and processes.

Topic hierarchy
3.1: Grain Size
3.2: Particle Morphology
3.3: Composition
3.4: Maturity
3.5: Color

Cover diagram shows a stylized portrayal of an immature sandstone (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 3: Describing Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

1
3.1: Grain Size
3.1.1: Udden-Wentworth Grain Size Scale
The Udden-Wentworth grain size scale (or some derivative thereof) is the most common one used by geologists and forms the basis
for subdividing clastic sedimentary rocks based on clast size. We tend to make the most basic subdivisions based on size because
the maximum clast size is a function of the amount of energy in the system. We've used this classification scheme as the basis for
Table 4.1.1, which combines grain size, phi units, and more detailed naming of clastic sediments and clastic sedimentary rocks.

Table : Grain size classification from Wentworth (1922) and phi scale from Krumbein (1934). Settling velocities from
Filtration and separation and entrainment (erosion) velocities from Wikipedia; both assume spherical particles of quartz.

3.1.2: Phi Units

In hydrogeology, we commonly describe sediment size in terms of phi units (Φ), where the conversion to real world units is:
Diameter (mm) = 1/2n
where n = phi (Φ) value
They key thing to remember about this is that the bigger the phi value the smaller the diameter of the particle.

3.1.1 [Link]
3.1.3: Sorting
Sorting is a measure of the uniformity of grain size in a specimen. A well sorted sample will have relatively uniform grain size
whereas a poorly-sorted sample has a wide range of grain sizes. Geologists generally apply positive-sounding terms to uniform
grain size because those samples have the most porosity and thus have the best potential for fluid flow and [Link] can
estimate sorting visually (Figure 3.1.1) or measure it quantitatively using sieve analysis and plotting up the data on a cumulative
distribution plot and histogram (Figure 3.1.2). Once plotted, you can use the equations and techniques in Figure 3.1.2 to determine
mean (average), median (middle value when data is sorted smallest to largest), and mode (value that occurs most frequently) values
for grain size, as well as calculate a numeric value for sorting and skewness (a measure of the symmetry of grain size distribution).

Table : Sorting and skewness terminology and values from Folk (1966).

 Engineering Terminology

Engineers and geologists live in opposite terminology worlds when it comes to grain size distribution. They use the term
"grading" to describe the distribution of grain size. For them, compaction is what is important and a well-graded specimen has
a wide range of grain sizes (can be densely compacted) and a poorly graded specimen has uniform grain size and does not
compact as well.

3.1.2 [Link]
Figure : Illustration of spherical sand grains (white) and pore spaces (blue) showing changes in sorting and porosity (Michael
C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

3.1.3 [Link]
Figure : Example grain size data shown in tabular, histogram, and cumulative distribution curve form. Median (50th percentile
of grain size), mean (average grain size), mode (most abundant size), sorting (grain size variation), and skewness (symmetry of
histogram) can be calculated from this data using the equations on the bottom right of the diagram. Techniques and equations from
Folk (1966).

3.1.4 [Link]
3.1.4: Readings and Resources
Folk, R. L., 1966, A review of grain‐size parameters. Sedimentology, v. 6, no. 2, p. 73-93.
Krumbein, W. C. M., 1938, Size frequency distributions of sediments and the normal phi curve. Journal of Sedimentary
Research, v. 8, no. 3, p. 84-90.
Wentworth, C. K., 1922, A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. The Journal of geology, v. 30, no. 5, p. 377-392
[Link]

This page titled 3.1: Grain Size is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

3.1.5 [Link]
3.2: Particle Morphology
3.2.1: Form
The overall form or shape of a particle can be important because it influences the hydrodynamic properties of the particle and
because it might be influenced by mineralogy which in turn can impact how it responds to diagenesis and/or fluid flow. We
commonly use the term equant to describe a particle that has broadly comparable dimensions in all directions (broadly spherical)
and platy to describe a particle that is elongate in one direction (think elongate rectangle). Keep in mind that this refers to the
overall shape not to the number or nature of the corners.

3.2.2: Roundness and Angularity

Roundness and angularity are end members that described the nature of the edges/corners of a particle. Keep in mind that this is
different from the description of grain morphology.

Figure : Visual reference for describing rounding of equant (above) and platy (below) particles (Oceanography 101 (Miracosta)
via source content; Public Domain).

3.2.3: Surface texture

One can also characterize the surficial texture of a particle. Common descriptors include things like bright, frosted, polished, pitted,
scratched, etc.

Figure : Surface textures of sand grains. A) Frosted and pitted sand grains typical of aeolian environments (Mark Wilson via
Wikimedia Commons; CC0 1.0) and B) bright, glassy sand grains more typical of fluvial transport (Krzem Anonim via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

3.2.4: Packing
Packing refers to the arrangement of grains/particles in a rock. Although its not something that we can meaningfully describe in our
work, its worth being aware of because of the potential to influence porosity and compaction of sediment. Have a look at the

3.2.1 [Link]
diagram below which shows various arrangements of spherical grains of the same size. By moving the grains around, you can go
from a theoretical maximum of 47.64% porosity to a minimum of 25.95%.

Figure : Three arrangements of spherical, identically size particles showing how the packing of grains influences porosity.
Diagram is after Graton and Fraser (1935) and from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

3.2.5: Readings and Resources

Graton, L.C. and Fraser, H.J, 1935, Systematic Packing of Spheres: With Particular Relation to Porosity and Permeability,
Journal of Geology, v. 43, no. 8, pt.1, p. 785-909.

This page titled 3.2: Particle Morphology is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

3.2.2 [Link]
3.3: Composition
We will explore composition in more detail when we discuss different types of sedimentary rocks. But for now, its worth
mentioning that:
1. No matter the scheme you use, the major subdivisions of sedimentary rocks are based on their composition. This includes sub-
types like carbonates (made of carbonate minerals), siliclastic sedimentary rocks (made of transported particles that came to rest
when flow ceased), biochemical sedimentary rocks (made of things derived from- or associated with living organisms), etc.

Figure : The primary subtypes of sedimentary rocks are defined based on their grain size and their composition (Virginia
Sisson via Pressbooks; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
2. The composition of sedimentary rocks influences everything from chemical reactions with subsurface fluids to nutrient values
in soil.
3. Composition is influenced by a variety of factors including the type of source rock as well as the amount/type/duration of
weathering the sediment experienced, and the cumulative amount of energy that the sediment was exposed to during transport.
4. Geologists tend to classify sandstones based on the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic (rock) fragments and keep
an eye out for important accessory minerals like mica, magnetite, clay minerals, etc. Although the petrographic microscope is
the ideal tool for looking at the mineralogy of sandstones, you can make some very educated guesses using 10x magnification
via a hand lens or binocular microscope. Point counting hundreds of grains can provide valuable quantitative data, but quick
visual estimates of abundance can also be of value (especially with practice).

Next page →
Figure : Visual guides for estimating grain abundance (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

3.3.1 [Link]
This page titled 3.3: Composition is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

3.3.2 [Link]
3.4: Maturity
Together, many of the parameters described in the preceding sections can be combined to talk about the textural and compositional
maturity of a sample. Textural maturity refers to the nature of interstitial materials (especially the abundance of mud) as well as the
sorting and rounding of the framework grains. Compositional maturity refers to the relative abundance of stable framework grains
like quartz to unstable grains such as feldspars, micas, and mafic minerals. Maturity is traditionally considered to be a function of
cumulative input of energy into the system, transport distance from source area, and exposure to chemical and physical weathering.
The more mature the sample the more of these things it underwent.
However this is an oversimplification because things like composition of source rocks and diagenetic processes can have an even
more pronounced influence on maturity. Despite these complications, some generalizations about environments and processes can
be made: environments like beaches tend to have mature or supermature sediments and proximal environments like alluvial fans
tend to have immature sediment.

Figure : Textural and compositional maturity of sandstones (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Figure is
after after Folk (1951), Dott (1964), Folk (1968), and Garzanti (2017).

3.4.1 [Link]
3.4.1: Readings and Resources
Folk, R.L., 1951, Stages of textural maturity in sedimentary rocks: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 21, p. 127–130
Dott, R.H., 1964, Wacke, graywacke and matrix: What approach to immature sandstone classification?, Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, v. 34, p. 625–632
Folk, R.L., 1968, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Hemphill's, Austin, TX, 170 p.
Garzanti, E., 2017, The maturity myth In sedimentology and provenance analysis, Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 87, p.
353–365.

This page titled 3.4: Maturity is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

3.4.2 [Link]
3.5: Color
3.5.1: Munsell Color System

Figure : Diagram showing hue, chroma, and value - the three principal parts of the Munsell Color System (Jacob Rus via
Wikimedia Commons, CC BY SA 3.0).
Although first order assessment of color are useful for many purposes, the Munsell Color System is widely used to give specific
names to the colors that naturally occur in rocks and soils. Specifically, you can order small, rugged booklets with color plates
suitable for use in the field from numerous sources. The Munsell books allow you to give a specific name and code to each
observed color (ex: Pale Yellowish Orange, 10YR 8/6).

Figure : Rectangle infilled with a RGB fill and the (approximate) corresponding Munsell Color System values.

The coded part of the system refers to three components of color:

1. Hue refers to the actual color family, such as red, yellow, green, blue, etc. Hues are arranged in a circular format around a color
wheel, with five principal hues (red, yellow, green, blue, and purple) along with five intermediate hues (e.g., YR) halfway
between adjacent principal hues. In the case of pale yellowish orange - 10YR 8/6, the hue is 10 YR (10 parts yellow and one
part red).
2. Value represents the lightness or darkness of a color. In the Munsell system, this attribute is depicted vertically, with lighter
colors at the top and darker colors at the bottom. The scale ranges from 0 (pure black) to 10 (pure white), with various

3.5.1 [Link]
 gradations in between to show different levels of lightness. A value of 5 represents the true color. Value is given as the number
before the slash. In the case of pale yellowish orange - 10YR 8/6, the value is 8.
3. Chroma describes the vividness of the color; it is also referred to as saturation or intensity. High chroma colors are far away
from the central axis and are vibrant and intense. Low chroma colors are close to the central axis and tend to be more muted or
grayish. Chroma is designated with the number after the slash. In the case of pale yellowish orange - 10YR 8/6, the chroma is 6.
Color can be profoundly influenced by diagenetic processes and is typically something that is only described for mudrocks - we
will discuss this more in detail in Chapter 5.

3.5.2: Readings and Resources

Digital Munsell Rock Color chart
Diigital Munsell Soil Color Book
Link to a website that converts from RGB to Munsell colors

This page titled 3.5: Color is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

3.5.2 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

4: Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary structures are important because they tell us about processes that were operating during the deposition of that
sediment. Things like flow velocity, depth, and direction can be determined from some sorts of structures. From there, we can start
to make some educated guesses about what sorts of depositional environments these processes were taking place in. But, the first
step is having the vocabulary to describe what you are seeing.

 Learning Objectives
Identify common sedimentary structures
Interpret appropriate sedimentary structures to determine paleoflow direction
Interpret and describe the processes responsible for and recorded by sedimentary structures
Use appropriate sedimentary structures to determine way up and top/bottom of beds

Topic hierarchy
4.1: Stratification
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, and/or Fluctuating Flows
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures

Chapter thumbnail shows eolian sand dunes in Death Valley National Park (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-
SA 4.0).

This page titled 4: Sedimentary Structures is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

1
4.1: Stratification
Stratification is an intentionally vague term used to describe layering in a sedimentary rock without implying any specific scale or
thickness. Layering can be obvious or subtle ... you need to look for some sort of difference in grain size, mineralogy, cements,
color, texture, texture, etc.

4.1.1: Beds and laminae

If you want to start talking about the scale of layering, we can break it down into two broad groups: layers that are less than 1 cm
thick are called laminae and layers that are more than 1 cm thick are called beds. If you need more precise terminology, a table of
more specific terms is provided below.

Figure : Descriptive terms for the thickness of beds and laminae (Tenzinsonam995 via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

4.1.2: Internal changes in grain size

[Link]: Normal grading
Within some strata, it is possible that there might be a systematic change in grain size. Normal grading is when a bed shows an
upward decrease in grain size. This is usually caused by a decrease in flow velocity or particles falling out of suspension.

[Link]: Reverse (inverse) grading

Reverse (inverse) grading is exactly the opposite … the largest grains are at the top of the bed and the smallest are at the bottom.
Reverse grading typically occurs in response to shaking or winnowing in cohesionless sediment (grainflows) which causes the
smallest grains to work their way downward through gaps between the larger grains.

[Link]: Massive beds

And although relatively rare, internally massive beds that lack any sort of internal stratification can form when sediment is rapidly
dumped or when previously stratified sediments are reworked via bioturbation.

Figure : Grain size distribution with beds. A) Normally graded bed that fines upward (James St. John via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY 2.0). B) Inverse grading that coarsens upward (John Waldron via University of Alberta; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0). C)
Crudely stratified to internally massive conglomeratic sandstone (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

4.1.1 [Link]
4.1.3: Bed geometry and contacts
Once you’ve identified bedding, you might find it useful to describe the overall form of the bed by thinking about whether the beds
are continuous or not, whether the contacts are planar or wavy, and whether the contacts are are parallel or truncate each other.
Another aspect of bedding that you can describe is the nature of contacts between beds. Specifically, we find that phrases like
sharp, gradational, interbedded are very useful especially when paired with a semi-quantitative estimate of scale (ex: gradational
over 5 cm).

Figure : Types and geometries of bedding contacts after North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature (2005)
and Campbell (1967). Diagram from Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY SA 4.0.

Figure : Different types and scales of bedding contacts are present in this exposure of a redbed paleosol complex. (Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY SA 4.0).

4.1.2 [Link]
4.1.4: Resources and Readings
North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 2005, North American Stratigraphic Code, AAPG Bulletin, v. 89,
no. 11, p. 1547-1591
Campbell, C.V., 1967, Lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset, Sedimentology, v. 8, p. 7-26.

This page titled 4.1: Stratification is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

4.1.3 [Link]
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
We moved from sediment transport directly into sedimentary structures because these structures are formed in the sediment during
the transport process and tell us about what was going on at the time of deposition. While transport is happening, the sediment may
be organized into a three-dimensional bedform. If preserved (or partially preserved), that bedform becomes a sedimentary structure
in the rock. Sometimes the two go by the same name and sometimes they don’t; when we first introduce the terms we will try to
make it clear what we are referring to.

4.2.1: Bedform Stability Diagram

Figure : Bedform stability diagram showing grain size versus flow velocity for unidirectional currents in water at 10 ⁰C and
0.25-0.40 m deep (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Diagram after Southard and Boguchwal (1990) and
Potter and Pettijohn (1977).

Before we launch into a more detailed description about the different types of sedimentary structures that form in response to
unidirectional flows, it is worth taking a moment to point out that:
A systematic relationship exists between bedforms and velocity.
Flume studies reveal that you can predict what bedform will be present/stable given a certain grain size and flow velocity
(provided that you hold all other variables constant)

4.2.1 [Link]
 Figure : Bedforms and sedimentary structures formed in response to unidirectional flows. In all cases the flow direction was/is
from right to left. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

4.2.2: Lower Plane Beds

Relatively course-grained sand (above about 0.6 mm diameter) will not form ripples under low flow velocities. Instead, rolling and
tumbling of grains will form simple horizontal layers known as lower plane beds (term refers to the bedform and resulting
sedimentary structure).

4.2.3: Asymmetric Ripples & Ripple Cross-Lamination

Asymmetric ripples (aka current ripples) are bedforms that are less than 10 cm tall; they have a pronounced asymmetric shape with
a gently dipping upstream (stoss) side and a relatively steeply dipping downstream (lee) side. They form as sediment, and the
bedform itself) migrates in a downstream direction. Silt- and sand-sized particles move up the stoss side through bedload transport
and then accumulate as downstream-dipping layers on the sheltered lee side.
Asymmetric ripples are only rarely preserved in their three-dimensional form, instead the downstream dipping laminae deposited
on the stoss side are preserved as ripple cross-laminae. Ripple cross-laminae are just smaller versions of cross-beds and consist of
subhorizontal layers with internally dipping laminae that are tangential with the bottom of the bed and truncated at a higher angle at
the top of the bed. If the sedimentation rates is very high, climbing ripples may form, these features preserve both the ripple crest
and the downstream-dipping laminae.

4.2.2 [Link]
 Figure : Ripples and ripple cross-laminae (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0 or CC
BY-SA 4.0). A) Modern asymmetric ripples exposed in the intertidal zone. Flow was from left to right; footprint near bottom center
of the image for scale. B) Cross-sectional exposure of a ripple cross-laminated sandstone; Although not fully preserved in three
dimensions, these structures are strongly aggradational and could be considered climbing ripples. C) Cross-section view of a ripple
cross-laminated sandstone. Paleoflow was from left to right. D) Bedding plane exposure of ripple cross-laminated sandstone;
individual cross-laminae are often covered with fine fragments of plant materials (black) and they dip into the bed toward the left
indicating that paleoflow was from right to left.

4.2.4: Dunes and Cross-Beds

Given a constant grain size, an increase in velocity will cause ripples/lower plane beds to transition into dunes (a bedform). The
main difference between ripples and dunes is size; by definition, dunes are greater than 10 cm tall. Other than that, the processes
and terminology are largely the same … they migrate in a downstream direction by deposition of inclined layers on the steeper
downstream side.
Based on the extent and morphology, we can subdivide these bedforms into sinuous-crested dunes which have curved and often
laterally discontinuous crests and straight-crested dunes with have a linear crest and may be continuous for tens of meters.

4.2.3 [Link]
Dunes are preserved as cross-beds, which have broadly horizontal bedding planes separating beds that have inclined laminae
internally. Trough cross-beds are the product of sinuous-crested dunes. We are using the terminology of Potter and Pettijohn (1977)
who differentiate trough and planar cros-beds based on the morphology of the bounding surfaces between individual foreset beds
(individual cross-bedded layers). Trough cross-beds have curved bounding surfaces that appear u-shaped when viewed in an up- or
down-flow direction and scoop-shaped when viewed perpendicular to flow direction. When viewed from above, foresets in trough
cross beds appear u-shaped and open in a downstream direction. Tabular cross-beds are the product of straight-crested dunes. They
too have downstream-dipping foresets but the bounding surfaces are much more planar and continuous than in trough-cross beds.

Figure : Dune crest shape. A) Sinuous-crested dunes from the Kennetcook River. B) Straight-crested dunes from the
Kennetcook River estuary (both images courtesy John Waldron via University of Alberta; CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).

Next page »
Figure : Photographs of cross-beds. A) Cross-sectional view of trough cross-beds; paleoflow is almost directly into the face. B)
Slightly oblique bedding plane view of trough cross-beds; paleoflow is into the image toward about 11 o'clock. The u-shaped
foreset laminae open in a downstream direction and dip downstream. C) Cross-sectional view of trough cross-beds; paleoflow is
from right to left. Note that cross-laminae become tangential with the lower bounding surface and that there is modest relief along
the bounding surface. D) Planar cross-beds with foreset laminae that intersect the lower bounding surface at a steep (close to the
angle of repose) and that the lower bounding surface is nearly planar. Paleoflow direction is from left to right. E) Planar cross beds
with tangential foreset laminae but planar bounding surfaces. Paleoflow direction is from left to right. Although there is some
difference of opinion about whether to use foreset or bounding surface morphology to classify cross-beds, the descriptive
terminology doesn't ultimately matter all that much. F) Planar cross-beds with wedge-shaped bounding surfaces. Paleoflow
direction is generally from left to right. Parts A, B, C, and E from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0 or
CC BY-SA 4.0; D from Anne Burgess via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY SA 2.0; E from James St. John via Wikimedia Commons,
CC BY 2.0.

4.2.4 [Link]
4.2.5 [Link]
4.2.5: Upper Plane Beds and Laminated Sandstone with Primary Current Lineation
A continued increase in velocity will cause dunes to wash out and the formation of a flat sediment surface where individual grains
are rolling or streaming along the bed. These horizontally laminated upper plane beds (bedform) are nearly identical to lower plane
beds except they can occur in much finer grained sand and that bedding plane surfaces are ornamented with primary current
lineation. This distinctive linear fabric forms parallel to paleoflow direction as sand grains align behind one another via micro-
vortices (just how bicyclists draft behind one another when racing).

Figure : A) Modern primary current lineation in a modern beach sand. The linear fabric is caused by the alignment of sand
grains. The accumulation of sand behind larger pebbles indicates that paleoflow was from top to bottom. B) Ancient primary
current lineation on a bedding plane in a laminated sandstone. Paleoflow was either from top to bottom or bottom to top. (Michael
C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0)

4.2.6 [Link]
4.2.6: Antidunes
As the name implies, antidunes (name for bedform and sedimentary structure) are, in many ways, the opposite of regular dunes.
They form under fast shallow flow conditions (Fr > 1) and the bedform migrates in an upstream direction along with the standing
wave that sits atop it (see video below). They do this as sediment is plastered onto the steeply-dipping upstream face of the
bedform; the result is that laminae dip in an upstream direction. They’d be easy to confuse with regular cross-beds, but don’t fret
because they are only rarely preserved because as flow velocity wanes the sediment is commonly reworked into upper plane beds
and dunes. When preserved, they are closely associated with wavy- or undulatory laminae formed with the transition to upper plane
beds.

Antidunes on the Beach

Figure : Video of active antidunes and standing waves.

Figure : Possible antidunes and undulatory laminae formed in association with upper flow regime conditions (Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

4.2.7 [Link]
4.2.7: Readings and Resources
Potter, P.E. and Pettijohn, F.J., 1977, Paleocurrents and Basin Analysis (2nd); Springer-Verlag, NY, 425 p.
Southard, J.B., and Boguchwal, L.A., 1990, Bed configurations in steady unidirectional water flows. Part 2. Synthesis of flume
data, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology v. 60, no. 5, p. 658-679

This page titled 4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

4.2.8 [Link]
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, and/or Fluctuating Flows
4.3.1: Wave Motion and Wave Ripples
In deep bodies of water (where depth>½ wavelength) energy is transferred through water causing particles to move in a circular
pattern.
When water depth is less than ½ wavelength, the wave “feels” bottom and friction causes the circular motion to change into back-
and-forth motion which in turn causes symmetric wave ripples to form. Unlike asymmetric ripples, wave ripples are most
commonly preserved in three dimensions on bedding planes. The crests of symmetric ripples form parallel to the local shoreline
direction.

Figure : Processes, bedforms and structures formed by waves, oscillatory or sloshing flows (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

4.3.1 [Link]
Figure : Modern and ancient symmetrical wave ripples (all from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0
or CC BY-SA 4.0). A) Modern wave ripples exposed at low tide on the Bay of Fundy are similar in size and shape to those shown
in B) from the Permian Snapper Point Formation, New South Wales. C) A more typical bedding plane exposure of symmetrical
wave ripples from the Cambrian Potsdam Sandstone. D) Although much less common, wave ripples are also occasionally
preserved in cross section as with this example from the Permian Wasp Head Formation, New South Wales.

4.3.2 [Link]
4.3.2: Hummocky Cross-Stratification
Hummocky cross-stratification (sedimentary structure) forms when storms cause chaotic wave motion and irregular “sloshing” of
water at depth. The resulting hummocky cross-stratification consists of convex-up (hummocks; bedform) and concave-up (swales;
bedform) cross-laminae that cross-cut one another.
In areas with muddy bottoms, storms may transport sand from shallow water and form them into isolated hummocks.

Figure : Examples of hummocky cross-stratification (all from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0 or
CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Hummocky cross-stratified sandstone from the Permian Wasp Head Formation, New South Wales. C)
Isolated sandstone hummock in mudrock of the Silurian Arisaig Formation, Nova Scotia. D) Isolated sandstone swale in offshore
transition mudrocks of the Permian Pebbley Beach Formation, New South Wales.

4.3.3 [Link]
4.3.3: Heterolithic Bedding
As the name implies, heterolithic bedding contains alternations of sand and mud. This feature indicates fluctuations in flow velocity
and is most commonly formed in tidal regimes where water is moving rapidly during rising and falling tide and calm at high and
low tide. In addition to fluctuations in flow velocity, many examples have ripple cross-laminae that indicate reversing flow - a trait
that, if present, supports the tidal interpretation.
Four main types of heterolithic bedding are recognized:
Flaser bedding is dominantly sand with isolated lenses of mud
Wavy bedding has subequal amounts of sand and mud
Lenticular bedding is mostly mud with elongate lenticular sandy zones
Starved ripples are isolated ripple forms preserved within mud.

Figure : Structures formed in response to changes in flow direction and/or strength (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0). Diagram after Reineck and Wunderlich (1968).

4.3.4 [Link]
Figure : Examples of heterolithic bedding (all from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0 or CC BY-SA
4.0). A) Wavy bedding with ripple cross-laminae that record reversal of flow direction B) Starved ripples atop a sandy zone interval
that could be described either as flaser bedding or ripple cross-laminae with mud drapes. C) Wavy bedding. A-C all from the from
the upper Pebbley Beach Formation (Permian). D) Mud drapes on foreset laminae in the Indian Cave Sandstone (Pennsylvanian),
Nebraska.

4.3.5 [Link]
4.3.4: Herringbone Cross-Stratification
Herringbone cross-stratification is a name applied to successions where cross-beds overlying one another record paleoflow in
opposite directions. Because this requires fast flow that rapidly reverses direction, most occurrences record tidal conditions.

Figure : Herringbone cross-bedding in a tidal channel, Eocene Delmar Formation, Torrey Pines State Park, California
(Geozz86 via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

4.3.5: Readings and Resources

Reineck, H.-E., and Wunderlich, F., 1968, Classification and origin of flaser and lenticular bedding, Sedimentology, v. 11, p. 99-
104.

This page titled 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, and/or Fluctuating Flows is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was
authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

4.3.6 [Link]
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures

Figure : Diagram showing erosional and post-depositional structures (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0). Note that labels on some of the pop-outs to the right show whether the top or bottom of a bed is pictured.

4.4.1: Erosional Structures

[Link]: Scours and Channels
Channels form where flowing water concentrates and erodes the underlying sediment. Eventually the sediment being carried by the
river fills the channel and the river avulses to another location on the floodplain. Although we commonly think of channel deposits
as being simple u-shaped features, their morphology is a function of the type of river, the orientation of the outcrop relative to
paleoflow direction, and whether or not the older channel deposit was modified by younger ones. We will get into some of these
differences when we start talking about depositional environments later in the course.

4.4.1 [Link]
We are not aware of a strict size range applied to channels. But generally speaking, many people use the term scour to refer to
small, nondescript erosional features within floodplain or beach sediments indicating a simple cut-and-fill history.

Figure : A) Small scour in shoreface sandstones of the Permian Wasp Head Formation, New South Wales. B) Erosive margin
of a paleovalley in the Pennsylvanian Waddens Cove Formation, Nova Scotia (both images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Groove Casts and Tool Marks

Objects drug by a moving current can make a variety of indentations into cohesive substrate. Groove casts refer to elongate linear
features caused by dragging and tool marks refer to less linear features formed by rolling or bouncing along the sediment surface. If
sand later blankets the sediment surface these marks may be infilled and preserved on the base of the overlying sandstone.

Figure : A) Groove casts and tool marks on the base of a bed of sandstone. Given that many of these marks taper toward the
top of the image, the paleoflow direction was probably bottom to top. B) Flute casts on the base of a sandstone from the Inverness
Formation (Pennsylvanian), western Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. Flute casts are bulbous on the upstream side and taper on the
downstream side; in this case recording paleoflow from right to left (both images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 3.0 or CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Flute Casts

Flutes form where a turbulent vortex erodes into muddy sediment. It forms a depression that is blunt upstream and tapers
downstream. If later infilled with sand, they can be preserved as flute casts that stand in relief on the base of a bed of sandstone.

4.4.2 [Link]
They are useful for determining paleoflow direction because the blunt end faces upstream.

[Link]: Obstacle Scours

Where you have a fixed obstruction (rock, tree, etc) a moving current will commonly scour a deep hole around the side and
upstream edge of the feature forming a u-shaped depression that opens downstream. Although not terribly common, it is possible to
preserve these obstacle scours in the geologic record.

Figure : A) Obstacle scour around a tree. The deepest part of the scour is on the upstream side of the obstacle; turbulent
vortices are shed off the sides of the obstacle and create a u-shaped scour pit that opens in a downstream direction; in this case flow
was from left to right. B) Obstacle scours (aka current crescents) preserved on a bedding plane in a fluvial sandstone of the
Pennsylvanian Ragged Reef Formation. Flow direction was from top to bottom (both images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

4.4.2: Soft-Sediment Deformation Structures

The sedimentary structures described above were all “primary” sedimentary structures in that they record conditions at or near the
time that the sediment was deposited. The structures described below are all "secondary" structures in the sense that they show
modification of the sediment after it was deposited but before it underwent diagenesis (the process that transforms sediment to
rock).

[Link]: Flame Structures

When water-saturated mud is overlain by more dense sand, compaction and/or a slight disturbance can cause flame structures
which are tongues of mud to inject upward into the overlying sand

[Link]: Load Casts

Load casts (aka ball-and-pillow structures) are sandy lobes of mud that can form when dense mud settles down into water-saturated
mud as a result of compaction or disturbance. They may be be connected to source bed or may be isolated from it. Superficially
they can appear similar to flute casts but they lack the pronounced blunted edge.
A wide variety of other types of nameless synsedimentary deformation features can form when shaking or loading of water-laden
muds can cause overall chaotic bedding in rocks. The key to distinguishing these features from those formed as a result of tectonic
forces is that over and underlying beds are flat-lying and relatively undeformed.

4.4.3 [Link]
 Figure : A) Cross-sectional view of load casts (aka ball-and-pillow structures) in the Booti Booti Sandstone (Mississippian),
New South Wales (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Flame structures in unconsolidated sand,
(Catrin1000 via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

[Link]: Desiccation cracks

As mentioned above, mud can be 70% water. When it dries out it contracts forming polygonal desiccation cracks (aka mudcracks).
These features can be preserved as polygonal features on bedding planes or as downward tapering wedges if viewed in cross
section.

[Link]: Raindrop Impressions

When raindrops fall onto fine-grained sediment they make small depressions or craters on the top of that sediment. These features
can be preserved either as depressions on the top of the fine-grained sediment that they fell on or as bumpy casts on the base of the
overlying bed.

Next page »
Figure : A) Oblique view of modern desiccation cracks atop a tidally-influenced point bar in the Salmon River near Truro,
Nova Scotia. B) Slightly oblique bedding plane view of green reduced zones associated with desiccation cracks in
the Pennsylvanian Clifton Formation, New Brunswick. C) Cross-sectional view of mudcracks in the Mississippian Mabou Group,
Nova Scotia. D) Dessication crack preserved as a cast on the base of a sandstone, Inverness Formation (Pennsylvanian), Cape
Breton Island, Nova Scotia. E) Modern raindrop impressions on a tidally-influenced point bar in the Salmon River near Truro,
Nova Scotia. F) Fossilized raindrop impressions on the top of a wave-rippled sandstone from the Horton Bluff Formation
(Mississippian), near Avonport, Nova Scotia. All images by Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0 or CC BY-
SA 4.0).

4.4.4 [Link]
This page titled 4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

4.4.5 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

5: Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks

Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are made of solid particles that were transported as suspended load, bedload, or under the direct
influence of gravity. In all cases, the clastic particles will settle and come to rest when motion ceases.
Grain size is the most important characteristic in the classification of clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks. As discussed in
Chapter 3, unconsolidated sediment can be classified as gravel, sand, or mud; these size fractions make up conglomerates,
sandstones, and mudrocks, respectively. More specific names for the different size fractions and sedimentary rocks are provided in
the table below.
Although dissolved materials are the primary building blocks for carbonates and other types of chemical and biochemical
sedimentary rocks, dissolved materials may form mineral cements that bind clastic grains during the transformation from sediment
to sedimentary rock.

Table : Grain size classification from Wentworth (1922) and phi scale from Krumbein (1934). Settling velocities from Filtration
and Separation and entrainment (erosion) velocities from Wikipedia; both assume spherical particles of quartz. Mudrock
terminology from Prothero and Schwab (2004).

1
  Learning Objectives
Identify the main components of sandstones in thin section and use this information to name them.
Use appropriate terminology to described conglomerates and breccias
Use appropriate terminology to described mudrocks and make interpretations based on mudrock color.
Explain the four main types of clay minerals and list some economically important examples.
Explain the possible origins of diamictites and sandstones/mudrocks with outsized clasts.

Topic hierarchy
5.1: Sandstones
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
5.3: Mudrocks
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized Clasts

Chapter thumbnail shows a sandy, matrix-supported conglomerate (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

This page titled 5: Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

2
5.1: Sandstones
Sandstones are clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed largely of sand-sized grains (>50% particles between 1/16 and 2 mm
diameter). Sandstones make up approximately 14% of sedimentary rocks and can be found in a wide variety of depositional
environments including alluvial fans, rivers and floodplains, beaches, and submarine fans. Porous sandstones can form important
reservoirs for water and hydrocarbons; homogenous, well-cemented sandstones are commonly used as building stones.

5.1.1: Methods
Although much information can be gained with a hand lens and an acid bottle, sandstones are best studied in thin section with a
petrographic microscope that has polarizing filters. The major components of sandstones include sand-sized framework grains and
interstitial areas that originally contained either muddy interstitial matrix and/or open pore space. During diagenesis, mineral
cements may precipitate into pore space.

[Link]: Petrographic Microscopes

If you want a quick refresher on use of the petrographic microscope, see the YouTube video embedded below and the resources are
provided at the end of this chapter.

The Petrographic Microscope

SAFOD earthquake geoscience

Watch on

Video : Review of petrography fundamentals.

[Link]: Rocks and Minerals in Thin Section

The combination of thin sections (30 micron thick slivers of rock glued to a glass microscope slide) and petrographic microscope
with polarizing filters can provide significant information and insight into rocks and minerals. In thin section, we can use the
following properties to identify minerals:
Color (in plane polarized light) - the hue observed in a mineral. It results from the selective absorption of certain wavelengths
of light due to the mineral’s composition and crystal structure. Color can vary due to impurities or alteration.
Pleochroism (in plane polarized light) - the change in color observed in an anisotropic mineral when the stage is rotated. It
occurs because the mineral absorbs light differently along different crystallographic directions. Pleochroism can range from
weak to strong and can vary to include two or three colors depending on the mineral’s optical properties.
Interference colors (crossed polars) - colors that result from the splitting of light into two rays that travel at different speeds
through a mineral, causing a phase difference when they recombine. The resulting colors correspond to a specific order on
Michel-Lévy’s interference color chart (see link below).
Relief - the degree to which a mineral stands out relative to its surrounding minerals or the mounting medium. It is a function
of the difference in refractive index (RI) between the mineral and its surroundings. High-relief minerals appear strongly
outlined with pronounced shadows at grain boundaries, while low-relief minerals blend with their surroundings.
Twinning - refers to the presence of intergrown crystal domains within a mineral that share a specific crystallographic
relationship but have different optical orientations. It is observed under both plane-polarized light (PPL) and cross-polarized
light (XPL) in a petrographic microscope. Twinning can appear as parallel, crosshatched, or wedge-shaped patterns.

5.1.1 [Link]
Figure : Summary diagram showing the most common elements of clastic sedimentary rocks in thin section (after Page
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Note that the same field of view is shown in both, but that the top image shows
what the components look like in plane polarized light and the bottom one shows what they look like with crossed polars.

5.1.2 [Link]
5.1.2: Framework Grains
Framework grains are sand-sized particles that make up the majority of a sandstone. These particles were transported by a moving
current and came to rest when turbulence and bedload transport ceased. Grains composed of quartz, feldspar, or lithic
fragments (rock fragments) are the most common type of sand grains and their relative abundance is used to classify the sandstone;
all others are considered accessory minerals.

Figure : Ternary diagram showing the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithics in a sandstone with a few points
showing what those abundances would look like (from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Quartz
Given its resistance to chemical weathering and abundance in continental crust, quartz is the most common framework grain in
most sandstones. In hand sample, quartz grains are easily identified by its glassy appearance and lack of cleavage. In thin section, if
the quartz grain is made from a single crystal (monocrystalline) it will appear clear/white in plane polarized light (PPL) and
uniformly go extinct every 90° in cross polarized light (XPL). Grains derived from an igneous source may actually be composed of
several interlocking crystals (polycrystalline quartz) and those from a metamorphic source may show undulatory extinction. Note
that polycrystalline quartz grains (and chert, see lithic grains below) can be counted as quartz if the goal is to focus on
compositional maturity. Alternately, polycrystalline quartz and chert can be counted as lithics if the goal is to focus on the
composition of the source rocks.

5.1.3 [Link]
[Link]: Feldspar
Feldspar grains can be particularly abundant in sandstones derived from granitic source areas and/or in arid climates with limited
chemical weathering. Feldspar grains appear clear in PPL and commonly exhibit twinning in XPL. In both cases, cleavage may
give the external form and internal planes of weakness a blocky appearance. When making thin sections, it is possible to stain them
to help distinguish feldspars from other broadly similar minerals. If stained with cobaltinitrite, potassium feldspar will take on a
yellow color; if stained with barium rhodizonate, plagioclase feldspar will turn red.

[Link]: Lithics
Lithic grains are sand-sized particles of preexisting metamorphic, sedimentary, or igneous rocks. These grains have a variety of
appearances, generally they can be composed of multiple minerals, have a complex fabric, and/or have a distinctive composition
(ex: carbonate). As discussed above, one could count polycrystalline quartz and chert as lithic fragments if the goal of the analysis
was to emphasize source (rather than compositional maturity).

[Link]: Accessory Minerals

All other sand-sized particles are classified as accessory minerals. Muscovite and biotite micas are common accessory minerals in
sediment found adjacent to crystalline source areas. The micas are easily identified in hand sample as particularly large, platy
grains concentrated along bedding planes; in thin section they appear as large play grains with obvious cleavage and high order
birefringence colors in XPL. Magnetite, rutile, tourmaline, zircon, and other resistant minerals may be abundant in some areas.

5.1.4 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of quartz grains in sandstones; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized
light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Monocrystalline quartz
grains. Note that the apparent tight fit of the grains is actually caused by silica cement growing in optical continuity with the grains;
in many cases a dust rim shows the grain boundary. C & D) A large polycrystalline quartz granule. E & F) A monocrystalline quartz
grain showing undulatory extinction.

5.1.5 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of feldspar grains; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized light on the
right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Large unstained feldspar grains
showing twinning. Scattered quartz grains and abundant interstitial chlorite C & D) Feldspar grains stained yellow for potassium
feldspar. The simple grains on the left are single feldspar crystals; the more complex grains on the right are lithic fragments with
feldspar in them. E & F) Plagioclase feldspar grains; the bottom half of the image is stained red for plagioclase; the top half of the
image is unstained.

5.1.6 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of lithic grains; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized light on the right
(all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Lithic grains derived from an igneous rock.
C & D) Lithic grains derived from a metamorphic rock - likely a schist or a gneiss. E & F) Lithic granules derived from
sedimentary rocks. The large grain near the top right is a fine-grained sandstone; the large grain in the left half of the image is chert.

5.1.7 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of accessory minerals, part 1; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized
light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Green glauconite grains
and quartz grains from the Flathead Formation (Cambrian), SW Montana. C & D) Large biotite flake surrounded by quartz grains,
feldspar grains, and matrix that has been metamorphosed to chlorite. E & F) Muscovite mica (long bladed crystals) with small
amounts of quartz.

5.1.8 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of accessory minerals, part 2; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized
light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Large dolomite grains and
granules in a muddy breccia. C & D) Siderite (probably sphaerosiderite) grains/granules and lithic grains/granules in a lithic
sandstone. E & F) Ooids replaced with opaque hematite and surrounded by recrystallized calcite.

5.1.9 [Link]
 Figure : Photomicrographs of accessory minerals, part 3 - mafic mineral in igneous rocks; images in plane polarized light are
on the left and cross polarized light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A &
B) In plane-polarized light, hornblende is green to brown, shows pleochrosim, and commonly cleavage. Its shows 2nd to 4th order
orange colors under crossed polars C & D) In plane-polarized light, olivine is clear to light green, shows high relief, a lack of
cleavage, and fracture. Under crossed polars, it shows a variety of bright 2nd to 3rd order interference colors.

5.1.3: Interstitial Material

[Link]: Matrix
Matrix is fine-grained, clayey material between the framework grains in some sandstones. The origin of matrix is not well
understood; possibilities for its formation include deposition of mud in protected areas between grains, deposition as thin layers
that are later homogenized, larger particles of flocculated clay, or alteration products derived from unstable grains (pseudomatrix).
Regardless of its exact origin, matrix (or its precursor) forms at the time of deposition. Matrix-rich sandstones are commonly dark
colored in hand sample; matrix appears as dark, semi-translucent, amorphous material between sand grains in PPL and as dark
material with a fine “woven” texture that may have high-order birefringence colors in XPL.

5.1.10 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of matrix in sandstones; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized light on
the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A-D) Matrix appears dark in PPL and can
have a woven appearance with crossed polars. E & F) Matrix has transformed to chlorite in a sandstone that has experienced low-
grade metamorphism.

5.1.11 [Link]
[Link]: Pore space
If not clogged with muddy matrix, the interstitial areas between sand grains (pore spaces) are voids filled with water or air.
Although sand spherical grains organized into a cubic stacking pattern has a theoretical maximum of 47.6% pore space, actual
porosity values of 5-25% are more typical. During the manufacture of thin sections, pore space is commonly filled with epoxy
which appears clear or blue (if dyed) in PPL and black in XPL.

Figure : Photomicrographs of pore space that was filled with blue epoxy via vacuum impregnation when the thin section was
made; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Cement
During diagenesis, material dissolved in groundwater commonly precipitate into pore spaces forming mineral cements that bind the
sandstone together. The two most common cements in sandstones are silica and calcite. Silica cement commonly nucleates on the
surface of quartz grains; in PPL dust rims may delineate the edge of the grains; the silica commonly grows in optical continuity
with the grain and may go extinct with it as the microscope stage is rotated in XPL. Although calcite cement appears similar to
silica in PPL, it is easily distinguished by high order interference colors in XPL. Beyond these common cements, some sandstones
may be cemented with pyrite, hematite, gypsum, kaolinite, illite, or a variety of other minerals.

5.1.12 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of silica and calcite cement; images in plane polarized light are on the left and cross polarized light
on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Silica cement that grew in
optical continuity with quartz grains; grain boundaries are highlighted by hematite dust rims. C & D) Coarse calcite cement
between chert grains. Note the high order birefringence colors. E & F) A quartz arenite sandstone with silica cement predominantly
filling interstitial areas on the left and calcite cement largely restricted to the right.

5.1.13 [Link]
5.1.4: Classification
Older literature and many introductory textbooks recognize three main types of sandstone: quartz sandstone (quartz-rich),
arkose (feldspar-rich) sandstone, and greywacke (muddy) sandstone. Although useful when applied to the type of endmember
sandstones included in rock and mineral kits, these terms are ambiguous and do not capture much of the variability present in the
field.
Dott (1964) proposed a simple two-word naming scheme where the first word (quartz, feldspathic, or lithic) represents the relative
abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the second word represents the abundance of interstitial matrix
(arenite if <10% matrix or wacke if >10% matrix). This scheme allows for a name that speaks to the compositional maturity
(framework grain composition) and textural maturity (amount of mud) of the rock.
A few things to consider when classifying sandstones using this scheme include:
Only quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains are used for naming; plotting composition on the ternary diagram requires
that their relative abundances be normalized to 100%.
Cement is a diagenetic feature and not used to name sandstones.
The amount of matrix is estimated for the entire volume of the rock. This represents the entire field of view in thin section. In
hand sample, wackes are distinguished by the presence of dark, fine-grained material rather than glassy or shiny cement.
Although proper classification requires point counting of ~300 sand grains in thin section, quick visual estimation using a hand
lens or thin section usually produces satisfactory results.

Figure : A three dimensional diagram for the classification of sandstones. The triangle is a ternary diagram showing the
relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithics. The third dimensions shows the relative amount of interstitial matrix (from
Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Modified from Dott (1964).

5.1.14 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of arenite sandstones with little/no interstitial matrix; images in plane polarized light are on the
left and cross polarized light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B)
show a quartz arenite with silica cement and modest amounts of pore space. C & D) show a silica-cemented feldspathic arenite;
note that this slide was stained for potassium feldspar. E & F) show a poorly cemented and friable lithic arenite.

5.1.15 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs of wacke sandstones with significant amounts of matrix; images in plane polarized light are on the
left and cross polarized light on the right (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B)
show a quartz wacke with a modest number of lithic grains. C & D) show a lithic wacke with mainly igneous lithic grains, E & F)
show a feldspathic wacke with matrix that has been transformed to chlorite.

5.1.16 [Link]
5.1.5: Readings and Resources
Short video about stains for feldspars and carbonate minerals
Discussion about provenance, plate tectonics, and what to do with polycrystalline quartz and chert
Michel-Lévy interference color chart issued by Zeiss Microscopy
Introduction to Petrology OER textbook with great explanations and videos about thin sections and the petrographic microscope
Dott, R.H., 1964, Wacke, Graywacke and Matrix - What Approach to Immature Sandstone Classification?, Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 34, p. 625-632
Thin section analysis of oil reservoirs and source rocks
Provenance and plate tectonics
The provenance of sandstones

This page titled 5.1: Sandstones is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

5.1.17 [Link]
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
Conglomerates (rounded clasts) and breccias (angular clasts) are composed of >50% gravel-sized particles (>2 mm). Although they
are the most coarse-grained clastic rocks, they are relatively rare in the rock record because they are derived from tectonically
active areas and have relatively little preservation potential unless transported into the subsiding part of a basin.

5.2.1: Composition
For our purposes, we will consider conglomerates and breccias to have more than 50% clasts. When describing these rocks, clasts
are the larger particles that make up the rock; they are >2 mm diameter and are analogous to the framework grains in a sandstone.
The smaller particles between the clasts are called matrix; they are <2 mm diameter and are analogous to the muddy matrix in a
sandstone. In terms of describing these rocks, we can consider the following characteristics:

[Link]: Clast composition

Extraformational clasts are composed of fragments of sedimentary, igneous, and/or metamorphic rocks that formed outside of the
sedimentary basin. We use the term oligomict to describe a conglomerate/breccia that is composed of one or a very few types of
lithic clasts and the term polymict to refer to one that is composed of many types of lithic clasts.
Intraformational clasts are composed of partially lithified clasts that formed within the sedimentary basin. Common examples of
intraformational clasts include caliche nodules, siderite nodules, mud chip rip-up clasts, bones, scales, or a variety of other
materials.

[Link]: Matrix composition

The matrix of a conglomerate/breccia can essentially be described in the way that you would describe a sandstone (they will be
overwhelmingly composed of sand and gravel). Properties like composition, sorting, cement, etc. Because mud beyond what one
would expect as clayey matrix is difficult to explain from a hydrodynamic perspective, rocks with a mixture of sand, mud, and
gravel are termed diamictites (discussed later on in this chapter).

5.2.2: Support and Fabric

Clast-supported conglomerates are exactly that - the clasts generally touch one another, they typically contain less than 15% matrix,
and if the matrix was removed the clasts would not collapse or significantly shift. Matrix-supported conglomerates typically
contain 15-50% matrix, which means that the clasts appear to be “floating” within the matrix and would collapse if the matrix was
removed. Some conglomerates and breccias have clasts that are imbricated; they were aligned by flowing water and have
“shingled” appearance with the long axis dipping in an upstream direction.

5.2.1 [Link]
Figure : Characteristics of conglomerates and breccias, part 1 (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0). A) Breccia with angular clasts and B) conglomerate with rounded clasts. C) Extraformational polymict
conglomerate with a variety of clast lithologies. D) Oligomict breccia with clasts composed almost entirely of basalt clasts derived
from the nearby (~25 m) basin margin. E & F) Intraformational breccias composed of mud-chip rip clasts and poorly lithified
carbonate, respectively.

5.2.2 [Link]
 Figure : Characteristics of conglomerates and breccias, part 2 (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0). A) Conglomerate with a sandstone matrix that could be described using the descriptive terminology and
techniques discussed in the previous chapter. B) Matrix-supported breccia. These basalt clasts tumbled from the basin margin into
eolian sand dunes. C) Clast-supported polymict conglomerate. D) Conglomerate with imbricated clasts that record paleoflow from
left to right.

5.2.3: Readings and Resources

This page titled 5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

5.2.3 [Link]
5.3: Mudrocks
By definition, mudrocks contain more than 50% mud-sized particles (silt and clay). They are the most abundant sedimentary rocks
because the sediment typically is deposited in calm environments relatively far from tectonically-active areas. Although they
commonly contain abundant organic material and are important source rocks in petroleum systems, they are understudied because
they weather quickly and are generally not well exposed at the surface and because specialized techniques and equipment are
needed to fully understand the fine-grained particles that make up these rocks.

5.3.1: Mudrock Classification

Unfortunately, there is no one universally accepted classification scheme for mudrocks. We follow Prothero and Schwab (2004)
and use the term mudrock to refer to all rocks containing >50% clay and silt. If further subdivision is required, we use the terms
siltstone (<33% clay), mudstone (33-67% clay), and claystone (>67% clay).
We use the term shale to describe a mudrock that has pronounced fissility (breaks into sheets); this takes the place of terms like
mudrock, siltstone, mudstone, and claystone. Modifiers like sandy, pebbly, etc. are useful in some situations.

5.3.2: Important Properties

[Link]: Stratification and Weathering
The outcrop appearance of a mudrock reflects some combination of resistance to weathering and nature of primary stratification.
Adjectives like shale, platy (flattened), blocky (equant), hackly (equant with sharp edges), etc. are very useful when describing
mudrocks in outcrop.

[Link]: Color
If its primary and reflects the characteristics of the sediment at the time of deposition, the color of a mudrock can tell your
something about the organic content and amount of oxygen in the environment where the sediment was deposited. Red mudrocks
reflect very little organic material and abundant oxygen in the system at the time of deposition; many are deposited in terrestrial
environments. Green/gray color reflects reducing conditions with a modest amount of organic material; these conditions exist in a
variety of environments. Black mudrocks have abundant organic material and record anoxic conditions at the time of deposition;
these sorts of conditions can occur in a variety of environments from oxbow lakes on a floodplain to deep marine sediments.
Mudrocks can form anywhere there are calm waters. Understanding how and where they formed is facilitated by comparing the
physical characteristics described above with characteristics like context, fossil content, color, and detailed analysis of mineralogy
and geochemistry (especially of organic components).

5.3.1 [Link]
Figure : Diagram showing the relationship between mudrock color, organic content, and oxidation state of iron. Colors and
names are consistent with the Munsell Rock Color Chart. Diagram is after Potter et al. (1980). From Michael C. Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

5.3.2 [Link]
 Figure : Mudrock colors and textures. A) Bright yellow, red, and/or purple colors are commonly associated with paleosols
(James St. John via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0). B) The blocky texture and red/green colors of this mudrock suggest that it
is a poorly developed paleosol that formed in mostly oxidizing conditions. C) Internally massive greenish gray mudrock with
siderite nodules and associated coal; together these features suggest deposition in a reducing swampy environment. D) Platy dark
gray to black shales with minor siltstone and sandstones. These rocks likely formed in an organic-rich standing body of water. B-D
from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

5.3.3: Components
Mudrocks are composted of silt-sized particles that are typically composed of quartz, feldspar, or other common minerals … some
might even be large enough to classify using the petrographic microscope.
Although the terminology is confusing, many of the clay-sized particles (<1/256 mm) in a mudrock happen to be “clay minerals”
which is a name applied to a specific group of aluminosilicate and phyllosilicates minerals. These clay minerals are derived from
weathering (hydrolysis) of feldspar and mica.

[Link]: Mineralogy
Clay minerals are made of alternating layers of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra (tetrahedral sheets) and alumina-oxygen octahedra
(octahedral sheets). These sheets can be layered in a variety of ways and may even alternate with interlayer cations or water. Clay
minerals can be grouped into two main families: 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1 clay minerals.

5.3.3 [Link]
 Figure : Overview of the major types of clay minerals in sedimentary rocks (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-
SA 4.0). Diagram after Kumari and Mohan (2021).

1:1 clay minerals are the product of more intense/prolonged weathering that progressively strips interlayer cations from 2:1 clay
minerals which concentrates Si, Fe, and Al in a simpler structure. Their fundamental building block is a single octahedral layer
bonded to a single tetrahedral layer. Kaolinite is probably the best known and most important 1:1 clay mineral because of its close
association with alumina- and/or iron-rich soils (bauxites and laterites, respectively)
The fundamental building block of 2:1 clay minerals is an octahedral (O) sheet sandwiched between two tetrahedral (T) sheets.
Between these T-O-T packages, variable amounts of Al, Mg, Fe, water, or other interlayer cations determine the mineralogy of the
specimen. These relatively complex clay minerals tend to form in temperate areas. Noteworthy 2:1 clay minerals include:
“Swelling clays” like montmorillonite and vermiculite are 2:1 clays that can retain significant amounts of water
Glauconite is a green, iron-rich clay mineral that forms in reducing seafloor conditions where smectitic clays in existing
materials (fecal pellets, fossils, volcanic debris, and various detrital minerals) uptake potassium and iron from the seawater.
Glauconization is enhanced in environments with abundant organics and a slow sedimentation rate.
Bentonite is a 2:1 clay formed from weathered volcanic ash beds by alkaline & acidic water, respectively. Given their volcanic
origin, dateable minerals like zircon are commonly found with bentonites.

5.3.4 [Link]
5.3.5 [Link]
 « Previous page
Figure : Noteworthy clay minerals. A) Granule-sized Silurian glauconite pellets from Ohio (James Cheshire via Wikimedia
Commons; public domain) B) Black shales and bentonites from the Cretaceous Benton Shale (James St. John via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY 2.0). C) White pellets of vermiculite are commonly added to potting soil to help retain water (M Tullottes via
Wikimedia Commons; public domain). D) Bag of bentonite - a swelling clay that is commonly used to seal well casings (Corey872
via Wikimedia Commons; public domain). E) Kaolinite and, to a lesser degree, montmorillonite and bentonite, are commonly used
in pottery clay (Knecht03 via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY SA 3.0). Laterites are soils that are enriched in kaolinite and iron via
intense tropical weathering; they are commonly used as brick and road bed material (Vinayaraj via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-
SA 4.0).

5.3.4: Readings and Resources

Kumari and Mohan, 2021, Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties
Potter et al., 1980, Sedimentology of Shale, Springer-Verlag, New York, 306 p., ISBN 0-387-90430-1

This page titled 5.3: Mudrocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

5.3.6 [Link]
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized Clasts
5.4.1: Diamictites
Diamictites are poorly-sorted, generally matrix-supported conglomerates/breccias with 15-50% matrix that is a mixture of sand and
mud. The presence of mud is important because if purely a product of bedload transport, the silt and clay grains should have been
swept downstream by a current that was moving fast enough to transport gravel. Diamictites are important because they can only
form in one of three ways: debris flows (slurry of sediment and water), glacial till (transport by viscous glacial ice), or bioturbation
(biological mixing of discrete beds of mud/sand/gravel).

5.4.2: Pebbly Sandstones and Sandstones/Mudrocks with Outsized Clasts

Although really a subset of mudrocks, we will discuss pebbly sandstones and mudstones here because our eyes are typically drawn
to the coarse-grained fraction of the rock.
Pebbly sandstones typically occur in situations where flows are occasionally fast enough to transport gravel and winnow away sand
but then slow to allow for the deposition of sand atop and between the lags of coarser-grained materials. These deposits are
common along the base of channels or along scours or other erosional surfaces within sandstones. If the clasts are intraformational,
its likely that they were locally derived and that erosion incorporated robust clasts derived from adjacent un- or partially-lithified
sediments (ex: a river eroding its banks).

Bedload and suspended load in a sustai…

sustai…

Video : Video of coarse sand transportation and the transport/deposition of pebbles within sandy sediment.

Mudstones and sandstones with exceptionally large clasts (outsized clasts) require a bit more explanation because, once again,
there is a problem with hydrodynamics. Although bioturbation is possible, large, outsized clasts actually deposited within mudrocks
or sandstones can typically only be attributed to ice rafting, rafting by tree roots, gastroliths derived from certain types of
vertebrates or volcanic bombs. Context and close examination of the clasts might reveal which of the four options is most likely.

Next page »
Figure : Photographs of diamictites, pebbly sandstones and mudstones. A) Tertiary debris flow deposit, California
(Wilson44691 via Wikimedia Commons; public domain). B) Poorly-sorted glacial till outside of Whitefish, Montana. C) Former
layers of mud, sand, and gravel have been completely homogenized to form this Permian diamictite. D) A coarse-grained pebbly
sandstone where gravel is hydrodynamically concentrated along bedding planes. E) Although these mineralized mud-chip rip-up
clasts in a sandstone are much bigger than any other clasts in this formation, they were locally derived from underlying mudrocks
and don't require any special explanations. F) Glacial dropstone in a deep-marine black shale. Images B-F from Michael C. Rygel
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0 or CC BY-SA 4.0.

5.4.1 [Link]
This page titled 5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized Clasts is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

5.4.2 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

6: Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks

Carbonate sedimentary rocks make up approximately 22% of the sedimentary record and are second in abundance to mudrocks.
They are of great economic importance because they serve as both source and reservoir rocks in petroleum systems and are used in
everything from metallurgy to cement. They are also of environmental importance because of their ability to buffer acidic water,
association with karst topography, and influence on soil chemistry.

 Learning Objectives
List and identify the most important carbonate minerals.
Explain the chemical reactions responsible for carbonate precipitation and how the amount of carbon dioxide in water
influences carbonate precipitation.
Explain how dolomite forms.
Identify the main components of carbonate rocks and name the rocks using common classification schemes.

6.1: Composition
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification

Chapter thumbnail shows details of ooids in the Silurian Mifflintown Formation, PA (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 6: Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

1
6.1: Composition
6.1.1: Mineralogy
Carbonate sedimentary rocks are dominated by the Ca2+, Mg2+ and CO32- ions. Although there are many carbonate minerals, the
four most important ones are:
Calcite (CaCO3) is the more stable polymorph of calcium carbonate; its atoms are arranged into a rhombohedral architecture. Mg
can substitute for up to 16% of Ca in calcite; specimens with <4% are referred to as low-Mg calcite and those with 4-16% are
referred to as high-Mg calcite.

Figure : Atomic structure of calcite (rhombohedral) and aragonite (orthorhombic; Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

Under atmospheric temperatures and pressures, aragonite (CaCO3) is a less stable polymorph of calcium carbonate and given time
it will often turn into calcite. The atoms are arranged into an orthorhombic configuration. Many invertebrate shells that have the
“mother of pearl” luster are composed of aragonite.
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) has equal parts Ca and Mg and is thus a different mineral than high-Mg calcite which has a maximum of
16% Mg substituting in for Ca. Although extremely common in the geologic record, direct precipitation at the Earth’s surface is
unlikely because it can only form at high temperature and/or under conditions where the Mg/Ca ratio greatly exceeds typical ocean
chemistry (see Figure 6.3.1).
Siderite (FeCO3) is common in reducing, freshwater conditions and is often nucleated around organic material that causes localized
reduction. It is uncommon as an early formed mineral in marine environments because the iron will preferentially bond with the
sulfur (and thus form pyrite) that is abundant in marine settings.

6.1.1 [Link]
 Figure : Carbonate minerals. A) This ammonite shell was probably originally composed of aragonite, but during diagenesis it
was transformed into calcite which is more stable (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0). B) Exceptional
preservation allowed for pristine preservation of this nacreous aragonite ammonite shell (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY 2.0). C) Photomicrograph of a carbonate (stained for calcite). showing rhombohedral dolomite crystals and stained (red)
calcite crystals (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0) D) Polychaete worm preserved in a siderite nodule
(James St. John via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0)

6.1.2: Calcite and aragonite seas

The crystal structure of aragonite does not allow Mg to substitute for Ca easily. Conversely, calcite allows Mg to readily substitute,
but increased Mg concentrations make the calcite unstable. The end result is that when the ocean is relatively enriched in Mg (as is
the case when there is rapid seafloor spreading), aragonite and high-Mg calcite become the most abundant types of inorganic
carbonate in the oceans (“aragonite seas”). Conversely, “calcite seas” exist at times of low Mg concentration. However, most
ancient aragonite transforms into calcite during diagenesis.

6.1.2 [Link]
 Figure : Alternation of calcite versus aragonite seas through geologic time (Wilson44691 via Wikimedia Commons; public
domain)

6.1.3: Carbonate Rocks

Rocks that are made up of >50% calcite/aragonite are classified as limestones and those with >50% dolomite are called dolomite
(or dolostones). Although there are numerous other carbonate minerals, calcite, aragonite, and dolomite make up approximately
98% of them and are the most important ones for rocks names. Please also keep in mind that other minerals can occur in accessory
amounts in carbonate rocks; quartz grains, chert, and glauconite are particularly common.

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Quinton.

6.1.3 [Link]
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
6.2.1: Chemistry of Carbonate Precipitation
The chemistry of carbonate precipitation can be summarized by the following, somewhat counterintuitive, statements:
Anything that adds CO2 to water increases the acidity of the water which discourages carbonate precipitation and increases it's
solubility.
Anything that removes CO2 from the water increases carbonate precipitation and decreases its solubility
We can back those statements up with a bit of chemistry. In the four following equations, the arrow points in the direction that the
reaction proceeds and the k values are equilibrium constants (smaller values are slower reactions; note the negative exponent):
1. CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (fast, k=10-1.43)
(Carbon dioxide plus water creates carbonic acid)
2. H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3- (med., k=10-6.40)
(Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate)
3. HCO3- → H+ + CO32- (slow, k=10-10.33)
(Bicarbonate dissociates into hydrogen and carbonate)
4. Ca2+ + CO32- → CaCO3 (med., k=10-8.33)
(Dissolved calcium combines with carbonate to form calcium carbonate)

If you just looked at these four equations without paying attention to the k value, you’d think that CO2 would be a good thing for
carbonate precipitation. But the k value in that third equation is slow, so much slower that the H+ produced in Reaction 2
overwhelms the system (it makes the water acidic) and causes Reaction 3 to reverse. Its because of this fact that having lots of CO2
in the system is bad for carbonate precipitation.

6.2.2: Controls on Carbonate Deposition

There are seven major factors that have an important influence on whether significant amounts of carbonate are deposited. Several
of them are derived from the chemistry described above and might be intuitive to those of you that drink carbonated beverages.
Water temperature: All other factors being equal, warm water holds less CO2 than cold water. If you’ve got a soda stream, you
might know that you can make cold water much fizzier than warm water. Thus, warm water encourages carbonate precipitation.
Agitation: Increasing agitation allows excess CO2 to go from the water to the atmosphere - just think about what happens if you
shake a can of soda. Thus, increased agitation encourages carbonate precipitation.
Water depth: You can keep more CO2 in solution at higher pressures (deeper water) and much less in solution at lower pressures.
Think about what happens when you open a bottle of soda. Thus, shallow water is friendlier to carbonate deposition.
This variable becomes very apparent in the deep ocean. Shallow waters are frequently supersaturated in calcite and many
microorganisms build calcareous skeletons. When the organisms dies, their skeletons settle and move into the cold, calm, waters of
the deep ocean. If the water is deep enough, they will eventually reach the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD) which is the
point beyond which carbonate does not accumulate because dissolution overcomes supply.
Life: The activity of organisms can encourage the accumulation of carbonate by building calcareous skeletons, photosynthesis
(removal of CO2), bacterial activity, and the decay of organic material. Respiration adds CO2 to the water and this has a negative
impact on carbonate precipitation.
Salinity: Increasing salinity increases the number of dissolved cations in the water which has a negative impact on the precipitation
of carbonates because the introduction of foreign cations tends to make calcium carbonate less stable.

6.2.1 [Link]
Light: Many calcite-producing organisms are photosynthetic. That, combined with some of the other variables described above
means that the majority of carbonate is produced at shallow depths.
Clastic sediment input: Clastic sediment input can overwhelm carbonate production and thus dilute the amount of carbonate.
Additionally, clastic sediment can interfere with many shell-building organisms and decrease the amount of light available for
photosynthesis.

6.2.3: Dolomite Formation

[Link]: Primary Dolomite
The chemical formula for the creation of true stoichiometric dolomite is:
Ca2+(aq) + Mg2+(aq)+ 2CO32-(aq) → CaMg(CO3)2
But, chemical conditions are suitable for the precipitation of primary dolomite only at temperatures above 60°C or in cases where
the ratio of Mg to Ca is much higher than it is in the open ocean which makes primary dolomite formation unlikely to be
responsible for much of the dolomite present in the geologic record.

[Link]: Dolomitization
Dolomitization is the process by which CaCO3 is transformed to CaMg(CO3)2. This reaction can occur at normal atmospheric
temperature and pressures and the reaction is:
Mg2+(aq) + 2CaCO3(solid) → CaMg(CO3)2 +Ca2+ (aq)
In order to make this reaction happen, existing carbonates must be flushed with Mg-rich brine. The “hypersaline model” of
dolomitization postulates that these brines can form in areas where evaporation of seawater causes the precipitation of gypsum
(CaSO4 • 2H2O) and aragonite (CaCO3) and that the remaining brine has an Mg:Ca ratio >8:1, which is much greater than that of
seawater (~1:3). Although this model has its problems, its be best explanation we have for this poorly understood process.

6.2.2 [Link]
 Figure : Plot of magnesium to calcium ratio versus salinity with overlays showing the chemistry of natural waters (colors),
calcite and dolomite stability (dark lines and labels). After Figure 1 in Folk and Land (1975) available from Michael C. Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

6.2.4: Readings and Resources

Folk, R. L., & Land, L. S., 1975, Mg/Ca ratio and salinity: two controls over crystallization of dolomite; AAPG Bulletin, v. 59
(1), p. 60-68.
García-Ruiz, J. M., 2023, A fluctuating solution to the dolomite problem. Science, 382 (6673), 883-884.
Kim, J., Kimura, Y., Puchala, B., Yamazaki, T., Becker, U., & Sun, W., 2023, Dissolution enables dolomite crystal growth near
ambient conditions. Science, 382 (6673), 915-920.

This page titled 6.2: Carbonate Precipitation is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

6.2.3 [Link]
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
The most common carbonate description schemes are comparable to those used for sandstones in that coarse- and fine-grained
components are present at the time of deposition and that they can later be cemented together when minerals precipitate in pore
spaces. Although you can gain a significant amount of information from carbonates in hand sample, thin sections are very useful
for more nuanced descriptions and interpretations. Brief descriptions of the various components are provided in the sections that
follow.

Figure : Illustration showing some fundamentals of carbonate rocks in thin section as they would appear in plane polarized
light (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

6.3.1: Components
[Link]: Carbonate Grains
Carbonate grains are analogous to the framework grains in a sandstone and consist of the following types:

[Link]: Skeletal Particles (Fossils)

Skeletal particles are composed of calcareous shells or skeletal material. Identification keys for fossils in thin section are provided
in Chapter 9.6

[Link].1: Coated Grains

Coated grains form as carbonate is progressively added to a grain. Ooids are the most common type, they form when wave activity
suspends a particle and allows for concentric layers of inorganic carbonate precipitation around a nucleus. Oncoids are a less
common type formed where algae causes calcite to precipitate, but storms periodically reorient the grain causing precipitation to
occur on alternating sides of the grain. Pisoids are superficially similar to ooids, but they are larger (>2 mm diameter) and grow
because of in situ accumulation of calcite and aragonite in the vadose zone.

6.3.1 [Link]
[Link].2: Peloids and Pellets
Peloids are silt-to sand-sized particles composed of fine-grained lime mud (micrite); most are invertebrate fecal pellets.

[Link].3: Intraclasts
Intraclasts are fragments of lithified carbonate that were incorporated into younger sediment (effectively rip-up clasts).

[Link]: Micrite
Micrite is fine-grained lime mud made of clay-sized crystals of microcrystalline calcium carbonate. Its analogous to the matrix in a
sandstone in that its present at the moment of deposition. Micrite is most commonly formed from particles derived from algae or
microfossils. Its also possible that it can from direct precipitation of these crystals in whiting events.

[Link]: Spar
Spar is relatively coarse-grained calcite cement that grows in the pore spaces of carbonates. The large, clear crystals are relatively
easy to distinguish from the other carbonate components. Spar in carbonates is analogous to cement in siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks.

Figure : Schematic thin section (PPL) diagram showing the important components of carbonate rocks in thin section (Page
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

6.3.2 [Link]
Figure : The four main types of grains in carbonates (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0). A) Photomicrograph (PPL) of bryozoan fragments in the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana. Skeletal
fragments can come in an impressive variety of shapes and sizes ... this diversity of form is even more pronounced by the 2D slice
of the thin section. B) Photomicrograph (PPL) of ooids in the the Cambrian Mifflintown Formation, PA. C) Photomicrograph (PPL)
of peloids in the bryozoan fragments in the Ordovician Benner Formation, PA. D) Photomicrograph (PPL) of lithoclasts in
Cambrian carbonate from upstate NY.

6.3.3 [Link]
Figure : Hand sample and thin section photographs showing coated grains. A and B are ooids (field of view in A is ~20 cm), C
and D are pisoids (field of view in C is ~12 cm), and E and F are oncoids (field of view in E is ~10 cm). A and E are from James
St. John via Wikimedia Commons and Flickr; CC BY-SA 4.0. All other images are from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

6.3.4 [Link]
Figure : Examples of micrite (lime mud); all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0. A)
Photomicrograph (PPL) of micrite in a lime mudstone in the Mississippian Lodgepole Fm., SW Montana. B) Photomicrograph
(PPL) showing a more magnified view of the central part of the image in Fig. 2A. Note that even at this scale, the micrite appears
homogeneous. C) Photomicrograph (PPL) of micrite with coarse spar infilling gastropods and ostracods. Specimen is from the
Gastropod Limestone Member of the Cretaceous Kootenai Fm., SW Montana. D) Photomicrograph (PPL) of micrite with scattered
ostracods and calcispheres. Specimen is from the Mississippian Lodgepole Fm., SW Montana.

6.3.5 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrograph (PPL) showing an oolitic grainstone with interstitial areas filled with spar (white) and/or blue epoxy
(which infilled formerly open spore spaces during preparation of the slide; Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0).

6.3.6 [Link]
6.3.2: Classification
[Link]: Folk classification scheme
The Folk classification scheme is most useful for petrographic work. Samples are given a two part name; the first part is the most
abundant grain type (bio-, pel-, oo-, or litho-) and the second indicates the nature of the interstitial material (-sparite or -micrite).
Thus, a pelsparite would be a limestone composed mostly of peloids with with coarse spar between the shells and a biosparite
would be most shell fragments with sparry calcite cement.

Figure : The Folk classification scheme assigns names to limestones based on the most abundant grain(s) and the nature of the
interstitial material (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

6.3.7 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs (PPL) of different types of limestones in the Folk classification - part 1 (all images from Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A) Lithoclasts and skeletal material in an intrasparite from upstate NY. B)
Lithoclasts and skeletal material in an intramicrite from upstate NY. Note that some of the dark micrite has started to recrystallize
in the left half of the image. C) Oosparite from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana. D) Oomicrite from the
Silurian Keel Formation, Oklahoma. E) Biosparite. F) Biomicrite from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana.

6.3.8 [Link]
Figure : Photomicrographs (PPL) of different types of limestones in the Folk classification - part 2 (all images from Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A) Pelsparite from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, SW Montana. B)
Possible pelmicrite. In a situation where you have muddy peloids surrounded by micrite, the odds of being able to distinguish
individual peloids after diagenesis is slim. However, the presence of pelsparite zones makes the "blobby" areas of micrite likely
candidates for pelmicrite. C) Stromatoporoid boundstone from the Devonian Jefferson Formation, SW Montana. D) Mudstone
Mississippian Lodgepole Formaton, SW Montana. E) Dismicrite. F) Recrystallized limestone from the Cambrian Pilgrim
Formation, SW Montana.

6.3.9 [Link]
[Link]: Dunham Classification System
The Dunham classification scheme is most useful for hand sample and outcrop work. It is a four-fold scheme based on the
presence/absence and relative abundance of mud:
(Lime) mudstones have <10% grains
Wackestones have >10% grains and are supported by mud
Packstones are grain supported with interstitial mud.
Grainstones are grain supported with little or no interstitial mud.
It is worth noting that with carbonates, shells are often the largest grains and thus maximum grain size could ultimately be
controlled by biology. Because of this, the amount of mud is the best proxy for the amount of energy in the system.

Figure : The Dunham classification scheme assigns names to limestones based on the abundance of mud and the support
mechanism of the grains (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

6.3.10 [Link]
 Figure : Paired polished slabs and photomicrographs showing the main types of limestones in the Dunham classification
scheme - part 1 (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Polished slab and
photomicrograph (PPL) of a lime mudstone from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation. C & D) Polished slab and
photomicrograph (PPL) of a skeletal wackestone from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation. Note that the micrite in the thin
section has been partially dolomitized and many of the light colored patches between shells are actually dolomite crystals formed
within the micrite. E & F) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a skeletal packstone. Although the shells in the slab are

6.3.11 [Link]
somewhat widely spaced, this sample is grain supported because the shells are curved three dimensional forms that are touching
each other in the third dimension.

Figure : Paired polished slabs and photomicrographs showing the main types of limestones in the Dunham classification
scheme - part 2 (all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). A & B) Polished slab and
photomicrograph (PPL) of a foram-rich skeletal grainstone. As with the packstone, this specimen is clast supported and although
some foraminifera appear isolated, they are actually touching each other in the third dimension. C & D) Polished slab and

6.3.12 [Link]
 photomicrograph (PPL) of a stromatoporoid boundstone. E & F) Polished slab and photomicrograph (PPL) of a recrystallized and
dolomitized fossiliferous limestone. Although some fossils can still be identified in the polished slab, primary textures have been
almost completely destroyed and the rock has a sandy appearance on weathered surfaces from the dolomite rhombs.

This page titled 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

6.3.13 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

7: Chemical, Biochemical, and Other Sedimentary Rocks

This chapter focuses on sedimentary rocks other than clastics and carbonates (evaporites, siliceous, and organic-rich rocks). Most
of them form either from direct precipitation from fluids or because of the activities of living organisms. Although not as
volumetrically significant as carbonates or clastics, the rocks described in this chapter are of great economic importance.

 Learning Objectives
List common evaporite minerals
Describe how evaporite minerals form and how thick evaporite deposits occur.
Summarize the special physical properties of evaporites.
List the basic types of siliceous rocks and explain how they formed.
Explain how oil, natural gas, and coal form.

Topic hierarchy
7.1: Evaporites
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks

Chapter thumbnail shows a worker holding up a piece of coal in front of a coal firing power plant in the Netherlands (Adrem68 via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

This page titled 7: Chemical, Biochemical, and Other Sedimentary Rocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

1
7.1: Evaporites
Evaporite minerals and the sedimentary rocks they comprise form from precipitation of mineral from a saline solution. Generally
the fluid becomes supersaturated through evaporation and this is easiest to achieve in arid environments.

7.1.1: Evaporite Minerals

Although previously discussed as a stand-alone group, carbonate minerals - particularly calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2) - are also considered evaporite minerals and are some of the first ones to form as concentrations in the brine
increase. Trona (Na2CO3·NaHCO3·2H2O) forms in freshwater evaporite settings and is mined as a source of soda ash which is used
in the manufacture of glass, paper, detergents, and other chemicals.
Gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) are two of the most common evaporite minerals and are members of the sulfate
mineral class. The two are closely associated and with increased burial depth gypsum commonly loses the water and transforms
into anhydrite. The process can reverse itself if anhydrite returns to suitable conditions in the presence of water. They look very
similar, but anhydrite is slightly harder. The two often occur together (sometimes with small amounts of clastic mud) in nodular
masses and have a distinctive "chicken wire" texture. Barite (BaSO4) and celestite (SrSO4) are much less common sulfates that
occasionally occur as secondary minerals formed from the interaction of gypsum/anhydrite with barium- or strontium-enriched
fluids.
Halite (NaCl) is the most common halide evaporite mineral and is familiar to anyone who has taken an intro geology lab and was
brave enough to lick the samples. Potassium and magnesium salts are late formed minerals that are less common but economically
important. Examples include sylvite (KCl), carnallite (KClMgCl2·6(H2O)), kieserite (MgSO4·H2O), and polyhalite
(K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4·2H2O).
Although rare, some evaporite minerals are economically important when found in significant quantities. They include borax
(Na2B4O5(OH)4·8H2O) which is used in laundry and cleaning products and nitre (KNO3) which is used for making gunpowder and
cleaning products.

Evaporite Precipitation
Evaporites form in situations where brines form because the amount of water lost through evaporation is greater than water
supplied by rainfall, recharge via rivers, and/or communication with a larger body of water. They can form in a variety of marine,
marginal marine, and nonmarine environments that meet these conditions. The minerals listed above don't randomly or
simultaneously precipitate, but rather they are formed in a predictable sequence based on the composition of the brine.
Table : The evaporite sequence that one could expect if you started with 1,000 m of seawater and evaporated it completely (data from
[Link]).

Percent of the original brine remaining Thickness of this mineral that would
Mineral when the mineral starts to precipitate form if you started with 1,000 m of sea
(water depth if you started with 1,000 m) water and evaporated it completely

Calcite 50% (500 m) 0.10 m

Gypsum 15% (150 m) 0.61 m

Halite 10% (100 m) 13.30 m

K and Mg salts 5% (50 m) 2.99 m

Total evaporite thickness 17 m

7.1.1 [Link]
[Link]: Evaporite environments
Evaporites can form in a variety of marine and terrestrial environments as long as the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of
recharge. In general, we can lump the spectrum of environments into three main families: platform evaporites, basin-wide
evaporites, and non-marine evaporites:

Figure : Two of the three main families or marine evaporite environments are the platform and basin-wide evaporite models
(from Brian Ricketts via Geological Digressions - Mineralogy of Evaporites, CC BY).

Platform evaporites model. In this model, evaporites of modest thickness and distribution occur in marginal marine settings
where seawater is able to breach a topographic barrier and flood low-lying coastal environments (ex: sabkhas). Evaporite facies are
commonly interbedded with shallow water clastics and carbonates.

Figure : Landsat images of Sebkhat El Melah, Tunisia a flat sabkah that lies below sea level and is periodically flooded with
marine waters from the Mediterranean Sea. A) Image showing the area largely dry in December of 1999 and B) flooded in January,
1987 (NASA image by Jesse Allen via NASA Earth Observatory; public domain).

Basin-wide evaporites. In this model, evaporites accumulate in areas where the crust is low-lying and/or subsiding (ex: early
stages of a rift basin or the Mediterranean Sea) and seawater breaches or seeps through a barrier (ex: Straight of Gibraltar)

7.1.2 [Link]
providing a mechanism for a thick succession of evaporites to form along with associated clastic and carbonate deposits. There are
no basin-wide deep water evaporites today; the best modern analog might be the Dead Sea and the easiest to visualize ancient
examples are the early phases of a rift basin or the Mediterranean Sea which has a thick evaporite succession in the subsurface that
formed when the basin was periodically isolated from the Atlantic Ocean between 5 and 6 Ma during the "Messinian Salinity
Crisis".
Non-marine evaporites. Non-marine environments include a spectrum of environments including playa lakes, deserts, and various
closed basins. As with platform evaporites they are likely to be of limited thickness and distribution. Given that many of them are
sourced from non-marine waters they can also have mineralogy that is similar to, but a bit different than marine evaporites.

Figure : Non-marine evaporites forming in the Badwater Basin in Death Valley National Park. Although this closed basin
exists in an arid climate today, during the last glacial the climate was much more humid and this area was the site of Lake Manly -
a large pluvial lake (Justin Mier via Flickr; CC BY-NC-SA 2.0).

7.1.2: Marine Evaporite Models

If you need 1,000 meters of seawater to make a 17 m thickness of evaporites, how can we possibly explain the presence of
evaporite successions that are tens, hundreds, or perhaps even a few thousand meters thick? If it was a single event, it would
require an impossible depth of water and would be recorded as a single coherent evaporite succession. It turns out that thick
evaporites successions are composed of cyclic packages of evaporites that record a complex history, from which three possible
explanations for these thick successions emerge:
Deep-water/deep-basin model. In this case you have a deep body of water filling a deep topographic basin. Because evaporation
and recharge are both ongoing, the water remains deep but you are are still able to create a brine of sufficient concentration to cause
crystals to settle out from the water column and/or be transported downslope to deeper parts of the basin.
Shallow-water, shallow-basin model. In this model, relatively shallow basins are flooded with modest amounts of water and
evaporites form as that water body dries up. Any given event results in only a modest thickness of evaporites, but subsidence
allows the process to keep going through time so that thick successions can accumulate.

7.1.3 [Link]
Deep-basin, shallow-basin model. A deep basin is separated from the open ocean by a barrier. That barrier periodically overflows
allowing water to partially flood the basin. Evaporation of water from that event causes a modest thickness of evaporites to form;
repeated periodic overflow allows for a thick succession to eventually fill the basin.

7.1.3: Salt Diapirs

The halite, gypsum, and anhydrite that make up the overwhelming majority of evaporite deposits are less dense than most other
rocks and they can flow and deform plastically if given enough time (that's especially true when they are buried). This combination
of properties explains why evaporite deposits are so prone to deformation and commonly form wall or plume-shaped salt diapirs
that appear to rise through and deform adjacent sediments. Older literature attributed the flow of evaporites primarily to density
differences, but more recent literature shows that differential loading (often by the progradation of sediments from basin margins)
initiates diapirism. Once loading begins and evaporite withdrawal commences in the subsurface, it allows for rapid sediment
accumulation on the diapir flanks and deformation of adjacent sediments (think of the sediment like a rolling pin that is rolling over
a tube of toothpaste (the evaporites). Because evaporites are easily dissolved, these features are only rarely exposed at the surface -
some of the best known examples are in arid deserts (ex: Kavir Desert of Iran) or rapidly eroding coastal exposures.

Figure : Coastal exposure of the Finlay Point Diapir in western Cape Breton, Nova Scotia. Mississippian salt of the Windsor
Group deformed as Pennsylvanian clastics prograded into the basin. This feature is only exposed because of rapid coastal erosion;
the white rocks on the right side of the image and the gypsum-anhydrite cap atop the diapir (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

7.1.4 [Link]
Figure : Outcrop of a salt dome/glacier in the Zagros Mountains of Iran. This feature is approximately 8 miles in diameter.
During the rainy season, the salt at the surface can flow as much as a few tens of centimeters in a day (Astronaut photograph
ISS052-E-8401 via NASA Earth Observatory; public domain).

Figure : Deformation in evaporites. A) Small-scale disharmonic deformation in alternating layers of calcite (dark) and gypsum
(light) in the Permian Castille Formation in the Delaware Basin of West Texas and New Mexico (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). B) Recumbent folds in the Shah Alamdar salt dome (Fars Media Corporation via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY 4.0).

7.1.5 [Link]
7.1.4: Readings and Resources
Geological Digressions, Mineralogy of carbonates; Sabkhas
Geological Digressions, Mineralogy of evaporites: Marine basins

This page titled 7.1: Evaporites is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

7.1.6 [Link]
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
As the name implies, siliceous sedimentary rocks are enriched in silica. We will avoid the numerous mineral and gem names
applied to siliceous material (jasper, flint, agate, chalcedony, opal, etc.) and instead use the terms microcrystalline quartz or chert to
refer to any/all of them.

7.2.1: Formation of siliceous sediments and sedimentary rocks

Ultimately, all dissolved silica can trace its origin back to the weathering and/or dissolution of existing silicate rocks or input from
hydrothermal sources. Once in solution, there are several possibilities for the formation of siliceous sediments:
1. Direct precipitation from water has been reported in modern nonmarine settings and, although not active today, the abundance of
chert in Precambrian banded iron formations suggests that this process was active in the ocean in the geologic past.
2. Biogenic silica forms when organisms such as sponges, radiolarians, and/or diatoms extract silica from the water to build their
skeletons.

Figure : Schematic view of the silicon cycle in the modern world ocean (input, output, and biological silicon fluxes). The white
arrows represent fluxes of net sources of dissolved silicic acid (dSi) and/or of dissolvable amorphous silica (aSi) and of dSi
recycled fluxes. Orange arrows correspond to sink fluxes of silicon (either as biogenic silica or as authigenic silica). Green arrows
correspond to biological (pelagic) fluxes. All fluxes are in teramoles of silicon per year (Tmol Si yr−1). Figure from Tréguer et al.
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY SA 4.0.

7.2.2: Common siliceous sedimentary rocks

Bedded cherts form in the deep ocean as siliceous skeletons rain down from shallow waters. Although siliceous organisms occur
across the entirety of the ocean, their contribution is generally overwhelmed by calcareous skeletal material. However, in the deep
ocean (below the carbonate compensation depth) or in areas where upwelling occurs, the water chemistry can result in the
accumulation of siliceous oozes and environmental conditions that are not favorable for carbonate deposition.
Nodular cherts form in carbonates and other sedimentary rocks when primary components of the rock are replaced by
microcrystalline quartz during diagenesis.
Banded Iron Formations (BIFs) are largely Precambrian deposits that are composed of alternating layers of chert and iron oxides
(typically hematite or magnetite). Although the exact mechanism for BIF formation is not well understood, most workers agree that
they reflect profoundly different ocean chemistry during the Precambrian (less oxygen) that allowed for upwelling of silica and

7.2.1 [Link]
iron-rich waters and regular changes in oxygen levels that resulted in the precipitation of iron oxides. Beyond that, there is ongoing
discussion of the nature of diagenetic/metamorphic overprinting of iron-bearing phases and the direct/indirect involvement of
microorganisms beyond the production of oxygen.
Silcretes are resistant duricrusts formed at or near the sediment surface by the accumulation of silica through pedogenic processes,
groundwater precipitation, or evaporation in ephemeral lakes.

Figure : Outcrop photographs of siliceous sedimentary rocks. A) Gray, tan, and black bedded chert in the Permian Phosphoria
Formation (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0). B) Black chert nodules in lthe Devonian Delaware limestone
(James St. John via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0). C) Hematite, red chert (“jasper”), and specular hematite in the Precambrian
Negaunee Iron-Formation of Michigan (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0) D) A nodular silcrete paleosol in the
Pennsylvanian Waddens Cove Formation of Nova Scotia (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0).

This page titled 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

7.2.2 [Link]
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
Organic-rich rocks (we can arbitrarily define them as having >5% organics) have 3 main components:
1. Clastic particles - sand, silt, clay and other types of material that were transported by wind or water.
2. Humus – dark fibrous plant material found in terrestrial settings.
3. Sapropel – jelly-like ooze of plant remains (usually algae) putrefying in an anaerobic environment

7.3.1: Petroleum-bearing rocks

For oil and natural gas to accumulate in significant amounts, all components, conditions, and processes of a "petroleum
system" must align.
Petroleum is derived from a sapropel-rich source rock that typically formed in aquatic environments where the remains of algae
and plankton were able to escape decay through burial in oxygen-poor settings. As sediment continues to accumulate, the organic
material is eventually transformed into kerogen, which is a waxy, insoluable organic residue. Given the microscopic nature of
kerogen, geochemical analysis is necessary to know what the source was and to predict how gas or oil prone the kerogen is. The
three types of kerogen include:
Type 1 - made mostly of algal remains; likely to produce oil
Type 2 - a mixture of terrestrial and marine organics; may produce oil
Type 3 - mixture of woody and algal material; likely to produce natural gas
As pressures and temperatures increase with burial of the source rock, the kerogen is eventually converted to oil and/or natural gas.
Peak oil generation (the "oil window") typically occurs between 75 and 150 ⁰C and peak gas production occurs at temperatures
between 125 and 200 ⁰C.
Accumulation of significant volumes of oil and/or natural gas require numerous other conditions to be met. In the case of a
conventional petroleum system, the hydrocarbons must migrate into a reservoir rock that is capped by a seal rock that forms part of
a structural or stratigraphic trap. Unconventional systems occur where the hydrocarbons cannot be recovered through traditional
vertical drilling techniques; they include tar sands, biodegraded heavy oil, tight reservoirs that have to be horizontally drilled and
hydraulically fractured, and others.

7.3.1 [Link]
 text
Figure : Diagram showing the approximate relationship between hydrocarbon generations, source rock type, burial depth and
temperature for an area with a geothermal gradient of 25 ⁰C/km. These systems are complex and time dependent; all values and
relationships are rough approximations (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY SA 4.0).

Figure : Elements of a conventional petroleum system include a source, seal (cap rock), reservoir and trap. Note that this area
has a higher geothermal gradient than the previous figure causing the oil and gas windows to occur at shallower depths (Steven
Earle in 20.3 Fossil Fuels; CC BY 4.0).

7.3.2 [Link]
 Figure : Examples and outcrops of petroleum systems and petroleum-bearing rocks. A) Although many reservoirs have
adequate pressure to drive liquid petreoluem to the surface through the well bore, pumpjacks can be used to mechanically lift oil in
systems that lack adequate pressure (Antandrus at English Wikipedia via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). B) When liquid
petroleum reaches or approaches the surface via seeps or erosion of exposed reservoirs, the light component of the crude oil
evaporates away and biodegradation occurs leaving behind viscous pitch/tar/liquid asphalt. Perhaps the best known example in
North America is the La Brea Tarpits, the famous fossil locality near Los Angeles (Buchanan-Hermit via Wikimeda Commons; CC
BY). D) Biodegraded "heavy oil" can also occur in tar sands where biodegradaded oil occurs in the pore spaces of poorly lithified
sediment (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY SA 3.0).

7.3.2: Coal-bearing rocks

The organic material that forms most coal comes from humus (terrestrial plant material) which, under swampy reducing conditions
can be preserved as peat. By definition, coal has to be at least 50% weight percent organic material. Economic coal deposits occur
in discrete seams (beds) but small fragments of plants can be coalified and preserved within other sedimentary rocks. Although we
think of coal as a massive and homogeneous material, many coal seams contain layers of impurities (which turn into ash when
burned) and a variety of different types of plant material (macerals) that can be identified with microscopic analysis and sometimes
in hand sample.

7.3.3 [Link]
In certain swampy, clastic-poor environments significant accumulations of plant material can escape decay and accumulate to form
relatively thick layers of peat. With increased burial and compaction, volatiles (water and gasses) are driven out and the percentage
of carbon increases and the peat can progressively transitions to lignite, bituminous coal, and eventually anthracite coal.
Given its composition, coal occurs only in Devonian or younger rocks; the majority of it accumulated in the Late Paleozoic when
vast areas of continental crust were subsiding in response to mountain building and within the humid tropics.

Figure : Outcrops of coal. A) We commonly think of coal as a homogenous black rock, but it often contains bright bands, dull
bands, fossils and other identifiable original components, and clastic splits (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-
SA 4.0). B) Outcrop of the Foord Seam in a strip mine in Nova Scotia that intersected older underground workings (Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY SA 3.0).

7.3.3: Readings and Resources

Petroleum System on the AAPG Wiki
Kentucky Geologic Survey's webpage on coal

This page titled 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

7.3.4 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

8: Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the transformation from sediment into sedimentary rock. It includes everything that is post-depositional, but pre-
metamorphic. It's an important time in the history of the rock because of the potential for compaction, textural changes, movement
of fluids through pore spaces, as well as the creation, migration, and ultimate fate of fossil fuels.

 Learning Objectives
Explain the most important diagenetic processes
Identify diagenetic textures and structures and explain their origin.

8.1: Diagenetic Processes

8.2: Diagenetic Structures

Chapter thumbnail shows a stylolite cross cutting an ooid in the Cambrian Meagher Formation, SW Montana (Michael C. Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 8: Diagenesis is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

1
8.1: Diagenetic Processes
8.1.1: Compaction
Compaction is a reduction in the volume of sediment due to the weight of the overburden and resulting burial pressure. In terms of
a starting point, loose sand has a theoretical maximum of 47.6% pore space and wet mud could be 60-90% pore space. Once
buried, there can be a marked reduction in volume/pore space; some example values include:
~1.1 m sand = 1 m sandstone
~2.6 m mud = 1 m mudrock
~5 to 10 m peat = 1 m coal
Carbonates are extremely variable, with lime mudstones behaving like shales and reef-type boundstones experiencing very little
compaction.
Although significant volume loss can occur simply by squeezing out water and gasses, deformation can also occur at the scale of an
individual grain by a) ductile deformation where grains that behave plastically get deformed between more robust grains, b)
flexible bending of grains like micas, and c) pressure induced changes in grain contacts. Specifically, grains start out with floating
or tangential (point) contacts and that increased pressure with burial causes a progressive shift to long (appears like a straight-ish
line), concavo-convex (appears like a curved line), and eventually complexly sutured contacts caused by dissolution and "welding"
of grains.
Compaction generally increases with depth and is accompanied, at least initially, by a decrease in porosity caused by grain scale
processes and cementation. Secondary porosity can be generated by dissolution of unstable components.

8.1.2: Cementation
Cementation is the second major diagenetic process and it occurs when minerals precipitate from fluids into open pore spaces. Well
sorted sediments with open and interconnected pores are particularly prone. The most common cements are calcite (which forms
from solutions with a pH >7) and silica cement which forms from solutions with a pH<7). Pores can also fill with water, gas, or oil.

8.1.3: Other processes

Although compaction and cementation are the most important processes, other diagenetic changes can also occur and may be
locally significant. Examples include:
Replacement happens when one mineral takes the place of another. Common examples include the alteration of feldspars to
clay minerals and pyrite replacing calcite.
Recrystallization is the transformation of a mineral to its polymorph or another form of itself (change in crystal size or
morphology). An example would be the transformation of aragonite to calcite.
Bioturbation is the disruption of sediment caused by the activity of organisms. It results in everything from discrete tracks,
trails, and burrows to the complete destruction of bedding.
Pedogenesis is a term used for all of the soil forming processes, including wetting and drying, the action of plants and animals,
and weathering which can destroy original structure of a rock. During pedogenesis (and after) the movement of water and
changes in oxidation may also cause mottling of rock.
Dissolution happens when select components are dissolved from the rock.

8.1.1 [Link]
 Figure : Grain-scale diagenetic changes to a sandstone caused largely by compaction and cementation (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

8.1.4: Readings and Resources

Taylor, J.M., 1950, Pore-Space Reduction in Sandstones. AAPG Bulletin; 34 (4): 701–716.
Geological Digressions - Stylolites

This page titled 8.1: Diagenetic Processes is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

8.1.2 [Link]
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
Admittedly there is no clear temporal cut-off between the secondary structures described in Chapter 4 (soft-sediment deformation
structures, mudcracks, etc.) and the diagenetic structures list below - except to say that the diagenetitic structures generally form
somewhat later and might be more disconnected from the processes that were active when the sediment was being deposited.

8.2.1: Diagenetic features formed by the growth of minerals/cement

Concretions are concentric accumulations of mineral cement. They come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Rhizoconcretions
(aka rhizoliths) are a specific type of concretion developed around roots and commonly made of calcite or siderite.
Nodules are similar to concretions, except that they are internally massive. Distinctive types include:
Caliche nodules – composed of calcite formed in association with soil forming processes
Bauxites and laterites – nodular soils composed of iron- and alumina-rich minerals that form in response to intense tropical
weathering.
Septarian nodules – nodules with radial or concentric cracks, commonly filled with calcite or siderite crystals
Desert rose – although it does not exactly fit the definition of a nodule, it is a rose- or flower shaped accumulation of gypsum
Liesegang rings – colored bands that formed as minerals precipitated from groundwater; commonly cut across bedding and may
form elaborate curved patterns.
Manganese dendrites – chemical precipitate of MnO2 that forms on rock faces or bedding planes as a result of subaerial
weathering. Commonly takes on a fern- or plant-like appearance.
Mottling – zones of distinctive color within rocks formed as a result of geochemical variations within the rock. May develop
around organic-rich zones or areas with differences in porosity/permeability. Some may form circular or spherical reduction halos.
Casts of halite crystals form when cubic halite crystals grow in muddy substrates when the salt water becomes supersaturated
through evaporation. Casts of salt hoppers are a special subset of halite casts that have a stepped, pyramid-like appearance that
results from the edges of the crystal growing more rapidly than the faces.

8.2.2: Features associated with dissolution

Geodes – layered accumulations of minerals that infill voids. They can form in voids of any origin and commonly form in cavities
formed by dissolution of carbonates
Geopetal structures - small cavities formed beneath shells, etc. that contain crystals that are in the formerly open spaces. Useful for
determining way up.
Secondary porosity - pores develop from the removal of material; commonly by selectively targeting certain grains or fossils.
Stylolites – irregular, jagged lines caused by pressure solution and the accumulation of insoluble residues.

8.2.3: Structures formed at the surface

Pedogenic slickensides – polished surfaces in mudrock formed in response shrinking and swelling associated with soil-forming
processes. A hallmark of Vertisols.
Bioturbation – tracks, trails, burrows, or any feature formed from the activity of organisms.

8.2.4: Recrystallization structures

Cone-in-cone structures - zones within limestones that have fibrous calcite crystals that form a zig-zag pattern. They form in
response to compaction and recrystallization.
Pseudospar – Coarsely crystalline calcite formed from the recrystallization of fine-grained lime mud (micrite).

8.2.1 [Link]
8.2.5: Replacement features
Dolomitization – calcite/aragonite is replaced by dolomite. Dolomite shows up as rhombohedral crystals in thin section.
Replaced fossils (or other material) - forms when silica, pyrite, or some other mineral replacement occurs. Carbonate skeletons are
prone to replacement.
Chickenwire structures – distinctive nodular zones in evaporates, commonly formed in response to the transition from gypsum to
anhydrite and the incorporation of clastic sediment.

Figure : Halite
crystal casts preserved in mudrocks of the Appekunny argillite (Callan Bentley via Libretexts; CC BY-NC ).

8.2.2 [Link]
 Figure : Diagnetic features formed in association with the growth of minerals or cement, part 1. A) Cross-section through a
concretion. Although this example has a striking radial fabric, you can still see faint concentric layering (Mark Buchanan via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Vertical rhizoconcretions developed around roots (Jfoote via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 3.0). C) Internally massive nodule developed around a coiled cephalopod (Hannes Grobe - AWI via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0). D) Dense accumulation of modern caliche nodules in Texas (David R. Tribble via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-
SA 3.0). E) Nodules in a sample of bauxite (USGS via Wikimedia Commons; public domain). F) Septarian nodule with distinctive
cracked texture (Neptunerover via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

8.2.3 [Link]
Figure : Diagnetic features formed in association with the growth of minerals or cement, part 2. A & B) Liesegang rings in
sandstone. B shows a detail of the right center of the boulder in A. C) Manganese dendrite in finely crystalline volcanic rock.
Unknown unit and age. D) Green mottles (reduction halos) developed around organic material in a sandstone from the
Mississippian Mabou Group, Nova Scotia. All images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

8.2.4 [Link]
Figure : Carbonate diagenetic features in thin section. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

8.2.5 [Link]
8.2.6 [Link]
 « Previous page
Figure : Diagenetic features formed in association with dissolution. A) Geode infilled with quartz crystals (James St. John via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0). B) Thin-section image of peloids and calcite cement inside of a recrystallized bivalve shell.
The peloids settled to the bottom of the shell before the calcite was precipitated and thus are geopetal structures showing that up
was toward the top of the page (Mark Wilson via Wikimedia Commons; public domain). C) Similar geopetal structure formed by
sediment inside of a coiled gastropod or cephalopod shell (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY -SA 4.0). D & E
show stylolites in thin section and in outcrop, respectively. F) Moldic porosity in a limestone formed by the selective dissolution of
ooids. D-F from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY -SA 4.0.

Next page »
Figure : Diagenetic features formed at the surface, in association with recrystallization (A-B) or replacement (C-F). A)
Pedogenic slickensides in a Mississippian paleosol (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0). B) Trace fossils in
Permian-aged shallow marine/deltaic sediments. C) Cone-in-cone limestone (Mark Wilson via Wikimedia Commons; public
domain). D) Partially dolomitized fossiliferous limestone (PPL). Slide was stained for calcite which makes dolomite crystals
(white) stand out from the fossils (light red) and micrite (dark reddish brown). E) Photomicrograph (XPL) of partially silicified
fossils in limestone; slide was stained for calcite. F) Gypsum and anhydrite showing "chicken wire" texture. B, D, E, and F from
Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY -SA 4.0.

8.2.7 [Link]
8.2.8 [Link]
8.2.6: Readings and Resources
H is for Hopper - by Richard I Gibson - The Geologic Column
Rychliński, T., Jaglarz, P., Uchman, A., and Vainorius, J., 2014, Unusually well preserved casts of halite crystals: A case from
the Upper Frasnian of northern Lithuania: Sedimentary Geology, v. 308, p. 44–52, doi:10.1016/[Link].2014.05.005.
What is Hopper Crystal
Hoppered Halite

This page titled 8.2: Diagenetic Structures is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

8.2.9 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

9: Fossils
Fossils are defined as any evidence of past life; for our purposes we will consider something to be a fossil if it is unusual in that it is
either ancient or has been altered from its original form in a way that makes it more likely to be preserved. Fossils are very
important because they tell us about how organisms changed and evolved through time, how they interacted with each other and
their environment, and how Earth’s climate and environments have changed through time.

 Learning Objectives
List the major types of fossils and modes of preservation
Describe the morphology of fossils using the appropriate terminology
Identify the major types of invertebrate body fossils in hand sample and thin section
Identify the most common trace fossils and apply the ichnofacies concept to interpret depositional environments

Chapter thumbnail shows a fossil gastropod (Masha Milshina via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).
9.1: Types of Fossils
9.2: Types of Preservation
9.3: Describing Fossils
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
9.5: Microfossils
9.6: Trace Fossils
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section

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Quinton.

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9.1: Types of Fossils
Despite the incredible diversity and complexity of the fossil record, we can lump fossils into three main types:

Figure : Types of fossils (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).
Body fossils are preserved portions of the actual body parts of plants, animals, and other organisms. They include a wide variety of
types including bones, teeth, scales, feathers, hair, shells, soft tissue (skin, muscle, etc.), as well as wood, roots, leaves, seeds, and
many others.
Trace fossils are structures that are formed by the activity of an organism and commonly include features that disrupt layers of
sediment (tracks, trails, burrows), erosion (boring, scraping, orbiting), the creation of layering or organization (various types), and
even fossilized excrement (coprolites). Trace fossils record a wide variety of behaviors including feeding, resting, movement,
dwelling and many others. It's worth noting that growth is not a behavior, so things like roots and stromatolites are best considered
as body fossils.
Geochemical fossils are subtle chemical clues that are created by organisms and preserved in the geologic record. Perhaps the most
common example is a mineral or rock that is enriched in carbon-12 because of the activity of photosynthetic organisms.
With practice, you will learn to identify pseudofossils - naturally occurring crystals, sedimentary structures, and weathering
features that resemble body or trace fossils.

9.1.1 [Link]
 Figure : The three main types of fossils and something that isn't. A) Body fossils include things like this mammoth skull
(Rodrigo Alomía Díaz via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). B) Trace fossils include features like these amphibian trackways
preserved on the base of a bed of sandstone (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). C) Even if no recognizable
plant material is preserved, coal could be considered a geochemical fossil because it is enriched in 12C (U.S. Geological Survey via
Wikimedia Commons; public domain). D) Although they look like plants, these manganese dendrites are pseudofossils composed
of completely inorganic branching crystals. (Géry PARENT via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

This page titled 9.1: Types of Fossils is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

9.1.2 [Link]
9.2: Types of Preservation
Preserving a recently deceased organism in the geologic record is challenging. This process typically requires one of the following:

Figure : In order to be preserved as a fossil, organisms must undergo one of the modes of preservation shown above (Page
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.2.1: Hard and Soft Parts

Preservation without alteration can happen when particularly robust hard parts of organisms like bones, shells, teeth, etc. are buried
and protected from decay and damage. Under very special conditions such as freezing, entrapment in amber, or mummification the
soft parts of organisms like hair, skin, or muscle tissue can be preserved.

9.2.1 [Link]
 Figure : Hard parts and soft parts. A) The hard parts of this mammoth that are easily preserved include its bones and tusks
(Zissoudistrucker via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). B) Under certain circumstances (like being preserved in permafrost),
soft parts like the hide, hair, and flesh of this baby mammoth can be preserved (NOAA via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

9.2.2: Preservation with Alteration

Preservation with alteration is the most common way of preserving body fossils and it happens when the original tissue is changed
in some way from its original form. Recrystallization happens when the original material is transformed into a more stable crystal
form; the most common example of this is the transition from aragonite (iridescent nacre or mother of pearl) into chalky calcite.
Carbonization happens when the organism is compressed, and water/gas are driven off so that only a thin carbon film remains.
When minerals precipitate out of groundwater to fill in open spaces in wood, bone or other porous tissue the process of
permineralization takes place (ex: “petrified” wood formed when microcrystalline quartz fills in woody tissue). And lastly,
replacement takes place when one mineral is precipitated in place of another (ex: pyrite replacing calcite).

9.2.2 [Link]
Figure : Preservation with alteration. A) Calcite replaced the aragonite that originally made up these fossil ammonites
(Reinhold Möller via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). B) A carbonized leaf (Kevmin via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
3.0). C) Permineralized wood (Dhzanette via Wikimedia Commons; public domain). D) These shells were made of carbonate that
was later replaced by pyrite (Luis Fernández García via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.2.3 [Link]
9.2.3: Casts, Molds, and Impressions
Sometimes even when the tissue itself isn’t preserved, a fossil may be still be there in the form of a cast, mold, or impression. A
cast occurs when sediment or minerals fill in a void space left by a decayed or dissolved organism. A mold is the name we use for
the actual void. An impression happens when organic material is pressed into sediment and the texture of that material is preserved.

Figure : Casts, molds, and impressions. A) The void inside of this shell could form a mold if infilled with sediment or minerals
as in the next figure (Dr. Zachi Evenor via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0). B) This cast formed when sediment infilled the void
inside of a gastropod shell like the one in the previous figure (Rowan-earth via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). C) Cast of a
sleeping dog killed and entombed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. D) Dinosaur skin impression (replica) from the
Jurassic Morrison Formation (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0).

This page titled 9.2: Types of Preservation is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

9.2.4 [Link]
9.3: Describing Fossils
Before we can start to identify and interpret fossils, we need to know what features to look for and what words to use to describe
these features. Some of the most important characteristics are discussed below.

9.3.1: Holes
With certain types of invertebrate fossils, holes in the organism represent cavities where parts of an organism, or sometimes the
whole organism lived. The number (single versus multiple), size (large versus small), and internal structure (simple versus
complex) of these holes can all provide important clues about the type of organism that the fossil represents.

Figure : When describing fossils with holes we focus on the size of the holes and the internal structures within the holes. (Page
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.3.1 [Link]
9.3.2: Symmetry
Symmetry in a fossil occurs when you can draw a line through the organism in a way that splits it into two halves that are mirror
images of each other. Radial symmetry happens with circular objects that have an almost infinite number of symmetry planes,
penta-radial symmetry is when there are five symmetry planes, bilateral symmetry is when there is one symmetry plane that splits
the organism into two halves, and some organisms have no symmetry at all.

Figure : Describing the symmetry of fossils. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.3.2 [Link]
9.3.3: Symmetry in organisms with valves
With organisms that live inside of a shell with two halves (valves), some may have shell halves that are mirror images of each other
(bilateral symmetry with similar valves) and others might have symmetry that cuts through the shell halves (bilateral symmetry
with dissimilar valves).

Figure : When describing the symmetry of fossils with valves we focus on the symmetry across the hinge and the symmetry of
the valves relative to each other. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.3.3 [Link]
9.3.4: Shells
For organisms that have shells we describe the shape and internal structure. Shells can spiral upwards (conisprial), spiral along a
single plane (planispiral), be conical to flat (patellate), or be straight coned (orthocone). Some shells will have chambers separated
by walls (septa). The place where those septa meet the outside of the shell are called sutures.

Figure : Describing shell morphology and internal structure. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

This page titled 9.3: Describing Fossils is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

9.3.4 [Link]
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
Now that we know how to describe fossils, we can start to identify them. In this section we provide a brief overview of the major
invertebrate fossil forming groups organized taxonomically. In most cases the information presented here can get you to the
taxonomic level of Order. If you want to learn more, consider taking an invertebrate paleontology course, attempting Lab 8: Fossils
in "The Story of Earth - An Observational Guide", or browsing the detailed explanations, photographs, and three dimensional
models available at the Paleontological Research Institute's Digital Atlas of Ancient Life webpage or [Link]

9.4.1: Porifera (Sponges)

Figure : Photograph showing sponge biodiversity and morphotypes in the Caribbean Sea, Cayman Islands. May 23, 2007.
Included are the yellow tube sponge (Aplysina fistularis), the purple vase sponge (Niphates digitalis), the red encrusting sponge
(Spiratrella coccinea), and the gray rope sponge (Callyspongia sp). Caribbean Sea, Cayman Islands. May 23, 2007 (NOAA Photo
Library via Flickr; CC BY 2.0).

Sponges evolved in the Precambrian but their fossil record doesn't really start until the Cambrian Period. There are three important
characteristics used for classification of sponges: 1) the body plan of the soft tissue, 2) the composition of the skeleton, and 3)
spicule morphology (if present). Sponge skeletons can be composed of spongin, a fibrous protein (think of a bath sponge that can
soak up water), carbonate, and/or silica. In some cases these mineral components exist as small needle like crystals called spicules.
Sponge fossils can be divided up into the following Classes: Archaeocyatha, Demospongiae, Hexactinellida, Stromatoporoidea,
Homocleromorpha, and Calcarea. The preceding hyperlinks provide links to the relevant webpages in the Digital Atlas of Ancient
Life; there is also an excellent collection of sponge photographs at [Link].
Sponge fossils are mostly found in marine settings but some groups live in freshwater environments. Their fossils range from the
Cambrian to the present.

9.4.1 [Link]
Figure : Classes of Porifera and how to identify them (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.2 [Link]
9.4.2: Cnidaria (Corals)

Figure : Photograph the sun coral (Tubastraea sp. - a scleractinian coral). This non-native coral that has successfully colonized
artificial habitats in the Gulf of Mexico along the southeast coast of Florida, and the Florida Keys (FWC Fish and Wildlife
Research Institute via Flickr; CC BY-NC-ND).
Corals belong to the Phylum Cnidaria which also includes jellyfish, sea fans, and sea anemones (among others). These organisms
all share the following characteristics: radial symmetry, two tissue types (they are diploblastic), and the presence of venomous
stinging cells called nematocysts. The group evolved in the Precambrian but the major coral Orders did not appear until the
Ordovician. Corals make up the bulk of the fossil record for Cnidaria because they are the only group that produces a carbonate
skeleton. Fossil identification of corals is based on those mineralized skeletons by looking at life mode (did the coral live as a
colony or as a solitary individual) and internal structure within the holes that coral animal lived in. The major fossil forming groups
of corals include tabulate corals, rugose corals, and scleractinian corals. For more detailed information, pictures of coral fossils, and
3D models, please visit the Digital Atlas of Ancient Life webpage which contains details about rugose, tabulate, and scleractinian
corals or [Link]'s pages on rugose and tabulate corals.
Coral fossils are only found in marine settings and range from the Cambrian to the present.

9.4.3 [Link]
Figure : Orders of coral and how to identify them (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.4 [Link]
9.4.3: Lophoporata (Brachiopods and Bryozoans)
The Phylum Lophophorata includes brachiopods and bryozoans. These groups are united in that they have a special feeding organ
called a lophophore and exhibit bilateral symmetry. Otherwise it can be hard to believe the two groups are related because they
look so different! Brachiopods are shelled solitary organisms while bryozoans are colonial organism that can look similar to corals!
Because both groups produce mineralized skeletons, they have excellent fossil records. The Digital Atlas of Ancient Life webpage
has an excellent discussion of brachiopods vs bivalves.

[Link]: Brachiopoda

Figure : Photograph the extant inarticulate brachiopod Lingula anatina (Wilson44691 via Wikimedia Commons; public
domain).

Figure : Photograph of North Pacific Lampshell (Terebratalia transversa), an extant articulate brachiopod (Marilynne Box via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 4.0).

9.4.5 [Link]
Brachiopods are valved (two-shelled) organisms that live in aquatic settings. While they superficially look similar to bivalves,
brachiopod valves are not mirror images of each other (that is, the line of symmetry is not across the hinge). Instead, the line of
symmetry is across the valve. Brachiopod classification is based on multiple morphological characteristics of the shells. Most
important among these characteristics is the length of the hinge line (the line the two valves make where the shell rotates
open/close) and the symmetry of the two valves relative to each other. The brachiopod webpages in the Digital Atlas of Ancient
Life and [Link] provide pictures, models, and a fuller discussion of these organisms.
Brachiopod fossils are only found in marine settings. While the group does range from the Cambrian to the present, only a few
make it into the Cenozoic.

Figure : Brachiopod Orders and how to identify them (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.6 [Link]
[Link]: Bryozoa

Figure : Photograph of a colony of the modern marine bryozoan Flustra foliacea (Hans Hillewaert via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).
Bryozoans are colonial organisms where each animal in the colony is a clone. Each of these clones is called a zooid and each zooid
lives inside a small chamber called a zoecium. All the zoecium are arranged together to form a colony. Classification of bryozoans
is based on the shape of the zooid and the colony arrangement. For proper identification of bryozoans, it is best to look at colony
structure and arrangement under the microscope. For field identification, using the growth forms can be very useful for identifying
most of the major bryozoan Orders. Bryozoans can exhibit massive, branching, lacy, or encrusting growth forms. The bryozoan
pages at the Digital Atlas of Ancient Life and [Link] provide pictures, models, and a fuller discussion of these organisms.
Bryozoans are mostly found in marine environments but some groups exist in freshwater settings. The group ranges from the
Ordovician to the present but many of the groups go extinct in the Triassic.

9.4.7 [Link]
Figure : Fossil bryozoan Orders and how to identify them (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.8 [Link]
9.4.4: Mollusca

Figure : Photograph of an angel wing bivalve (Cyrtopleura costata), an elongate bivalve that burrows into hard substrates by
slowly rotating its shell like a drill bit (MerlinCharon via [Link] [[Link]]; CC0).

Figure : Photograph of a grapevine snail (Helix pomatia), a species of air-breathing land snail (Jürgen Schoner via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

9.4.9 [Link]
 Figure : Photograph of a nautilus, an extant coiled nautiloid cephalopod (Manuae via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
3.0).
Many mollusks have mineralized hard parts, their fossil record is extensive but identification can be difficult as detailed
classification is partially based on soft tissue. Here we will focus on some of the most common and easily identifiable fossil
groups: Bivalvia, Gastropoda, and Cephalopoda. Bivalves consist of two valves and are classified based on soft tissue features like
their gill system and siphon (an organ used for respiration and reproduction). Because these features do not fossilize well, fossil
identification is based on scars the soft tissue leaves on the shells as well as how the valves are articulated (dentition). Gastropods,
which includes snails and slugs, suffer from the same difficultly with some groups losing the shell all together. Cephalopods, are
the most straightforward group to identify. We can use the shape of their shell, the complexity of the internal walls (septa) in those
shells, and the positioning of the siphuncle (a canal that connects the chambers of the shell) to identify four of the five Subclasses
that belong to the group.
For pictures and more information please visit the following websites:
Bivalves - Digital Atlas of Ancient Life and [Link]
Gastropods - Digital Atlas of Ancient Life and [Link]
Cephalopods - Digital Atlas of Ancient Life and [Link]
Mollusca are found in all types of environments but cephalopods are exclusively marine. The group ranges from the Cambrian to
the present.

9.4.10 [Link]
 Figure : Common fossil forming mollusca Classes (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Figure : Some common fossil-forming Classes that belong to the Phylum Mollusca, Subphylum Diasoma (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.11 [Link]
Figure : Cephalopod Subclasses and how to identify them (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.12 [Link]
9.4.5: Arthropoda

Figure : Living ostracod (a type of arthropod) showing real time swimming motion (Ikjbagl via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 4.0).

Figure : Living barnacles (a type of arthropod) surround themselves with a ring of calcareous plates (paweesit via Flickr; CC
BY-ND 2.0).

9.4.13 [Link]
 Figure : Photograph of a trilobite fossil (Selenopeltis sp.); trilobites are an extinct type of arthropod (Kevin Walsh via Flickr;
CC BY-ND 2.0).

Arthropods are the most diverse of the animal kingdom and includes groups like insects (Hexapoda), crustaceans, and trilobites.
These groups are united in that they have jointed appendages, segmented bodies, and an exoskeleton. Because many of those
exoskeletons are not exceptionally robust, the fossil record of this group does not quite match the Phylum's abundance and
diversity in the modern. The most notable fossil group is the Subphylum Trilobitomorpha. Classification in this group is based on
the number of thorax segments, the shape and size of the third body segment (pygidium), the shape and size of the head (cephalon),
the shape and position of the stomach (glabella), among other characteristics. Because many of the trilobite Orders have relatively
short stratigraphic ranges, this group is commonly used for biostratigraphy. The Digital Atlas of Ancient Life's arthropod, trilobite,
and crustacean webpages and [Link]'s trilobite, chelicerate, and insect pages provide images and more discussion of these
organisms.
Arthropods are found in all types of environments and range from the Cambrian to present. Trilobites are only found in marine
settings and go extinct at the end of the Permian.

9.4.14 [Link]
Figure : The Subphyla of arthropods (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.15 [Link]
Figure : The Orders of trilobites and how to identify them (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.4.16 [Link]
9.4.6: Echinodermata

Figure : Photograph of a living reticulated starfish (Oreaster reticulatus). Many starfish are distinctively pentaradial, with five
arms. Numerous tube feet occur in the ambulacral grooves running down the axis of each arm's underside. Many starfish are
predatory and consume prey by everting their stomachs through their mouths (center structure on underside) and digest food
externally. Oreaster reticulatus is predatory on a variety of invertebrates and is also a deposit feeder (James St. John via Flickr; CC
BY 2.0).

Figure : Photograph of a living stalked crinoid (NOAA Photo Library via Flickr; CC BY 2.0).

9.4.17 [Link]
 Figure : Photograph of living sand dollars (arbyreed via Flickr; CC BY-NC-SA).
Echinoderms include starfish, sea urchins, and crinoids (among others). The shared characteristics of this Phylum include five-fold
(pentaradial) symmetry, a water vascular system (water is pumped through the body for respiration and locomotion), and a
mesoderm skeleton composed of porous plates of calcite crystals. Echinoderms are divided into two Subphyla: Eleutherozoa (non-
stemmed) and Pelmatozoa (stemmed). Many of the calcite plates that make up the mesoderm skeleton are not fussed together so the
fossil record of this group includes lots of disaggregated echinoderm plates in additional to complete body fossils. The echinoderm
webpages at the The Digital Atlas of Ancient Life and [Link] provide more pictures and discussion of these organisms.
Echinoderms are only found in marine environments and range from the Cambrian to the present.

9.4.18 [Link]
Figure : Classes that belong to the un-stemmed (Eleutherozoa) echinoderms and how to identify them (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA)

9.4.19 [Link]
 Figure : Classes that belong to the stemmed (Pelmatoza) echinoderms and how to identify them (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

This page titled 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

9.4.20 [Link]
9.5: Microfossils

Figure : Major microfossil groups. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.5.1: Major Microfossil Groups

Microfossils are fossils that are less then 2 mm in size and require the aid of a microscope to study. Many taxonomic groups are
represented in the microfossil record but here we will focus on some of the common mineralized microfossil groups. These include
foraminifera, radiolarians, diatoms, ostracods, and conodonts. These microfossils are important tools for biostratigraphy and
paleoclimatology. Other notable nonmineralized microfossils include spores and pollen.

9.5.2: Foraminifera
Foraminifera are an Order of single celled protista that have an extensive fossil record. These organism are aquatic and live inside a
shell referred to as a test. Classification of the foraminifera genera is based on shell mineralogy, shell morphology, and internal
shell structure. Foraminifera with shells composed of calcium carbonate are more readily preserved than organic (chitin) based
groups and make up the bulk of the foraminifera fossil record. Some common fossil forming Genera are Textulariids, Fusulinids,
Miliolids, Rotaliids, and Globigerinids. For more information please visit the Digital Atlas of Ancient Life's foraminifera webpage.
Most foraminifera are marine but there are a few freshwater varieties. The group ranges from the Cambrian to the present.

9.5.1 [Link]
 Figure : Major fossil forming groups of foraminifera. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

This page titled 9.5: Microfossils is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

9.5.2 [Link]
9.6: Trace Fossils
Trace fossils are sedimentary structures formed as the result of the activity of an organism, other than growth (Jackson, 1997,
Glossary of Geology). They represent fossilized behavior and thus provide important insight into the conditions that existed
during/immediately after the deposition of sediment. The study of trace fossils is called ichnology.

9.6.1: Types of Trace Fossils

Trace fossils can be grouped into several major types of structures based on what the organism was doing:
Bioturbation structures record disruption of bedding by burrows, tracks, and trails.
Bioerosion structures record erosion of substrate by boring, scraping, or biting.
Biostratification structures occur when organisms impart an organization to sediment by making layers or structures.
Fecal material also counts as a trace fossil! It can tell us about the organism's diet and possibly its biological affinity.

Figure : Bird and human footprints in the mud disrupt the sediment and thus represent bioturbation structures (Julian Dowse
via Geograph; CC BY-SA 2.0 DEED).

9.6.1 [Link]
 Figure : Marine bivalves of the genus Teredinidae (aka "shipworms") use their valves as a rasp and are able to slowly burrow
into woody substrate and thus create bioerosion structures (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

Sand Bubbler Crabs Making Sediment B…

B…

Figure : Sand bubbler crabs eat by processing sand through their mouthparts and discard the sand as small round balls which
imparts an organization to the sediment and thus represents biostratification.

9.6.2 [Link]
 Figure : Fecal pile from an acorn worm exposed in the intertidal zone. Fecal material ranges from mundane to spectacular and
tells us bout the diet and presence of an organism. (Doug Greenberg via Flickr; CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED).

Although they might appear quite similar to trace fossils, there are several structures that don’t technically count. These would
include any sorts of tool marks formed by passive contact between an object (even an animal) and the bed as well as growth
structures like stromatolites and roots.

Figure : Scratch circles can form when the wind blows plants causing them to rotate and inscribe scratches into the adjacent
substrate. Because they record passive contact and not a behavior, they do not count as trace fossils (David Marvin via Flickr; CC
BY-NC-ND 2.0 DEED).

9.6.3 [Link]
9.6.2: Behavioral Classification (Ethology)

Figure : A) Daemonelix is the dwelling trace of the extinct beaver Paleocaster (James St. John via Flickr; CC BY 2.0 DEED).
B) Lingulichnus is formed as inarcticulate brachiopods moved progressively upward through rapidly accumulating sediment to
maintain their equilibrium with the sediment surface (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). C)
Paleodictyon is considered by some to be a deepwater farming trace composed of a series of interconnected hexagonal burrows that
allow water to flow through and bacteria to grow (Dr. Markus Bertling, via Westphalen Museum; CC BY-NC-SA). D) Zoophycos is
a feeding trace formed by repeated, offset probing of the sediment (James St. John via Flickr; CC BY 2.0 DEED).

Regardless of what an organism was and when it lived, certain behaviors are very common and produce trace fossils with
comparable features. Some of the most common behaviors include:
Dwelling traces (Domichnia) – are formed when the organism constructs a home in the subsurface. They include a wide range
of morphologies including bifurcating or u-shaped burrows that are commonly perpendicular to bedding. Some may have thick
linings and a horizontal component.
Escape (Fugichnia) and equilibrium (Equillibrichnia) structures – are formed when an organism moves vertically through the
substrate to escape burial or maintain it's equilibrium with the sediment surface. They are commonly similar to dwelling
burrows except that they appear nested or stacked.
Farming traces (Agrichnia) - are burrows that are formed to allow an organism to grow algae or bacteria for later consumption.
They typically consist of complicated geometric patterns.
Feeding traces (Fodichnia) – are formed as an organism moves through sediment in order to process it for food. They often have
a significant horizontal component and may be composed of single burrows that branch, bifurcate, or show a slight offset to
form a more complicated pattern.

9.6.4 [Link]
Grazing traces (Pascichnia) - are formed at the sediment surface as an organism moves along as it feeds. They are typically
bedding plane parallel, rarely crosscut each other, and may have complex ornamentation or patterns
Locomotion traces (Repichnia) – are linear to sinuous horizontal (bedding plane parallel) footprints, tracks, or trails produced
by movement of an organism.
Predation traces (Praedichnia) - form when one organism eats, or attempts to eat, another. They can include bite marks, borings,
repair of crushed shells, and a variety of other forms.
Resting traces (Cubichnia) are generally preserved as shallow depressions made when organisms settle or dig into substrate.
They commonly preserve the shape of the organism or parts of the organism that are in contact with the substrate.

Figure : A) Nereites is a deepwater grazing trace (Richdebtomdom via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Diplichnites
is a locomotion trace; this example was made by a giant Pennsylvanian millipede (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 4.0). C) Predatory gastropod drill hole in the shell of a bivalve (Jonathan R. Hendricks via Digital Atlas of Ancient Life ;
CC BY-SA 4.0). D) Asteriacites is the resting trace of a starfish (Mark Wilson via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

9.6.5 [Link]
9.6.3: Taxonomic Classification
Trace fossils are classified into ichnogenera and ichnospecies based on the physical traits of the burrow. We do it this way because
different trace-makers may produce similar burrows when behaving similarly and because substrate can profoundly influence the
appearance of a track, even if from the same organism. Some of the most common and/or noteworthy trace fossils are pictured and
described below.

Table: 9.6.1: Photographs and descriptions of trace fossils

9.6.6 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Arenicolites - Vertical u-shaped burrow that lacks concentric

spriete and may have funnel-shaped tops. Broadly similar to
Diplocraterion but without stacked spriete. Interpreted as a
feeding/dwelling burrow of worms, crustaceans, beetle larvae, and
a variety of other organisms. Image from Gennadi Baranov via
[Link]; CC BY-NC.

Asteriacites - Star-shaped resting traces that may be preserved as

depressions on the top of beds or in relief on the base of beds.
Thought to be the resting trace of a starfish. Image from Michael
C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

Chondrites - A vertical to horizontal downward branching burrow

with a pattern similar to the roots of a plant. Fill can be slightly
more coarse-grained than the surrounding sediment. <1 mm in
diameter and up to several inches tall. Thought to be a feeding
structure of an annelid worm or a broadly similar organism. Image
from Gennadi Baranov via [Link]; CC BY-NC.

9.6.7 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Cochlichnus - Bedding parallel trace that roughly approximtes a

sine curve. Interpreted as an invertebrate locomotion trace. Image
from Falconaumanni via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0

Conichnus - Cone-shaped depression with a round bottom.

Coarser clasts can be concentrated around the burrow margin.
Interpreted as a dwelling or resting trace. Although a variety of
tracemkers are possible, many were formed by anemones. Image
from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

Cosmorhaphe - Bedding plane parallel meandering trace that does

not cross-cut itself. Interpreted as a grazing trace. Image from
Massimilianogalardi via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0

9.6.8 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Cruziana - A horizontal, bilobed burrow with a pronounced

medial ridge, commonly with herringbone-like scratches that
converge towards the medial ridge. Interpreted as a locomotion
trace of an arthropod. Image from PePeEfe via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

Diplichnites - Elongate trackway with two parallel rows of tracks;

the tracks themselves consist of numerous small, closely spaced
blunt to elongate impressions caused by footfalls. Interpreted as
the locomotion trace of an arthropod. Image from Kenneth C Gass
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

Diplocraterion - Vertically oriented, u-shaped burrow that has a

stacked appearance caused by curved concentric "spreite"
(backfills) connecting the arms of the burrow. In bedding plane
view they are commonly preserved as paired circular burrows with
a "dumbbell" morphology caused by the connecting spreite.
Superficially similar to Skolithos but it is u-shaped with paired
limbs. Roughly the diameter of a straw. Interpreted as the dwelling
burrow of a crustacean. Image from Michael C. Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

9.6.9 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Helminthoida - Trace consists of tight, closely spaced bedding

plane parallel coils that do not crosscut one another. Helminthopsis
is very similar but has a more irregular and open pattern of
loops/coils. Interpreted as the feeding trace of a worm. Image
reproduced with written permission for the educational purposes
(NC ND) of this LibreText contribution by ENS de Lyon. Original
image by Pierre Thomas - Lithothèque ENS de Lyon; Planet Terre
[[Link]]

Helminthopsis - Irregular, bedding plane parallel traces that do not

crosscut one another; it appears more like loose coils than
meanders or loops. The fill is commonly different than the
surrounding material. Helminthoida is very similar but has a more
regular curved pattern with tighter loops. Interpreted as the feeding
trace of a worm. Image from Mark Wilson via Wikimedia
Commons; public domain.

Lockeia - An oval or teardrop-shaped trace that is commonly

preserved in positive relief on the bottom of a bed. It is bilaterally
symmetrical and looks similar to the bottom of a bed. Broadly
similar to Rusophycus but lacks the medial ridge. Roughly the size
and shape of a kidney bean; commonly very dense occurrences.
Interpreted as a bivalve resting trace. Image from James St. John
via Flickr; CC BY 2.0 DEED.

9.6.10 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description
Macaronichnus - Variably oriented burrows that are
longitudinally sinuous and roughly circular in cross section.
Burrows are "cleaner" and have less orgnic material than
surrounding sediment. Most are <1.5 mm diameter, unlined, and
unbranching (although they can cross-cut). Interpreted as feeding
traces of polychaete worms. Image from Dafoe, L. T. & Williams,
G. L. (2020). Lithological, sedimentological, ichnological, and
palynological analysis of 37 conventional core intervals from 15
wells, offshore Labrador (Newfoundland and Labrador) and
southeast Baffin Island (Nunavut). Geological Survey of Canada,
Bulletin, 613. [[Link]]via NRCan Photo Database; Open
Government Licence - Canada

Mermia - Burrows are bedding plane parallel depressions or ridges

organized into chaotic loops or circular forms. Interpreted as
See Figure 7c in ResearchGate [[Link]] locomotion traces of worms, midges, or larvae

Nereites - A bedding plane parallel meandering trace consisting of

a central furrow flanked by small lobes on both sides of the
furrow. Interpreted as a grazing trace. Image from Richdebtomdom
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0)

9.6.11 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Olivellites - Sinuous, unbranched, bedding plane parallel trace that

has two lobes separated by a medial ridge that runs parallel to the
long axis of the trace. The lobes are ornamented with fine curved
meniscate-like ornamentation that runs roughly parallel to the long
axis of the trace. Interpreted as a gastropod locomotion or grazing
trace. Image from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 3.0.

Ophiomorpha - Vertical to horizontal cylindrical burrow with a

smooth interior wall and and an outer wall that has a knobby or
"corn-cob" like appearance (lined with fecal pellets). Tunnels can
change diameter and branch. Interpreted as a crustacean dwelling
trace. Image from James St. John via Flickr; CC BY 2.0 DEED.

Paleodictyon - A bedding plane parallel network of hexagonal

burrows organized in a honeycomb-like arrangement; vertical
shafts common in the modern but rarely preserved. Interpreted as a
gardening trace for cultivating microbes; trace maker uncertain.
Image from Falconaumanni via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
3.0
.

9.6.12 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Phycosiphon - Looping burrows that extend away from a central

tunnel; individual loops build outward via small, subtle spriete.
Interpreted as a deposit feeding trace. Image by West Virginia
Geologic Survey via West Virginia Geologic Survey
[[Link]]

Planolites - A roughly bedding plane parallel unlined burrow that

is typically less than 0.5 cm in diameter. Some specimens branch.
Burrows are typically linear, cross-cutting, and preserved in
positive relief on the base of sandstone beds. Planolites and
Thallasinoides are similar, the main difference is size - the former
is more the size of a noodle and the latter is more the size of
sausage. Interpreted as the feeding trace of a worm. Image from
Gennadi Baranov via [Link]; CC BY-NC.

Rhizocorrallium - A horizontal, oblique, or U- or J-shaped burrow

that shows muddy spreite between the limbs of the burrow. It is
distinguished from Diplocraterion because it is typically bent,
inclined, or horizontal. It is interpreted as a dwelling or feeding
burrow. Image from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 3.0.

9.6.13 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Rosselia - A vertically-oriented, downward-tapering funnel-shaped

burrow that may be lined with mud. Upper part was originally
bulb-shaped but later eroded to form more of a funnel. Interpreted
as a dwelling burrow of a worm-like detritus feeder. Image from
Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

Rusophycus - A bilobate depression that may have a medial ridge

and scratches in the depressions. Looks like a coffee been. Most
commonly preserved in positive relief on the base of beds. Most
are interpreted as resting traces of arthropods. Image from James
St. John via Flickr; CC BY 2.0 DEED.

Scoyenia - Variably oriented linear burrow with a rope-like or

You can view an image at KU Ichnology [[Link]] wrinkled texture. Unbranched but may cross-cut. Interpreted as the
feeding trace of terrestrial larvae.

Skolithos - Vertical, typically unlined burrow that is generally

filled with material identical to the surrounding substrate. Roughly
the diameter of a straw. Similar to Diplocraterion but not
demonstrably paired. Interpreted as the dwelling trace of a variety
of invertebrates. Image from James St. John via Flickr; CC BY 2.0
DEED.

9.6.14 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Spirorhaphe - A roughly bedding-plane parallel burrow that

spirals inward and then reverses in the center to form a matched
pair of coils. Interpreted as the farming trace of a polychaete
worm. Image from Falconaumanni via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 3.0

Taenidium - Unlined sinuous burrow with pronounced meniscate

backfill. Interpreted as the feeding trace of a worm-like organism.
Image by Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
3.0.

Tetrapod trackway - Any number of named trackways that have

footprints from front and back feet. Marks from toes commonly
preserved. Morphology highly dependent upon substrate. Tetrapod
locomotion trace. Image from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

9.6.15 [Link]
 Name (Ichnogenus) and
Image
Description

Thallasinoides - A relatively large horizontal to vertical unlined

burrow; may branch to form a Y- or a T-shape. Planolites and
Thallasinoides are similar, the main difference is size - the former
is more the size of a noodle and the latter is more the size of a hot
dog or sausage. Note: if burrow has a knobby texture via fecal
pellet lining, it is called Ophiomorpha. Interpreted as a feeding or
dwelling burrow of a crustacean. Image from Mark Wilson via
Wikimedia Commons; public domain.

Undichnia - Assemblage of sinuous grooves formed by dragging

fish fins. Tail trace is commonly sinusoidal; pectoral fin traces are
parallel to each other and more gently curved. Interpreted as a fish
locomotion trace. Image from Figure 7 in Ronchi, A.; Marchetti,
L.; Klein, H.; Groenewald, G.H. A Middle Permian Oasis for
Vertebrate and Invertebrate Life in a High-Energy Fluvial
Palaeoecosystem of Southern Gondwana (Karoo, Republic of
South Africa). Geosciences 2023, 13, 325. [[Link]]; CC BY 4.0
DEED

Zoophycos - A central vertical burrow that has corkscrew-shaped

tiers of sheet-like subhorizontal burrows that make a "rooster tail”
or "pinwheel" pattern on bedding planes. Three dimensional form
rarely preserved; flattened preservation roughly along bedding
planes is much more common. Most are intereted as the feeding
burrow of a worm-like organism. Image from Michael C. Rygel
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

9.6.16 [Link]
9.6.4: Seilacherian (Behavioral) Ichnofacies
Trace fossils record behaviors and those behaviors are dictated by environmental conditions; consequently certain types and
assemblages of trace fossils tend to occur together in time and space because the behaviors they record work in a given
environment. These assemblages are called ichnofacies and are named for a distinctive trace fossil that is typical of that
environment. It is worth noting that a given trace fossil can be present in a variety of environments and the focus is on the
assemblage of traces, not a single diagnostic trace fossil. Although nearly two dozen ichnofacies have been described, the diagrams
provided below highlight the four most important/common marine ichnofacies (Skolithos, Cruziana, Zoophycos, and Nereites), two
continental ichnofacies (Scoyenia and Mermia), and three substrate-dependent ichnofacies (Glossofungites, Teredolites, and
Trypanites).

[Link]: Marine Ichnofacies

Figure : Explanation of the Skolithos Ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it (Page C. Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.17 [Link]
Figure : Explanation of the Cruziana Ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it (Page C. Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.18 [Link]
Figure : Explanation of the Zoophycos Ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it (Page C.
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.19 [Link]
Figure : Explanation of the Nereites Ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it (Page C. Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.20 [Link]
[Link]: Terrestrial Ichnofacies

Figure : Explanation of the Scoyenia Ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it (Page C. Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.21 [Link]
Figure : Explanation of the Mermia Ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it (Page C. Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.22 [Link]
[Link]: Substrate-Dependent Ichnofacies

Figure : Explanation of the three substrate dependent ichnofacies and illustrations of some of the most common fossils in it
(Page C. Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.23 [Link]
 Figure : Marine bivalves of the genus Pholas created these circular burrows in peat deposits exposed in the intertidal zone and
thus represent the Teredolites Ichnofacies. Image copyright Jessica M. Winder and Jessica’s Nature Blog at Nature in Focus.
Reproduced with written permission of the author for the educational purposes of this Libretexts contribution (NC ND + no further
reproduction).

Figure : Sand-filled trace fossils in black shales of the lower Pebbly Beach Formation (Permian). These palimpsest trace
fossils were probably excavated in firm substrate and could be interpreted as part of the Glossofungites Ichnofacies (Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.6.24 [Link]
 Figure : Angelwing bivalves and associated burrows in poorly-consolidated sandstones exposed in the intertidal zone
represent the Trypanites Ichnofacies. These bivalves use their shells like a rasp and are able to slowly burrow into firm substrate by
opening and closing their shells to slowly rotate and abrade the surrounding material (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 3.0).

9.6.5: Readings and Resources

PBS Eons, Something Has Been Making This Mark For 500 Million Years (Video on Paleodictyon)
KU Ichnology webpage
Ichnofossils at [Link]
Digital Atlas of Ancient Life's trace fossil webpage
Bromley, R.G., 1996, Trace fossils—Biology, taphonomy, and applications [2d ed.]: London, Chapman and Hall, 384 p.
Ekdale, A.A., Bromley, R.G., and Pemberton, S.G., 1984, Ichnology; the use of trace fossils in sedimentology and stratigraphy:
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Short Course No. 15, 317 p.
Frey, R.W., 1973, Concepts in the study of biogenic sedimentary structures: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 43, no. 1, p. 6–
19.
MacEachern, J.A., Bann, K.L., Gingras, M.K., and Pemberton, S.G., 2007, Applied Ichnology, SEPM Short Course Notes, No.
52, 145 p.
Knaust,D., and Bromley, R.G., 2012, Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments; Developments in
Sedimentology v. 64, 924 p.
Seilacher, A., 1953, Studien zur Palichnologie I. Uber die methoden der Palichnologie: Neues Jahrbuch Geologie Palaontologie,
Abh. 96, p. 421–452.
Seilacher, A., 2007, Trace Fossil Analysis, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 226 p.

This page titled 9.6: Trace Fossils is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

9.6.25 [Link]
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
9.7.1: Diagrams Showing Common Fossils
The following diagrams show schematic representations of some of the most common fossils encountered in thin sections; they are
not organized taxonomically, but rather based on gross morphology. Please note that the scale bar in the following four diagrams is
approximate and that the actual sizes of the fossils can vary by an order of magnitude or more.

Figure : Fossils that are, or appear to be, made out of a walled shell or exoskeleton include brachiopods, bivalves, barnacles,
and trilobites (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Figure : Fossils that have, or appear to have, internal chambers include cephalopods, sponges, gastropods, and foraminifera
(Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

9.7.1 [Link]
Figure : Fossils that are, or appear to be, colonial include tabulate corals, rugose corals, bryozoans, and sponges (Page Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

Figure : Other distinctive or noteworthy fossils encountered in thin section include crinoid plates, crinoid columnals,
brachiopod spines, calcispheres, sponge spicules, and conodonts (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.2 [Link]
9.7.2: Porifera (Sponges)

Figure : Examples of sponges in thin section. A and B) Sponge spicules are the most commonly type of sponge fossils in most
settings; they vary from simple to complex rays and commonly resemble toy jacks. C) Entire sponges are much less commonly
preserved and, as is the case with these encrusting examples, can be difficult to distinguish from stromatolites (all images from
Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.3 [Link]
9.7.3: Cnidaria (Corals)

Figure : Examples of rugose (A & B) and tabulate (C & D) corals in thin section. Rugose corals can be solitary or colonial and
have corallites with prominent vertical subdivisions (septa). Tabulate corals are colonial and have corallites with pronounced
horizontal subdivisions that makes colonies look like storeys in a building (all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.4 [Link]
9.7.4: Lophoporhata
[Link]: Brachiopoda

Figure : Brachiopod fossils in thin section. A-D) Brachiopod valves often appear crenulated and have a complex or ornamented
appearance. E & F) show brachiopod spines which have hollow interiors and finely laminated walls (all images from Michael
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.5 [Link]
[Link]: Bryozoa

Figure : Bryozoans can show a variety of morphologies (stony, branching, lacy, etc.) and show an equally wide range of
morphologies in thin section. Although they superficially resemble corals, they are not closely related and generally have much
smaller openings (typically < 1 mm) than corals. A) shows a cross section through branching bryozoan, B and C) show sections
through lacy forms (note that the bryozoan is the chambered feature in the NW quadrant of C; much of the rest of the image is
filled with crinoid plates). E & F) show variable cuts through probably lacy bryozoans (all images from Michael Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.6 [Link]
9.7.5: Mollusca
[Link]: Bivalves

Figure : Bivalves in thin section. A) shows xxx, B and C) show xxx (all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.7 [Link]
[Link]: Gastropods

Figure : Examples of gastropods in thin section. A and B) show longitudinal cuts through gastropods with medium height and
squat spirals. C) Shows a transverse cut with the spirals extending into and out of the plane of the photo. D) The left half of the
image shows a transverse cut through a gastropod contained in the outermost spiral of a larger gastropod that is cut in longitudinal
section (all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.8 [Link]
[Link]: Cephalopods

Figure : Axial cross section through a possible coiled cephalopod showing progressive decrease in the diameter of the
chamber. Without preservation of a siphuncle or internal septum, it is also possible that this is a gastropod that does not coil out of
plane. Note the geopetal fill with sediment at the bottom and spar at the top (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0).

9.7.9 [Link]
9.7.6: Arthropoda
[Link]: Ostracods

Figure : Ostracods are small arthropods with thin valves. The valves halves are held together with soft tissue, partially
overlap, and have a hook-shaped edge opposite the hinge. Note the large bivalve in C and numerous calcispheres in both A and D
(all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.10 [Link]
[Link]: Trilobites

Figure : Trilobites were segmented arthropods that molted as they grew which makes their fossils particularly abundant in
some beds. In thin section they are preserved as curved fossils that can terminate with a distinctive shepard's hook that is
morphologically similar to, but larger than that of ostracods (all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0).

9.7.11 [Link]
[Link]: Barnacles

Figure : Barnacles are small to medium-sized crustaceans that, in their adult form, are attached to a hard substrate. They
surround their bodies with a series of complexly-shaped plates that have a ribbed architecture that can appear folded and tooth-like
in cross section (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.12 [Link]
9.7.7: Echinodermata
[Link]: Crinoids

Figure : Crinoid columnals are donut-shaped segments that make up the stalk of crinoids, they have a central canal and small
arms (cirri) can attach to them. Two dimensional cuts through them can result in wide variety of morphologies. A) shows a
transverse cut through a columnal with results in a circular shape with a clearly visible central canal. B and C) show transverse cuts
through columnals that intersect the central canal. D) shows a small intraclast surrounded by several transverse cuts through
columnals that don't intersect the canal (all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.13 [Link]
Figure : A) Slightly oblique longitudinal cut through several stacked, articulated crinoid columnals. B) Arm plate of a crinoid.
C) Numerous crinoid plates and a columnal with five-fold symmetry in the central canal. D) A variety of crinoid skeletal elements,
many of which form the cores of ooids (all images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.14 [Link]
9.7.8: Forminifera

Figure : Foraminifera are single-celled organisms, many of which build a calcareous test with internal chambers (all images
from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.15 [Link]
9.7.9: Miscellanea and Algae

Figure : A selection of other distinctive fossils include A and B) the Permian marine green algae Mizzia sp., C) Mississippian
calcispheres which are likely of algal origin, D) Permian Archaeolithoporella - an encrusting organism of uncertain affinity, E)
Tubiphytes, an encrusting organism of uncertain affinity, and F) conodonts are tooth-like structures (all images from Michael Rygel
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.16 [Link]
 Thin section image of cuts through stromatolites and stromatoporoids

Figure : A and C) Stromatolites from as photosynthetic microbes grow and trap sediment; although local conditions may
result in distinctive overall morphologies, they lack an internal structure aside from the laminae. B and D) Stromatoporoids might
be related to sponges; although they superficially appear similar to stromatolites, well-preserved specimens show a more complex
internal architecture with a lattice-like network of horizontal laminae and vertical pillars (all images from Michael Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

9.7.17 [Link]
9.7.10: Readings and Resources
Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks by Erik Flugel
A Color Guide to the Petrography of Carbonate Rocks by Peter Scholle and Dana Ulmer-Scholle
Carbonate World website

This page titled 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

9.7.18 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

10: Depositional Environments

In this chapter we provide a survey of the most common clastic and carbonate environments and talk about their geometry,
occurrence, typical lithologies and structures, and provide numerous pictures of each. Given the scale of these features, the kind of
facies analysis needed to determine depositional environments is best learned in the field or by looking at drill core.

 Learning Objectives
Describe the most common lithologies, sedimentary structures, and fossils in major clastic and carbonate depositional
environments.
Explain what processes are important in these environments.

Topic hierarchy
10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.2: Deserts
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.6: Glacial Environments

Chapter thumbnail shows a cast of a standing lycopsid in floodplain deposits of the Pennsylvanian Joggins Formation, Nova Scotia
(Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 10: Depositional Environments is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

1
10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.1.1: Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are mounds of coarse grained sediments formed when a confined stream disgorges into an unconfined area. They
typically occur along the margins of mountain ranges where bedrock incised channels draining uplands spill out on to broad open
valley floors. Alluvial fans occur in areas with significant topographic relief caused by rapid subsidence or uplift (rift basins,
foreland basins, fold-and-thrust belts, etc.). They are semi-circular in map view, form mounds in transverse cross section, and form
basinward-thinning wedges in lateral cross sections.

Figure : Oblique image of an alluvial fan building into the Badwater Basin in Death Valley, National Park shown with 1.5x
vertical exaggeration. Notice that the fan originates at the point where the flow emerges from the bedrock-confined channel. The
pronounced line around the edge of the alluvial fan is Badwater Road (Courtesy Google Earth, image is ©2024 Maxar
Technologies; exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on websites for educational and non-commercial use).

Internally, alluvial fans typically include debris flow deposits composed of poorly-sorted, possibly matrix-supported
conglomerates, breccias, and/or diamictites and stream flow deposits composed of sorted and stratified sand and gravel. Grain size
generally increases toward the mountain front and decreases in a basinward direction. Sediments commonly occur in coarsening
upward cycles that record tectonic and sedimentary pulses. (Paleo)flow is generally in a radial pattern away from the source.

10.1.1 [Link]
Figure : Cross-sectional sketch of an alluvial fan and schematic measured sections through alluvial fan deposits (Page
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.1.2 [Link]
Figure : A variety of debris flow, stream flow, and sheet flood deposits in alluvial fans (Brian Ricketts via Geological
Digressions [[Link]]; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.1.3 [Link]
10.1.2: Fluvial Deposits
Rivers are areas where overland flow is concentrated in a channel. Floodplains are the areas adjacent to channels that are
periodically inundated during floods. Although we commonly think of river channels as u-shaped features, they exhibit a wide
range of geomorphic variability and are commonly preserved as complex, amalgamated bodies in the geologic record. The
orientation of the outcrop relative to paleoflow direction can also influence one's perception of channel body geometry. A simple
channel that appeared u-shaped when viewed perpendicular to paleoflow direction could appear like an elongate sand ribbon if
viewed parallel to paleoflow. Modern rivers can be characterized using a variety of criteria including sinuosity, number of active
channels, types of bars, and numerous other characteristics. For our purposes, we will take an admittedly oversimplified approach
and focus on three points in the continuum of fluvial style: braided, meandering, and anastomosed (aka fixed-multichannel).

Figure : Points in the continuum of fluvial form. Green areas represent floodplains, yellow areas are emergent sandy bars, and
blue areas are active channels. Diagram from Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 after Miall (1977) and
Leeder (2009).

[Link]: Braided Rivers

Braided river systems consist of a broad "river" with an interwoven network of active channels separated by emergent bars. They
are typically bedload-choked sand- and/or gravel-dominated systems with bars that typically migrate in a downstream direction.
Given the coarse nature of the sediment and the overabundance of bedload, most sediment transport happens during flood stage
when the entire river is bankfull and within-channel bars are submerged.
Overall, abundant bedload makes for unstable banks and sand- or gravel deposits with only modest amounts of mud and numerous
erosion surfaces. Active channel deposits are much more abundant than floodplain deposits. The Platte River of Nebraska is one of
the best known modern braided rivers; well exposed and documented systems include the Castlegate Sandstone (Cretaceous) and
the South Bar Formation (Pennsylvanian).

10.1.4 [Link]
Figure : Google Earth images showing the same segment of the braided Platte River under low/normal flow conditions in
August 2006 (above) and at bankfull stage in June 2001. In these bedload-choked systems, most sediment transport happens during
flood and bankfull flows (courtesy Google Earth, exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on websites for educational
and non-commercial use).

Figure : The Cretaceous Castlegate Sandstone is a well known and well studied sandy braided fluvial deposit (Loco Steve via
Flickr; CC BY 2.0). Notice the abundance of sandstone, the numerous internal erosion surfaces, and the paucity of mudrock.

10.1.5 [Link]
Figure : Overview of the sedimentology of braided river deposits with particular emphasis on the features that are most likely
to be preserved in the geologic record (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.1.6 [Link]
[Link]: Meandering Rivers
Meandering rivers have a sinuous main channel with a broad, often muddy, floodplain. They typically occur in low gradient areas,
carry a mixture of bedload and suspended load, and have more energy than they need to carry the sediment load. They expend the
excess energy winding across the floodplain and distributing sediment across it. Internally, the water in channels actually moves
downstream in a corkscrew fashion (helicoidal flow) which facilitates erosion on the cutbank and deposition on the opposing
pointbar. Sinuosity increases with continued cutbank erosion and pointbar deposition, which gives meandering systems their
distinctive sinuous patter. Eventually curvature increases to the point where a reach of the river gets cut off and isolated forming an
oxbow lake. The oxbow lake is filled with standing water and eventually fills in with mud and/or organic material.
Overall, meandering river systems generally consist of sandy or heterolithic channel deposits encased within finer floodplain
deposits. In a vertical section, a fining-upward trend may be formed by the progression from the (relatively) coarse basal channel
deposits, through sandy and heterolithic point bar deposits (inclined heterolithic strata), and eventually into finer grained floodplain
deposits. The Mississippi River is, by far, the best know modern meandering river; noteworthy ancient examples include portions
of the Devonian Catskill Formation of PA and NY and the Cretaceous McMurray Formation of Alberta.

Figure : Google Earth image showing a meandering portion of the Mississippi River. The light blue lines represent the
boundary between the states of Mississippi (north) and Louisiana (south); the border was originally drawn down the middle of the
active river channel - that course has now been abandoned in numerous places (courtesy Google Earth, image is from
Landsat/Copernicus; exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on websites for educational and non-commercial use).

10.1.7 [Link]
Figure : One of Harold Fisk's (1944) maps showing former courses of the Mississippi River; the different colors represent the
path of the river at different points in time since the last glacial maximum (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers via Radical Cartography;
public domain).

10.1.8 [Link]
Figure : Google Earth image showing anchored ships aligned by helicoidal flow. Flow is from the top of the image toward
the bottom. Ships are anchored on their upstream side and aligned by helicoidal flow so that the long axis of the ship points away
from the cut bank and obliquely up the point bar (courtesy Google Earth; exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on
websites for educational and non-commercial use).

Figure : Inclined heterolithic strata making up point bar deposits in a meandering channel body, Devonian Catskill
Formation near North Bend, PA (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

10.1.9 [Link]
Figure : Overview of the sedimentology of meandering river deposits with particular emphasis on the features that are most
likely to be preserved in the geologic record (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.1.10 [Link]
[Link]: Anastomosed Rivers
Anastomosed river systems have channels that are largely fixed in place without much lateral movement. They are commonly part
of a larger drainage network with multiple interconnected channels separated by floodplains. In the geologic record it is difficult to
prove that multiple channels were active simultaneously (especially given outcrops of limited lateral extent) so the best one can
hope for is to find stable channels - ideally at the same level - isolated within floodplain deposits.

Figure : Google Earth image showing an anastomosed portion of the Columbia River near Spillimacheen, British Columbia
(courtesy Google Earth, image is ©Province of British Columbia; exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on
websites for educational and non-commercial use).

Figure : The u-shaped, sandstone-dominated channel bodies of the Pennsylvanian Springhill Mines Formation are
interpreted as the deposits of an ancient anastomosed river system that delivered sediment into a rapidly subsiding basin (Michael
C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.1.3: Floodplain Deposits

Floodplain deposits consist of muddy sediment formed from suspension deposition following flooding events and sandy deposits in
areas that were closer to higher velocity flows that were capable of moving bedload. Floodplain deposits may show evidence of
subaerial exposure (desiccation cracks, raindrop imprints), evidence of plant growth or other terrestrial fossils, and/or evidence of
pedogenesis including the destruction of bedding or the development of soil horizons.
Levees are areas of positive topographic relief on the floodplain that form adjacent to channels. They form when channelized flows
overtop the river banks and rapidly deposit sediment as the flows become unconfined. Crevasse splays are lobe-shaped sand bodies
that form where a channel breaches the levee and deposits a lobe of relatively coarse grained sediment.

10.1.11 [Link]
Figure : Floodplain deposits. A) Interbedded sheet sandstones and mudrocks are common floodplain deposits. The sheet
sandstones represent energetic flow when riverbanks are overtopped and the mudrocks represent suspension deposition from
standing water. B) Some sheet sandstones thicken toward and can be traced back to the channels that sourced the sediment; stacked
packages of sheet sandstones can represent progradation of crevasse splay deposits. C) Although floodplain mudrocks start off as
laminated or platy mudrocks, pedogenic processes can destroy bedding and red colors represent oxidizing conditions. D)
Floodplain deposits can also record waterlogged conditions as evidenced by gray and green mudrocks and organic-rich horizons,
and even thin coals. E & F) Fossils and sedimentary structures can provide evidence of terrestrial conditions and subaerial exposure
(all images from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; various CC BY-SA licenses).

10.1.12 [Link]
10.1.4: Avulsion and Aggradation
Avulsion is the process by which an active channel rapidly shifts to a different location on a topographically lower part of the
floodplain. It happens when primary flow breaches a levee and diverts through a crevasse channel, usually during floods. If the new
route provides a gradient advantage the active channel may shift to the new course.
Aggradation is the increase in land elevation due to sediment deposition. River channels and levees commonly aggrade together
and become elevated above the floodplain. This process eventually raises the downstream elevation and decreases the gradient.
If/when the levee is breached during a flood, the active channel will preferentially shift to a the new (steeper gradient) course.
Together, the avulsion and aggradation can profoundly influence the preservation of fluvial deposits. Low avulsion rates or high
subsidence rates tend to produce isolated channel bodies; high avulsion rates or low subsidence rates tend to produce highly
amalgamated channel bodies. These relationships get much more complex when the processes interact.

Figure : Google Earth image showing an active channel of the Columbia River, swampy floodplain areas, tree-covered
levees, and a lobe-shaped sandy crevasse-splay deposit formed during a flood event. If there is a gradient advantage, the main
channel could divert through the breach in the levee and avulse to a new course (courtesy Google Earth, image is ©Province of
British Columbia; exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on websites for educational and non-commercial use).

Figure : Diagrams showing the relationship between channel body amalgamation, avulsion rate, and sedimentation rate.
Diagram from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is after Bryant et al. (1995).

10.1.13 [Link]
10.1.5: Overview
Fluvial deposits are generally preserved as sand or gravel channel bodies that have erosional bases and may be amalgamated.
Channel bodies may be encased in finer-grained floodplain deposits. Both river and floodplain deposits can contain evidence of
fresh-water and/or terrestrial fossils. Floodplain deposits may show evidence of soil formation and subaerial exposure.

10.1.6: Readings and Resources

Bryant, M., Falk, P., & Paola, C., 1995, Experimental study of avulsion frequency and rate of deposition. Geology, 23(4), 365-
368.
Harold Fisk's 1944 maps of the Mississippi River
Leeder, M. R., 2009, Sedimentology and sedimentary basins: from turbulence to tectonics. John Wiley & Sons.
Miall, A. D., 1977, A review of the braided-river depositional environment. Earth-Science Reviews, 13(1), 1-62.
Miall, A.D., 1996, The Geology of Fluvial Deposits, Springer, Berlin, 582 p.
Miall, A. D. (2010). Alluvial deposits. In N. P. James & R. W. Dalrymple (Eds.), Facies Models 4 (pp. 105–137). Geological
Association of Canada.

This page titled 10.1: Alluvial Systems is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

10.1.14 [Link]
10.2: Deserts
10.2.1: Definition and Distribution
By definition, deserts are dry areas that receive less than 10 inches of rainfall per year. Although these conditions can occur at just
about any geographic location, areas that are ~30° from the equator tend to be at least semiarid because this is where we have
convection cells bringing dry air down from altitude. Deserts are also particularly likely to form in "rainshadow" areas in the
downwind side of mountain ranges.

Figure : Photograph of Death Valley National Park showing many of the striking landforms present in desert areas (Brocken
Inaglory via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). The geomorphology of these areas is beyond the scope of this chapter; instead
we will focus on the features of desert landscapes that are most commonly preserved in the geologic record.

Figure : Atmospheric circulation patterns showing how circulation cells can influence precipitation patterns at different
latitudes (modified from Kaidor via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

10.2.1 [Link]
 Figure : Illustration of the rainshadow effect on the downwind side of mountain ranges.

Figure : Map showing the distribution of vegetation types; deserts are represented as browns and tans (modified from Ville
Koistinen (user Vzb83) via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). Notice that deserts are particularly abundant and on the
downwind side of mountain ranges.

10.2.2: Processes and Deposits

In the geologic record, desert deposits can cover thousands of square kilometers and be many hundreds of meters thick. The
Jurassic Navajo Sandstone and correlative units reach thicknesses of up to 700 m and widespread occurrences across Wyoming,
Utah, Colorado, and Arizona represents under half of the original >340,000 mi2 extent of the Navajo Sand Sea. And even this vast
ancient desert is dwarfed by the modern Sahara Desert which covers >3.6 million mi2 in northern Africa.

10.2.2 [Link]
 Figure : Exposures of hundreds of meters of the Navajo Sandstone (Jurassic) in the walls of Pine Creek and Zion Canyons,
Zion National Park (Steve Boland via Flickr; CC BY-NC-ND 2.0).

In terms of the origin of sediment within deserts, it may be derived from weathering of older (underlying) rock and sediment,
fluvial transport or mass wasting from adjacent uplands, or moved by wind from other areas within the desert. The lack of water in
these arid areas limits plant growth, which means that under normal conditions sediment transport is dominated by wind. Silt- and
clay-sized particles can be suspended within the air and larger sand-sized particles can be temporarily suspended as well as moved
by traction and saltation. Windblown sand can be organized into large sand dunes with variable morphologies; they can be up to
tens of meters tall and are often preserved as very large, wedge-shaped sets of cross beds. Low-amplitude wind-ripples migrate
across dune faces. When sand accumulations become oversteepened or disturbed, grain flow can happen down dune surfaces which
causes inverse grading and cross-laminae that thicken downdip.

10.2.3 [Link]
 Figure : Photograph of a sandstorm about to overtake a military base in Iraq (Tobin via Flickr; CC BY-NC-SA 2.0). These
impressive storms form when winds grow strong enough to suspend and/or saltate silt- and clay-sized particles exposed at the
surface.

Figure : Collection of videos showing common sediment transport processes in deserts. Clockwise from the top left they include suspension
of silt and sand in a storm, saltation of sand grains, grainflow down the slipface of a dune, and movement of sediment into and across a desert by
flash floods.

Nat Geo Wild - S

BBDO Paris

Oregon Sand …

Watch on

MUD & THUND

Human-Trigg…
Human-Trigg…
Reed Timmer

Watch on

10.2.4 [Link]
Figure : Modern sedimentary structures in deserts (left) and corresponding sedimentary structure preserved in the rock record
(right). A) Large sand dunes in White Sands National Park ornamented with low-amplitude wind ripples oblique to the crest of the
dune (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). Note that the dune is migrating into an interdune area with
relatively abundant vegetation. B) Large eolian cross-beds in the Jurassic Najavo Sandstone in Zion National Park (Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). Circled area shows a person for scale. Because the ultimate limiting factor on
the height of dunes is the depth of the fluid, windblown dunes in deserts can grow to impressive heights. C) Grainflow in
cohesionless sand on the slipface of a dune; footprint for scale (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA). These
features would be preserved as wedge shaped layers of sediment that thickened in a downslope direction; they might contain
inverse grading. D) Inverse grading in eolian sandstone of the Jurassic Carmel Formation (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA).

10.2.5 [Link]
Interdune areas can record a variety of processes and are more sedimentologically complex. Common features in interdune areas
include:
Deflation lags (or desert pavements) - accumulations of gravel that form when finer sediment is winnowed away leaving a
gravel-armored surface behind.
Ventifacts - faceted clasts that are created by wind erosion
Playa lakes - temporary bodies of water that can leave behind evaporites, mud, and evidence of desiccation.
Interdune vegetation - plants adapted to arid conditions can take root in the more stable substrate of interdune areas
Fluvial systems - can be locally or seasonally present, especially where rivers are sourced from more distant or upland areas.
Fluvial transport of sediment into deserts provides input for sediment that will eventually be reworded and transported by the
wind.

Figure : Modern sedimentological feature of interdune areas. A) Deflation lag (desert pavement) in Death Valley National
Park (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). B) Ventifacts with flat, faceted faces formed by wind erosion in
a desert in Libya (calind via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0). C) Oblique Google Earth image showing an interdune area in
the Namib Sand Sea with a seasonal fluvial system and interdune vegetation (courtesy Google Earth, exported images from Google
Earth can be embedded on websites for educational and non-commercial use). D) Photograph of interdune area with vegetation and
desiccation cracks in fine grained sediment deposited in an emphemeral lake (Anthony Brown via Pexels; Pexels license).

10.2.6 [Link]
 Figure : Diagram showing the formation of a deflation lag (desert pavement) by the removal of fines via wind and
concentration of remaining coarse fraction (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.2.3: Overview
Overall, desert deposits commonly consist of large, eolian cross-beds that can be much thicker than subaqueous cross-beds, low
amplitude wind ripple cross laminae, deflation lags, evidence of ephemeral lakes and rivers, evaporite minerals in playas or
paleosols.

10.2.7 [Link]
 Figure : Overview of the sedimentology of desert deposits with particular emphasis on features that are likely to be
preserved in the geologic record (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.2.4: Readings and Resources

Laity, J.J., 2008, Deserts and Desert Environments, Wiley-Blackwell, 368 p., ISBN: 978-1-577-18033-3.
Brookfield, M. E., & Silvestro, S. (2010). Eolian systems. In N. P. James & R. W. Dalrymple (Eds.), Facies Models (4th ed., pp.
7–7). Geological Association of Canada.

This page titled 10.2: Deserts is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

10.2.8 [Link]
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
Marginal marine environments form at the intersection of land and sea, where terrestrial and marine processes converge. In regions
with a moderate supply of clastic sediment, these environments are shaped by the balance between waves, rivers, and tides which
results in the development of beaches, deltas, and tidal flats, respectively. Relative sea level also plays a critical role in influencing
these processes and the resulting depositional architecture. For instance, coastal areas dominated by fluvial systems are more likely
to form deltas in regressive settings and estuaries in transgressive settings.

Figure : Features of regressive coastlines emphasizing geomorphic features associated with tide-, river-, and wave-dominated
areas (from Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is after Boyd et al. (1992).

10.3.1: Beaches
A beach is a sandy, wave-dominated environment that is attached to the mainland. Waves are created when wind blows across the
surface of the ocean; the resulting friction generates waves. Remember that waves cause circular motion in the water column and
that motion translates down to a depth that is equal to one half of the wavelength. Fairweather wave base is the depth at which
waves “feel” bottom under normal conditions; it marks the transition from marginal marine “beach” type deposits to the fully
marine environments of the shelf.

[Link]: Environments and Processes

Beaches are characterized by a distinct succession of environments, processes, and sedimentary structures that are summarized and
illustrated below.

10.3.1 [Link]
 Figure : Cross-sectional view illustrating the major sedimentological features of beaches (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

Backshore areas only submerged during storms or extremely high tides and are dominated by eolian processes as wind blows
inland across the beach. Eolian dunes and vegetation are common and the resulting deposits are characterized by landward- and
seaward dipping low angle laminae, cross-beds, well-sorted, wind-reworked sand, and possibly roots and minor bioturbation.
The foreshore lies within the intertidal zone, between high and low tide levels. Here, sedimentary processes are dominated by the
action of swash – where breaking waves send shallow/high velocity pulses of water and sand up the beach profile. Some water and
sediment might flow back downslope. This results in low-angle laminae and the formation of heavy mineral lags. Bioturbation is
very minor as few organisms can live in this dynamic and high energy environment.

10.3.2 [Link]
 Figure : Photographs of modern beaches. A) Backshore area with eolian dunes and vegetation on Ocracoke Island, North
Carolina (Carol Highsmith, Library of Congress; no known restrictions on publication). B) Foreshore zone showing laminated
sand cause by swash (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

The shoreface is always submerged and is regularly reworked by wave activity. The shoreface can be divided into three distinct
subzones based on sedimentary structures and biological activity:
1. Upper shoreface: This zone is characterized by trough cross-bedding from landward-migrating dunes, low-angle laminae, and
abundant erosion surfaces.
2. Middle shoreface: Sedimentary structures in this zone include trough cross-bedding and reworked hummocky cross-
stratification (HCS). Bioturbation becomes more abundant and diverse.
3. Lower shoreface: This deeper zone is dominated by abundant HCS formed by oscillatory wave conditions during storms.
Bioturbation becomes both intense and diverse - often to the point of destroying primary bedding structures. Fairweather wave
base marks the boundary between the lower shoreface and deeper water deposits of the offshore transition (inner shelf).

10.3.3 [Link]
Figure : Photographs of shoreface deposits from the Wasp Head Formation (Permian), New South Wales, Australia (all photos
from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Images on the left are outcrop scale and focus on stratification
and sedimentary structures; images on the right are more detailed and show representitive bioturbation. A & B) Low-angle
laminated pebbly sandstones of the upper shoreface, C & D) Hummocky cross-stratified middle shoreface deposits with Rosselia, E
& F) Intensely bioturbated pebbly sandstone of the lower shoreface with Conichnus (anemone resting trace).

10.3.4 [Link]
[Link]: Barrier Islands
Barrier islands are detached beaches separated from the mainland by low-lying brackish wetlands called lagoons. Barrier island
deposits are largely similar to the beach deposits described above and are best diagnosed through their context and association with
lagoons. Lagoonal deposits include muds deposited from suspension deposition, beach sands introduced via washover events, and
tidal inlet channels. Lagoons are typically organic-rich and experience both oxygen and salinity stress.
Most barrier islands form via one of two models:
1. Transgression by shoreface retreat: As sea level rises, storm washover processes move sand landward, resulting in the gradual
migration of the barrier island toward the mainland. New sand is supplied by longshore drift of sediment supplied to the coast
via rivers.
2. In-place drowning: If sea level rises rapidly, waves may deposit sand in situ, leading to the development of a barrier island
without significant lateral migration.

Figure : Barrier island (foreground) and lagoon (middle of the image) near Carboneras, Mexico, which is visible near the top
left of the image (courtesy Google Earth, exported images from Google Earth can be embedded on websites for educational and
non-commercial use). Note the lobe-shaped washover deposits on the lagoon side of the barrier island.

10.3.5 [Link]
10.3.2: Deltas
Deltas are marginal marine systems formed where fluvial systems build into standing bodies of water; they have both subaerial and
subaqueous deposits. Deltas grow through the progradation of lobes, with new lobes forming as rivers shift to steeper gradients
during avulsions. This process distributes sediment evenly across the delta system. Although they can be shaped by waves and
tides, rivers are the dominant force shaping deltas. The largest examples typically occur on passive margins or in slowly subsiding
areas where sediment supply exceeds the rate of subsidence.

[Link]: Environments and Processes

Figure : Cross-sectional sketch showing the major sedimentological subdivisions of a delta (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

The delta plain is the subaerial portion of the delta, which can be divided into two zones. The upper delta plain lies above the limit
of tidal influence and is shaped primarily by fluvial processes. It is composed of river and floodplain deposits and they commonly
contain peat swamps (coal). The lower delta plain, between the low tide mark and the furthest extent of tidal influence, experiences
a mix of fluvial, tidal, and marine processes. This area is a stressed environment due to salinity, oxygen, and water level
fluctuations. It includes distributary channels and interdistributary bays and wetlands.
Distributary channels transport water and sediment to the sea, often featuring river-like deposits with tidal mud drapes. These
channels may cut into underlying deposits. Interdistributary intervals are broad, shallow bays with a mix of fresh and marine
waters. Sediments in these intervals include muddy, organic-rich deposits and sandy crevasse splays. Faunal diversity and the
intensity of bioturbation is limited by environmental stresses.

10.3.6 [Link]
The delta front is a shallow marine zone (typically < 10 m deep) where clastic sediments are deposited by both bedload and
suspension processes. This area may experience additional modification by wave or tidal processes, resulting in conditions that
range from fully marine to brackish. Mouth bars and subaqueous levees form where sediment-laden channelized flow slows down
where it meets standing water.
The prodelta lies seaward of the delta front, where fine silts and clays settle. These fines are supplied by plumes of fresh, muddy
water that are less dense than salt water and may extend considerable distances from where distributary channels meet the ocean.
This zone is less influenced by tides and waves, creating stable, open marine conditions with abundant nutrients and organic
matter. Bioturbation is common, although localized stresses from decaying organics can reduce oxygen levels.

Figure : Map view sketch showing the major sedimentological subdivisions of the terminal portion of a delta (Page Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Morphology and Geometry

In map view, deltas commonly display a triangular to lobe-shaped morphology and in cross-section view they exhibit a wedge-
shaped profile that thins in both updip and downdip directions. Although dominated by fluvial processes, the shape of and
processes within deltas can be modified by tides and waves. Overwhelmingly fluvial-dominated deltas, such as the Mississippi
River Delta, form lobate shapes with sandy distributary fingers. These types of deltaic successions commonly show stacked
shallowing upward successions that record the progradation, and eventual abandonment, of individual lobes. Wave-dominated
deltas, like the Nile Delta, are shaped by wave action that results in a blunt overall shape with flanking beaches. Tide-dominated
deltas, such as the Mahakam Delta, feature funnel-shaped, sand-filled distributary channels and prominent tidal indicators.
Deltaic deposits on progradational coastlines commonly exhibit coarsening-upward successions formed from shallowing and the
advance of the delta into the standing body of water. Given the overlap with purely fluvial systems, deltaic interpretations are best
made from multiple outcrops where one can more confidently identify sandy or silty fluvial deposits prograding into lacustrine or

10.3.7 [Link]
marine mudrocks or seismic lines where one can see seaward-dipping clinoforms (when viewed perpendicular to the coast) or
mounded clinoforms (when viewed parallel to the coast).

Figure : Airphotos showing the spectrum of delta morphologies. A) The Mississippi River delta complex includes multiple
inactive lobes as well as the active Balize lobe (the "Bird foot" delta) near the right edge of the image. The photo was taken during
high flow and highlights the influx of muddy water into the Gulf of Mexico. The Atchafalaya River is an active distributary
channel and is flowing into the Gulf of Mexico near the left edge of the image. (NASA via Visible Earth; public domain). B) Detail
of the Bird Foot delta (NASA via Visible Earth; public domain), C) The tide-dominated Mahakam Delta with the funnel-shaped
distributary channels characteristic of these types of deltas (NASA via Earth Observatory; public domain). D) The wave-
dominated Pariba Del Sul Delta shows a blunted morphology and a series of beach ridges (courtesy Google Earth, exported images
from Google Earth can be embedded on websites for educational and non-commercial use).

10.3.8 [Link]
10.3.3: Tidal Flats
Tides are periodic vertical changes in water level, caused by the combined effects of centrifugal and gravitational forces in the
Earth-Moon and Earth-Sun systems. Most coastlines experience a tidal range (the difference in height between high and low tide)
of just a few meters, but local conditions can cause it to be much higher in some locations. The world’s highest tides are present in
the Bay of Fundy in Atlantic Canada where the average tidal range in some parts of the bay are ~15 m (50 ft).

Figure : Photographs of a wharf on the Bay of Fundy at high tide (left) and low tide (right) taken approximately six hours
apart (Samuel Wantman via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0).

[Link]: Causes of the tides

As mentioned above, tides are caused by gravitational and centrifugal forces caused by the interaction of the Earth-Moon and
Earth-Sun systems. Although the moon is much smaller than the Sun, it is much closer and exerts approximately twice the tidal
influence of the Sun. For the sake of simplicity, we will first consider the interaction of the Earth and Moon in our initial
discussion; the interaction of the Earth and Sun is much the same and is best considered in the discussion of neap and spring tides.
A fuller discussion of the causes of the tides is available in Chapter 11.1 of Webb’s Introduction to Oceanography (also an OER
resource).
The Moon’s gravity pulls water toward it which creates a tidal bulge that is greatest directly beneath it. A second, smaller tidal
bulge is present on the opposite side of the Earth; it is caused by centrifugal force from the rotation of the Earth and Moon around
their shared center of mass (the barycenter). The tidal bulges remain beneath and opposite the position of the Moon, but because
the Earth spins on it's rotational axis and the moon rotates in the same direction, it takes 24.84 hours for a tidal bulge to return to
the same spot on the surface of the Earth. The unevenness of the two high tides (and intervening low tides) is further enhanced by
the inclination of the Moon’s orbital plane relative to the equator. Thus, many places experience two unequal high tides and two
unequal low tides every 24.84 hours (about 50 minutes later each day).
Tidal range also changes because of the interaction of the lunar and solar tidal bulges. Spring tides are times with relatively high
tidal ranges that occur when the Earth, Moon, and Sun are in alignment and the resulting tidal bulges experience constructive
interference. Conversely, neap tides are periods of lower tidal range caused by the Moon being at 90° to the Earth-Sun line which
results in destructive interference. Thus, there is a ~28 day cyclicity with spring tides occurring during new and full moons (about
14 days apart) and neap tides occur midway between them when the moon is at first quarter and last quarter, respectively.

10.3.9 [Link]
 Figure : Diagrams showing gravitational and centrifugal tidal bulges (above) and the interaction fo the Earth-Moon-Sun
system to cause neap and spring tides (below). From Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

[Link]: Tidal Deposits

The influence of tides can result in regular changes in current velocity and direction which can, in turn, cause the formation of
distinctive sedimentary structures that include:
Tidal rhythmites: These deposits consist of sand-mud couplets, where mud is deposited during periods of low water movement
(high and low tide) and sand is deposited when currents are stronger during the rising and falling tides. In some tidal systems,
the ebb and flood currents are weaker, resulting in mud-sand couplets that are unequal in size.
Heterolithic bedding: Tidal deposits often show more complexity than simple rhythmites. Alternations between sand and mud
reflect fluctuations in flow strength due to changes in current velocity, water depth, neap-spring cyclity, and other factors.

10.3.10 [Link]
Mud drapes: In tidal environments, periods of slack water may allow the deposition of thin mud drapes over coarser sediments,
even in areas with strong currents capable of forming dunes.
Herringbone cross-beds: In situations where currents are consistently strong, sedimentary structures such as herringbone cross-
beds may form. These features reflect changes in current direction, typical of tidal environments where the flow alternates
between flood and ebb tides.

Figure : Illustration showing the relationship between tides, tidal currents, and tidal rhythmite deposits. From Page Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is after Dalrymple, R.W. (1992) and Kvale et al. (1998).

10.3.11 [Link]
 Figure : Tidal deposits include A) Tidal rhythmites (scale bar is in inches), B) heterolithic bedding, C) mud drapes, and D)
herringbone cross-bedding. A) is from James St. John (Flickr; CC BY 2.0) and B-D) are from Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Tide-dominated coasts

In coastal areas dominated by tides we can consider three main zones:
Supratidal areas are located above the high tide mark and are only inundated during exceptionally high tides or storms. These
areas consist of muddy salt marshes that are colonized by salt-tolerant grasses, succulents, and herbs.
The intertidal zone is effectively synonymous with the term “tidal flat” and is the low-gradient area that is variously exposed
and submerged during a tidal cycle. Updip areas are typically muddy because they are only inundated around high tide when
water velocity is relatively low. Tidal flats become progressively sandier downdip because these areas experience bedload
transport during relatively high velocity flows during falling and rising tides. The intertidal zone is the area that is exposed
and submerged with each tidal cycle. They often have a dendritic network of tidal channels that help drain water during low
tide. These areas contain both sand and mud and heterolithic bedding is common; lenticular bedding dominates in updip areas
and flaser bedding dominates in downdip areas.
Subtidal areas are always submerged and are profoundly influence by currents from rising and falling tides and/or currents that
parallel the shoreline. They are composed of sandy sediment organized into a variety of large dune and sandbar morphologies.

10.3.12 [Link]
 Figure : Cross-sectional sketch showing the major sedimentological subdivisions of a tide-dominated coast (Page Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link].1: Tidally-influenced rivers

Rivers that drain into areas with high tides can be profoundly impacted by tidal cycles; in extreme cases the channel might be
bankfull during high tide and flow inland and nearly empty and flow seaward during low tide. In certain regions, rising tides can
create a tidal bore - wave that travels upstream, marking the point where flow reversal occurs. Tidal influence can extend a
surprising distance upstream in larger systems and might be expressed through the influx of brackish waters or decreased flow
velocity because of ponding during high tide. As mentioned above, tidally-influenced deltas often take on a funnel-like
morphology with relatively straight, radiating distributary channels

10.3.4: Readings and Resources

Boyd, R., Dalrymple, R., and Zaitlin, B., 1992, Classification of clastic coastal depositional environments. Sedimentary
Geology. v. 80. p. 139-150.
Dalrymple, R.W., 1992, Tidal Depositional Systems in Walker, R.G. and James, N.P. (eds.), Facies Models (2nd ed), Geological
Association of Canada, St. John's, p. 195-218 a
Kvale E.P., Sowder K.H., Hill B.T., 1998, Modern and ancient tides - Poster and explanatory notes, SEPM, Tulsa, OK, and
Indiana Geological Survey, Bloomington, IN.
Webb, P., 11.1 - Tidal forces in "Introduction to Oceanography"

This page titled 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

10.3.13 [Link]
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
10.4.1: Nature of Ocean Basins
The depth of ocean basins is largely controlled by tectonic activity and the geological setting in which they form. Pericontinental
seas are found at the edges of continents, adjacent to very deep oceanic waters. These seas contrast with epicontinental seas, which
occur when continental areas become submerged. Epicontinental seas are relatively rare in the modern world, with Hudson Bay
being one of the few examples. However, they were far more prevalent during the Cretaceous and other greenhouse climate
phases when ocean basins held less water (rapid seafloor spreading made them warmer and more buoyant) and because there was
more liquid water present because there was little/no glacial ice. This lead to widespread, but relatively shallow flooding of
continental landmasses.

Figure : Cross-sectional sketch showing marine bathymetry and major environments (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.4.2: Shelf Environments

The shelf is a relatively shallow, very gently dipping area along the submerged margin of a continent or in a foreland basin. It
extends from the boundary with the lower shoreface to the more steeply dipping shelf break. The width of the continental shelves
varies greatly, ranging from a few kilometers to over 1,500 kilometers wide and ~100 to 200 m deep.

10.4.1 [Link]
 Figure : The gorge at Taughannock Falls, NY exposes a thick succession of Devonian-aged shelf mudrocks deposited as part
of the Catskill clastic wedge (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

[Link]: Inner Shelf

Waves are an important influence on sedimentation in many inner shelves. Fair-weather wave base is the depth at which waves
influence the seafloor under normal conditions ... the depth is equal to 1/2 of the spacing between waves. Waves are larger during
storms and their influence extends to greater depth (storm wave base). The offshore transition is the innermost portion of a wave-
dominated inner shelf; it lies between fair weather wave base and storm wave base. It is characterized by admixed sand and mud,
intense bioturbation and the resulting paucity of primary sedimentary structures. Hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) sandy layers
deposited during storm events may be present locally if they were buried before they could be homogenized via bioturbation.
In relatively shallow seas with significant tidal currents sediment movement is more continuous and large, straight- to sinuous-
crested sand ridges may be present. These features are elongate parallel to current direction and can be ornamented with bi-
directional cross beds the reflect ebb and flood currents.

Figure : Intensely bioturbated sand and mud in deposits of the offshore transition (inner shelf). Images from Michael C.
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

10.4.2 [Link]
[Link]: Outer Shelf
Beyond the inner shelf, the outer shelf lies at depths too great for wave and tidal influence. Here, variably bioturbated mudrock via
suspension deposition is the most common lithology. Weak currents exist, mainly influenced by oceanic circulation or upwelling.
Additionally, relict sand bodies may also be present - they represent remnants of coarser sediments deposited when sea levels were
lower and sediment transport was more active. Carbonate deposition can also occur in deeper water portions of some clastic-
dominated shelves.

Figure : Organic-rich shales deposited in oxygen-poor outer shelf water depths. A) New Albany shale (Upper Devonian) at
the McDonald Knob Outcrop, Bullitt County, Kentucky (James St. John via Flickr; CC BY 2.0) and B) Utica shale exposed along
the NYS Thruway (Michael C. Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

10.4.3: Deep Marine Environments

Figure : Distribution of sediment types on the seafloor; Within each colored area, the type of material shown is what
dominates, although other materials are also likely to be present (Steven Earle, Physical Geology (2nd), CC BY 4.0).

[Link]: Slope, Rise, and Abyssal Plain

Deep marine depositional settings include the continental slope, continental rise, and abyssal plain. The continental slope dips
seaward at approximately 4 degrees and serves as a major conduit for sediment transport from the continental shelf to the deep

10.4.3 [Link]
ocean. The slope generally extends from depths of around 200 meters at the shelf break to approximately 3,000 meters where it
transitions into the rise. This region also marks the transition from continental to oceanic crust. Sediment is delivered through
suspension deposition and storm-driven transport (via gravity and exceptional currents), but the relatively steep gradient makes the
slope prone to soft-sediment deformation, failure, and gravity mass movement. Slope failures lead to the development of turbidity
currents (turbulent mixtures of sediment and water) which can carve submarine canyons and transport sediment downslope under
the influence of gravity.
At the base of the continental slope, the continental rise consists of sediment transported by turbidity currents. This region, which
slopes more gently at around 0.5 degrees, extends from approximately 3,000 to 4,000 meters in depth. These currents form
channelized systems with levees, resembling subaerial floodplain channels. As turbidity currents lose energy, they deposit sediment
in a characteristic sequence described by the Bouma model, which details the transition from high-energy turbidity currents to
lower-energy traction currents and eventual suspension deposition. This results in a fining-upward sequence, with coarser material
deposited first and finer sediments settling out as the current dissipates.

Figure : Stacked turbidite deposits (partial Bouma sequences) exposed in a road cut near Mill Creek, California (Dave
Schumaker via Flickr; CC BY-NC-ND 2.0).

Beyond the continental rise lies the abyssal plain, one of the most extensive depositional environments on Earth (it covers nearly
50% of the planet’s surface!). The abyssal plain extends from depths of about 4,000 to 6,000 meters and has an extremely low
gradient, typically less than 0.05 degrees. Sedimentation here is almost exclusively pelagic, with fine-grained sediments settling out
from suspension. These deep-sea sediments are primarily composed of siliceous or calcareous ooze and deep-sea clays.

10.4.4 [Link]
[Link]: Carbonate Compensation Depth
The carbonate compensation depth (CCD) plays a crucial role in determining the composition of abyssal sediments. At shallow
depths, surface waters are supersaturated with calcite, allowing for relatively abundant carbonate deposition. However, as depth
increases, cold temperatures and high pressure cause the water to become undersaturated, which contributes to the dissolution of
calcareous material. At the CCD, the rate of carbonate dissolution exceeds the rate of supply, and below this depth carbonate
sediment is not present and siliceous oozes or deep sea clays become dominant. Features like mid-ocean ridges and volcanic
seamounts can create significant topographic relief in the deep ocean and the calcareous sediment deposited in these shallow waters
may be eventually be buried with bedded cherts or shales as plate motion causes the plate to move, cool, and subside.

Figure : Calcareous sediment can only accumulate in depths shallower than the calcium carbonate compensation depth
(CCD). Below the CCD, calcareous sediments dissolve and will not accumulate. The lysocline represents the depths where the rate
of dissolution increases dramatically (Paul Webb via Introduction to Oceanography, CC BY 4.0).

This page titled 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

10.4.5 [Link]
10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.5.1: Distribution in Space and Time

Figure : Distribution of modern shallow water carbonate environments. The different colors represent different "factories",
each of which is a distinctive carbonate-forming ecosystems. They include biochemical factories (orange) dominated by lime mud,
ooids, and/or stromatolites, photozoan - tropical (red) factories dominated by coral and green algae, Photozoan - cool water
(purple) factories areas dominated by red algae and sea grass, and heterozoan - cool water (blue) factories dominated by bryozoans
and mollusks. From Laugié et al, 2019; CC BY 4.0.

Figure : View of Egg Island, an 800 m2 island in the Bahama Banks which is a large carbonate platform in the Caribbean
Sea. Note the deep blue open ocean to the north of the reef that makes up the island (tropical photozoan factory) and the light-
colored, tidally influenced oolitic sand bars south of the island (biochemical factory). From the European Space Agency via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.

10.5.1 [Link]
Most of the world’s coastlines today are dominated by clastic sediments, with only a few regions exhibiting significant carbonate
production. These carbonate-producing areas are often in shallow, tropical areas that are removed from major rivers and other
sources of clastic sediment. In environments where clastic sediments are present, carbonate production is often inhibited. Clastic
sediments reduce light penetration, dilute carbonate material, and generally create unfavorable conditions for carbonate-producing
organisms. While mixed clastic-carbonate systems do exist, it is often more practical to consider carbonate and clastic depositional
environments as distinct end-members due to their differing sedimentary processes.
Carbonate deposition is most prevalent during warm climate phases and in shallow seas where sea levels are high. Although abiotic
carbonate production can be locally important (oolitic limestones, whiting events, etc.), a large percentage of modern carbonate
production is biological, derived from shelly organisms, calcareous algae, and calcareous plankton. Since most of these organisms
thrive in the photic zone, carbonate deposition is generally restricted to shallow marine environments where light penetration is
sufficient to support biological activity.
Carbonate rocks are significant in the geological record, but the organisms associated with their formation have changed
dramatically over time. Unlike clastic sediments, carbonate sediments are intrabasinal, meaning they originate within the basin
where they are deposited. The maximum grain size in carbonate sediments is controlled by the skeletal material of the organisms
rather than by hydrodynamic processes. Additionally, the proportion of carbonate mud present in a deposit serves as a reliable
proxy for assessing energy levels within the depositional environment.

 Terminology

A stunningly vague, complex, and sometimes contradictory collection of terms has arisen to describe the spectrum of carbonate
environments. In this section we adopt the following terminology based on our experiences and reading of the literature:
Basin - A deep marine environment well below storm wave base. Dominated by suspension deposition. Basinal deposits can
be nearly identical to outer ramp or outer shelf deposits.
Lagoon - A relatively narrow body of water that sits between the mainland and some barrier with the open ocean (in this
context, typically a shoal or reef). Communication with fully marine waters is restricted and oxygen and/or salinity stress are
typical. Generally very low energy; some have peritidal areas around their margins.
Peritidal - Areas that are tidally influenced or immediately adjacent to them. Subenvironments include subtidal (below avg.
low tide), intertidal (variously exposed and inundated by normal tides), and supratidal (above avg. high tide).
Platform - A nearly horizontal, shallow marine environment that is surrounded by marine waters. Flooded areas of large
platforms can be considered shelves. Can be in direct communication with the open ocean (unrimmed) or can be bounded by a
reef or shoal (rimmed).
Ramp - A moderately dipping, relatively shallow marine environment. Comparable to a shelf but a somewhat steeper
slope. Can be in direct communication with the open ocean (unrimmed) or can be bounded by a reef or shoal (rimmed). Outer
ramp deposits can be nearly identical of basinal facies.
Reef - An in situ accumulation of wave-resistant organisms (cf. shoal). Can form on the margins of platforms, ramps, or
shelves.
Shelf - a very low gradient, relatively shallow marine environment in shallow epieric seas, continental margins, or atop
platforms. Comparable to a ramp, but a shallower gradient. Can be in direct communication with the open ocean (unrimmed)
or can be bounded by a reef or shoal (rimmed). Outer shelf deposits can be nearly identical of basinal facies.
Shoal - an accumulation of sand-sized carbonate grains that that builds up in higher energy, wave-dominated environments (cf.
reef). Can form on the margins of platforms, ramps, or shelves.
Slope - A steeply dipping area that is transitional between the relatively shallow waters of a shoal, shelf, ramp, or reef and deep
marine waters of the basin.

10.5.2 [Link]
10.5.2: Major Depositional Environments
Carbonate sediments primarily form in relatively shallow water environments (meters to tens of meters) within the subtidal
carbonate factory, where sediment is transported both basinward and shoreward. In addition to these regions, carbonate
accumulation occurs in relatively shallow water reef and peritidal environments, while deepwater carbonate deposition can occur
where calcareous skeletal material accumulates.

[Link]: Peritidal Areas

Peritidal carbonates form in environments influenced by tides and the areas immediately adjacent to them. These include supratidal
environments (only inundated during storm events), intertidal environments (regularly exposed and submerged by the tides), and
shallow subtidal environments (just below the low tide level).
The most proximal (updip) areas experience extended periods of subaerial exposure and may consist of pebble- to boulder-sized
carbonate breccias with a matrix that varies from (lime) mudstone to siltstone or sandstone. Supratidal to upper intertidal areas are
more frequently inundated and may be composed of lime mudstone with variable amounts of interbedded skeletal wackstone to
packstone. Lime mudstones may be planar laminated or have crinkly algal laminae; mudcracks and intraclasts can be present
locally.
Intertidal environments represent low-energy, sheltered settings that occasionally experience high-energy storm events. Common
facies include laminated mudstones with variable amounts of intraclastic, skeletal and/or peloidal wackestone to grainstone.
Mudcracks, fenestrae, crinkly algal laminae, pisoids, peloids, and intraformational conglomerates may be abundant.
Shallow subtidal areas, which transition into lagoonal environments, can contain mudstone to packstone facies with rip-up clasts,
peloids, and fossils present locally. Herringbone cross-beds and variably oriented ripple cross-laminae may be present and record
reversing tidal currents. Thin quartz sandstones or arenaceous carbonates are present in some successions.
In all of these settings, dolomitization can be pervasive and may destroy or overprint primary textures.

10.5.3 [Link]
Figure : Sedimentology of peritidal carbonate environments (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

10.5.4 [Link]
Figure : Peritidal carbonate deposits, Part 1. A) Heterolithic lime mudstone; sample is ~10 cm across. B) Bedding plane view
of trough cross-beds recording flow in opposite directions. C) Imbricated lime mudstone intraclasts in a grainstone; the green color
is from glauconite. Sample is 18 cm across. D) Intraclasts and oncoids in a packstone. E) Pisoid grainstone. F) Bedding plane view
of mudcracks in a limestone. All images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.5 [Link]
 Figure : Peritidal carbonate deposits, Part 2. A) "Crinkly", likely algally-laminated lime mudstone B) Stromatolite in Glacier
National Park, C) Fenestral limestone in the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, and D) Fenestral limestone, Permian Reef
complex, New Mexico. Field of view is ~15 cm. All images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

[Link]: Lagoons
Lagoons are low-energy environments located on the landward side of reefs or shoals. Although entirely subaqueous, their limited
connection to the open ocean makes them susceptible to oxygen and salinity stress. Deposition is primarily by suspension and
organic-rich lime mudstones are very abundant, but peloidal grainstones can be abundant locally and intraclast and/or skeletal
grainstones record washover events during storms.
Both trace and body fossil abundance and composition are highly variable, though low-diversity assemblages are most common.
While scattered marine fossils may be present, organisms tolerant of stressed conditions (ostracods, calcispheres, etc.) tend to
dominate. Algal laminae, stromatolites, and/or stromatoporoids may be present locally.
Overall, lagoons are typically preserved as organic-rich lime mudstones to wackestones, which are internally massive to faintly
laminated. Bioturbation ranges from scattered to abundant. Dolomitization can be pervasive in lagoons that become chemically
evolved.

10.5.6 [Link]
Figure : Sedimentology of lagoonal carbonate environments (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.5.7 [Link]
Figure : Photographs of carbonate facies deposited in lagoons. A) Heterollitic dolomudstone from the peritidal margin of a
lagoon. B) "Crinkly", likely algally-laminated dolomudstone C) Possible burrows in an organic-rich, internally massive
dolomudstone, D) Burrows in an internally massive dolomudstone, E) Amphiphora (stromatoporoids) in the Jefferson Formation
(Devonian) near Sacagawea Peak, Bridger Range, Montana. F) Photomicrograph (PPL) showing ostracods and calcispheres in a
lime mudstone from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation in SW Montana. All images from Michael Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.8 [Link]
[Link]: Shelf/Platform Interior
Shelves and platforms are both very low-gradient shallow marine environments; the margin of shelves and platforms can be in
direct communication with the open ocean (unrimmed) or can be bounded by a reef or shoal (rimmed). Shelves can be adjacent to
continental crust and represent a transition to the open ocean or form the interior of platforms. Platforms are isolated and
surrounded by marine waters.
The spectrum of environments and processes on shelves can be extremely variable depending on local conditions.
Carbonate deposition can occur seaward of, and pass laterally into, clastic-dominated areas on the margins of continental shelves.
Common facies include lime mudstones, wackstones and packstones with largely in situ skeletal material, storm-generated
wackestone to packstone beds with abraded skeletal material, as well as fossiliferous sandstones, siltstones, and shales.
Higher energy shelves have been described from epicontinental seas and the interior portions of isolated platforms. Common
facies include grainstones that may contain a variety of transported grains, including skeletal fragments, ooids, pisoids, peloids,
and/or intraclasts. Grainstones are commonly cross-bedded and may contain isolated larger grains transported during storms. In
shallow, protected areas near the shore or behind shoals/reefs, fenestral-pisoid laminated facies and tepee complexes may be
present. Scattered sandstones and/or siltstones may be present.

Figure : Schematic cross section of a very gently dipping shelf adjacent to a continental margin; comparable environments
also occur in th einterior of some isolated carbonate platforms. From Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.9 [Link]
Figure : Sedimentology of carbonate shelf and platform interior areas (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0).

10.5.10 [Link]
Figure : Photographs of carbonates deposited on shelves or platform interiors. A) Skeletal wackestone to packstone; unit and
location uncertain but possibly from the Devonian of southern Indiana (James St. John via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY 2.0). B)
Cross-bedded skeletal grainstone in the Salem Limestone, central Indiana. C) Detail of a crinoid-rich skeletal grainstone. D)
Photomicrograph of A Pleistocene oolitic sandstone. E) Transported pisoids, intraclasts and ooids in a wackestone to packstone in
the shelf crest of the Permian Reef complex. F) Tepee structure in shelf crest strata of the Permian Reef complex exposed in the
parking lot of the Carlsbad Caverns National Park visitor center. All images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.11 [Link]
[Link]: Shoals
Carbonate shoals are high-energy environments where transported skeletal fragments and/or ooids accumulate above fair-weather
wave base. While shoals and reefs occupy similar bathymetric positions, reefs consist of in situ accumulations of wave-resistant
organisms, whereas shoals are composed of transported sediment. Both can form along broad shelf margins or isolated platforms,
provided clastic input is minimal and fully marine conditions with abundant oxygen, energy, and warm temperatures are present.
Although modern examples exist (e.g., the Bahama Banks), they were far more common in the geologic past when epeiric seas
flooded continental crust, and global climates were warmer.
Shoals and reefs act as barriers, separating calm lagoons or shelf environments from more energetic open-marine conditions. Shoal
development follows processes similar to those of a clastic shoreface. The upper shoal is well above fair-weather wave base,
consists of shifting oolitic and/or skeletal sand (grainstone) with sedimentary structures such as cross-beds, ripple cross-laminae,
low-angle laminae, cross-cutting erosion surfaces, and rip-up clasts. More distal foreshoal deposits, also above fair-weather wave
base, contain more interbedded skeletal to oolitic packstones and wackestones. Bioturbation increases in abundance and diversity
compared to the upper shoal. While sedimentary structures are similar, cross-beds become less common and may be replaced
by hummocky cross-strata.

Figure : Schematic cross section of a relatively gently dipping carbonate ramp with a shoal developed above fair weather
wave base (FWWB). From Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.12 [Link]
Figure : Sedimentology of a lagoon to shoal to middle ramp carbonate environments (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.5.13 [Link]
 Figure : Photographs of carbonates deposited in shoal or middle ramp environments. A) Polished slab of a skeletal
grainstone deposited in shoreface water depths on a shoal, Lodgepole Formation, Montana. B) Outcrop photograph of a cross-
bedded skeletal grainstone. C) Interbedded wackestones, packstones, and grainstones deposited near the transition between a shoal
and the middle ramp. D) Shallowing-upward parasequence through foreshoal and shoal deposits, Lodgepole Formation,
Montana. All images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

[Link]: Reefs
Reefs are wave-resistant, in situ accumulations of benthic organisms that thrive in high-energy, shallow-water environments. While
they can endure crashing waves and grow rapidly enough to keep pace with sea-level rise, they generally require clear, warm, fully
marine waters. The morphology of reef-building organisms is shaped by energy levels within the reef environment, with different
organisms contributing in various ways—some form rigid, wave-resistant frameworks, others generate sediment, and some bind
and stabilize the seafloor. Reef-building communities have varied over time, including stromatolites, archaeocyathids, corals,
stromatoporoids, algae, sponges, and bivalves, among others. Major subenvironments of the reef are described below.
The back reef is a low-energy zone transitional between the reef and protected areas (ex: lagoon) behind it. It typically has a muddy
substrate, sometimes with domal or robust branching organisms. A low-gradient reef flat, composed of storm-transported clasts
cemented into a pavement, may separate it from the reef crest. The reef crest extends from the high tide mark to several meters
below, this zone varies with energy levels. In extreme wave conditions, it consists of sheet-like encrusting organisms adapted to
exposure and intense wave action; in calmer settings, robust branching forms dominate. The reef front contains a diverse collection
of organisms that display a systematic progression of forms including massive corals near the reef crest, branching forms near wave
base, and platy forms extending to the lower limit of the photic zone.

10.5.14 [Link]
Figure : Schematic cross section of a reef and a steeply dipping slope (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
4.0).

10.5.15 [Link]
Figure : Sedimentology of reef and slope carbonate environments (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.5.16 [Link]
10.5.17 [Link]
 « Previous page
Figure : Carbonate deposits associated with reefs. A) Modern reef (USFWS - Pacific Region via Flickr; CC BY-NC 2.0), B)
Sponge boundstone block transported downslope from the Permian Reef Complex. The reef complex was entombed in a thick
succession of evaporites when the basin became restricted and modern erosion exposes the amount of original relief on the
platform. The Capitan Limestone is the core of this sponge-dominated reef and it prograded out over the slope and deep basinal
deposits of the Cherry Canyon through Bone Spring Formations. The amount of topographic relief present today approximates the
amount of bathymetric relief when the reef was active. C) Fossil brain coral (Diploria) at the Windley Key Fossil Reef Geological
State Park. US Quarter near top for scale (Jstuby via Wikimedia Commons; public domain), D) Stromatoporoid reef from the
Devonian Cairn Formation (Georgialh via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). E) Fenestral limestone and F) carbonate breccia
deposited in a backreef setting, Permian Reef Complex, New Mexico (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

[Link]: Middle Ramp/Slope

Depending on geomorphic and plate tectonic settings, shoals and reefs transition seaward into either a middle ramp on gently
dipping shelves or steeply dipping slopes along the margins of rimmed shelves or platforms.
The middle ramp extends from fair-weather wave base to storm wave base, comparable to the offshore transition (inner shelf) zone
of clastic coasts. Common lithologies include lime mudstone interbedded with skeletal wackestones to packstones and thin
grainstones. Skeletal material accumulates in situ in wackestones to packstones, while grainstones likely form from downslope
sediment movement during storms. Fully marine faunas are present, and bioturbation is generally more intense and diverse than in
shoals.
Steeply dipping slopes lie seaward of reefs or shoals on rimmed shelves or platforms, extending from the photic zone to depths of
tens to hundreds of meters before transitioning to the low-gradient basin floor. These carbonate slopes contain fine-grained
carbonate sediment that settled from suspension and coarser debris transported downslope from reefs or shoals. Common facies
include interbedded lime mudstones, wackestones/packstones, and rudstones deposited by debris flows or turbidity currents, with
occasional clastic sandstones or siltstones. Much of the skeletal material is transported downslope, and bioturbation varies from
absent to intense. At the distal toe of slope, deep basin deposits alternate between lime mudstones formed by suspension deposition
and rudstones from turbidity currents and debris flows.

10.5.18 [Link]
Figure : Sedimentology of middle ramp, outer ramp, toe of slope, and basin carbonate environments (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

10.5.19 [Link]
Figure : Carbonate facies associated with the middle ramp (A-C) or slope (D-F). A) Interbedded shales, skeletal lime
mudstone and skeletal wackestone. B) Skeletal packstone. C) Bedding plane expsoure of fossils in a skeletal packstone found
beneath the rocks shown in A. A through C are all from the Mississippian Lodgepole Formation, Montana. D) Laminated and
bioturbated lime mudstones, E) flow imbricated foraminifera, and F) transported fragments of reef boundstones. D through F are
from the Permian Reef complex in west Texas. All images from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.20 [Link]
[Link]: Outer Ramp/Basin
As per the discussion in the abyssal plain and carbonate compensation depth sections in 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments,
carbonate accumulation in deep marine outer ramp or basin environments primarily results from the suspension deposition of
calcareous plankton skeletons (calcareous ooze), with occasional gravity-driven transport from the slope. Deposition of carbonate
only occurs above the carbonate compensation depth. Common facies include laminated lime mudstones and/or chalk, often
interbedded with fine-grained clastics and bedded cherts. Lime mudstones may contain microfossils, sparse bioturbation (typically
Zoophycos or Nereites Ichnofacies), and peloids. Deep marine carbonates are often organic-rich and can serve as significant
hydrocarbon source rocks.

Figure : Carbonate facies associated with basin (deep water) environments. A) Internedded lime mudstone and black shale,
Union Furnace section. B) Laminated lime mudstone from the Williams Ranch Road locality, west Texas. Both images from
from Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0.

10.5.3: Readings and Resources

Carbonate World website
James, N.P. and Jones, B., 2015, Origin of Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks, Wiley, 464 p.
Laugié, M., Michel, J., Pohl, A. et al. Global distribution of modern shallow-water marine carbonate factories: a spatial model
based on environmental parameters. Sci Rep 9, 16432 (2019).

This page titled 10.5: Carbonate Environments is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

10.5.21 [Link]
10.6: Glacial Environments
10.6.1: Glacial Influence
Glacial environments do not form a single, coherent depositional system but instead interact with and overprint existing systems
such as fluvial, lacustrine, and eolian environments. While glacially-overprinted environments closely resemble warmer-climate
versions of those same environments, diagnosis of glacial influence depends on recognizing the diagnostic features described
below.

Figure : Glacial striations on bedrock in the Swiss Alps; lens cap for scale (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-
SA 3.0).

10.6.2: Glacial Indicators

One of the more widespread glacially influenced deposits is loess, composed of wind-blown silt. These fine-grained deposits
accumulate downwind of glaciated regions, often forming extensive blankets of sediment. Once lithified, loess appears as a
nondescript siltstone, making it difficult to distinguish from other silt-rich deposits unless it is found in association with other
glacial indicators.
A more direct glacial deposit is glacial till, which lithifies into diamictite over time. This deposit consists of a poorly sorted mixture
of mud, sand, and gravel, accumulating beneath or in front of a glacier. The lack of sorting and the mix of clast sizes distinguish it
from other deposits, but care must be taken in interpretation, as similar textures can result from debris flows. A key diagnostic
feature of glacial till is the presence of striated, faceted, or bullet-shaped clasts, which form due to abrasion within moving glacial
ice, incorporation of faceted ventifacts, and dynamics within glacial ice, respectively.
Varves are annual couplets of sand and mud, recording alternating high-energy summer deposits and finer winter deposits when the
lake is ice-covered. While varves provide a clear record of cold climate, similar rhythmic layering can occur in non-glacial settings
such as tidal flats or fluvial systems with pulses of floodwater.
Ice-rafted debris serves as an additional indicator of glacial, or at least freezing conditions. As icebergs calve from sediment-laden
glaciers, they can drift into open water and release debris as they melt. This process results in outsized clasts that are encased
within fine-grained sediments. Mudrocks formed in cold climates might also contain glendonites, which are pseudomorphs of the
mineral ikaite which forms only in near freezing conditions.

10.6.1 [Link]
Ancient bedrock surfaces that were smoothed and polished by the motion of glacial ice and ornamented with striations and chatter
marks created by transported clasts within the ice are common in modern glacial environments and have been reported from the
ancient record.

Figure : Possible indicators of glacial influence that might be preserved in the geologic record (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

10.6.2 [Link]
Figure : Deposits from the last glacial include loess from Nebraska (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0)
and till from northwest Montana (Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0).

Figure : Diamictites and clasts that are associated with glaciers. A) Diamictite can reasonably be interpreted as glacial till if
found in close association with other glacial features and if it contains scratched, faceted, or polished clasts. B) Striated clast
(James St. John, Flickr, CC BY 2.0), C) ventifacts can be incorporated into till and preserved as faceted clasts (James St. John,
Flickr, CC BY 2.0), D) Bullet-shaped clasts develop in subglacial environments from moving ice. A and D are from Michael
Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

10.6.3 [Link]
Figure : Glacial/cold climate indicators. A) Varves composed of coarse (light) and fine (greenish gray) couplets. B) Large
quartzite boulder deposited as ice-rafted debris in shoreface sandstones. C) Varves and dropstones record ice-rafting into bodies of
water that froze in the winter. D) Glendonites in mudstone indicate near freezing conditions. All images from Michael Rygel via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 3.0.

10.6.4 [Link]
 Figure : The Nooitgedacht Glacial Pavement is an ancient polished and striated bedrock surface formed in association with
the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in what is now South Africa. This surface was later exhumed and used as a substrate for rock art during
the late Stone Age. Image from Andrew Hall via Wikimedia Commons; Michael Rygel via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA
3.0.

This page titled 10.6: Glacial Environments is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

10.6.5 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

11: Sea Level

In the simplest sense, sea level is the elevation of the surface of the ocean. But when we think about it in the geologic sense, things
quickly become more complicated as we must consider variations in space, changes in time, and the complex interactions between
the surface of the ocean, the Earth's crust, and the rate at which sediment is supplied to an area. In this chapter we will briefly
explore all of these topics and think about how they are preserved in the geologic record.

 Learning Objectives
Explain what happens during transgressions and regressions.
Define water depth, eustatic sea level, and relative sea level.
Explain how tectonism and eustasy interact to cause increases or decreases in relative sea level.

11.1: Transgressions and Regressions

11.2: Sea Level Terminology

Chapter thumbnail shows a relative sea level curve (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 11: Sea Level is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

1
11.1: Transgressions and Regressions
11.1.1: Definitions
Changes in the relative sea-level history of an area are recorded in the geologic record by transgressions and regressions. If we had
a time machine and were watching what happened in a region or specific location, we could define these terms based on the
direction of shoreline movement (landward or seaward), changes in water depth (getting shallower or deeper). A transgression
occurs when the shoreline moves in a landward direction and an overall deepening takes place. A regression occurs when the
shoreline moves in a seaward direction and overall shallowing takes place.

Figure : Overview of transgression (bottom three time slices) and regression (top three time slices) as recorded by changes in
water depth, shoreline position, and changes in depositional environments through time (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0).

[Link]: Walther’s Law

Walther’s Law states that “facies that occur in conformable vertical successions also occurred in laterally adjacent environments.”
In the diagram provided above, we have three laterally adjacent environments: the shoreface, offshore transition, and shelf - our
studies of the modern confirm this sequence. If all you had was Core 1, you'd see that these facies are stacked atop one another and
that things got progressively deeper through time. Given that, it would be reasonable to interpret this as a confirmable succession
that records a transgression. In Core 2, we see exactly the opposite ... the facies succession records progressive shallowing which
could be reasonably interpreted as a regression in a conformable succession.
Remember that the presence of unconformities violates Walter’s Law and can place facies atop one another that were nowhere near
each other in a lateral sense.

This page titled 11.1: Transgressions and Regressions is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

11.1.1 [Link]
11.1.2 [Link]
11.2: Sea Level Terminology
When talking about “sea level”, it's important to make sure that we define some important terms:

Figure : Overview of sea level nomenclature (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

11.2.1: Water Depth

Water depth is the distance between the sediment surfaces and the water surface. This is an instantaneous measurement that is
location specific.

11.2.2: Eustatic Sea Level

Eustatic sea level is the distance between the center of the Earth and the sea surface. Given that the center of the Earth is a universal
datum, this allows this value to be measured or calculated globally. You can change global sea level by changing the amount of
water in the oceans or changing the amount of water the ocean basins can hold. Drivers of eustatic change include:
1. Thermohaline changes – changes in the volume of water in the ocean because of temperature changes. Over a scale of decades,
changes in the temperature of the shallow ocean can change eustatic sea level by centimeters to tens of centimeters. Over
centuries to millennia, circulation can warm the deep ocean as well and cause several meters of eustatic change.
2. Glacial ice volume – when large amounts of glacial ice accumulate on land, sea level falls. When glacial ice on land melts and
runs back to the oceans, eustatic sea level rises. Because it's largely contained in the ocean already, the amount of floating sea
ice has much less of an effect. Changes in the volume of glacial ice have the potential to cause very large changes in eustatic sea
level over relatively short periods of time (many tens of meters over a few millennia).
3. Volume of terrestrial aquifers – this is the amount of groundwater stored on land. It has a relatively minor and gradual
contribution, something on the order of a few meters over tens of millennia.
4. Volume of the ocean basins – Long term tectonic changes can change the amount of water held in the ocean basins. Although it
is potentially a very large amount of water, these changes take a very long time (hundreds of meters over tens of millions of
years).

11.2.1 [Link]
11.2.3: Relative Sea Level (RSL)
Relative sea level is the distance between a local datum and the sea surface. It’s a function of tectonism (subsidence or uplift) and
eustasy and allows us to track the difference between them through time. You increase relative sea level when the distance between
the two increases; you decrease relative sea level when the two get closer together.

Figure : Relative sea-level (purple) is a function of eustatic sea level (blue) and tectonics (red). In this case, the tectonic
component is subsidence which will enhance phases of rise, dampen falls, and result in the overall creation of space available for
sediment to accumulate in (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

Relative sea level (RSL) is a useful concept to consider with regards to transgressions because it determines “accommodation (A)”,
which is the room available for sediment to accumulate. An increase in RSL increases accommodation and gives us the potential to
preserve sediment. An overall decrease in RSL gives us less (or removes) accommodation because there is less space for sediment
to accumulate. In terms of what causes transgressions and regressions, accommodation is a useful concept, but it alone is not
enough to control transgression versus regression. We must also consider sediment supply (S) which is the amount of sediment that
is delivered to an area (which is a function of climate, tectonism, etc.).
Given all of that, we can revisit the definitions of transgression and regression that we talked about at the beginning of this section
to think about how the balance between sediment supply and accommodation controls transgressions and regressions. In cases
where the the sediment supply (S) is greater than accommodation (A), a regression occurs and the shoreline is pushed in a seaward
direction (overall shallowing). In cases where the sediment supply is less than accommodation, a transgression occurs and the
shoreline migrates in a landward direction (progressive deepening).

This page titled 11.2: Sea Level Terminology is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

11.2.2 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

12: Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the study of the geometric relationships, composition, origin, age, and relationships between stratified rocks
deposited at the surface of the Earth. We will begin with an overview of different types of unconformities and geologic contacts and
then move on to a discussion of the most common approaches to subdivide and classify sedimentary rocks. These schemes are
based on lithology (lithostratigraphy), fossils (biostratigraphy), depositional trends (sequence stratigraphy), or seismic reflection
data (seismic stratigraphy).
Many of the concepts described in this chapter are described in more detail in the North American Stratigraphic Code.

 Learning Objectives
Identify different types of contacts and unconformities and explain their implications for reconstructing the geologic history
of an area.
Identify and describe the different types of lithostratigraphic contacts and units.
Identify and describe the different types of biozones
Describe a complete sea level cycle using sequence stratigraphic terminology and the concepts of accommodation and
sediment supply.
Identify the main geometries of seismic reflectors and use them to subdivide packages of rock into seismic sequences

12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of contacts

12.2: Lithostratigraphy
12.3: Biostratigraphy
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy

Chapter thumbnail shows a relative sea level curve (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 12: Stratigraphy is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

1
12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of contacts
Although we are likely dealing only with disconformities when talking about sedimentary rocks and stratigraphic relationships, its
worth remembering that there are three types of unconformities:
Angular unconformity – occurs when there is a marked discordance between layers caused by a period of uplift and erosion during
unconformity development.
Nonconformity – occurs when you have sedimentary rocks deposited atop crystalline rocks that formed at depth.
Disconformity – occurs when you have sedimentary rocks atop sedimentary rocks with no obvious angular discordance. The
unconformity surface can have significant amounts of erosional relief.

Figure : Diagram showing the three types of unconformities as well as different types of igneous contacts and a variety of
expressions of a fault contact (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of contacts is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

12.1.1 [Link]
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy is a particular type of stratigraphy that uses the lithologic character of the rock as the basis for subdividing and
classifying the rocks. Our ability to do lithostratigraphy is based on the fundamental concepts outlines by Steno’s Principles and the
concepts of relative and absolute dating.

12.2.1: Lithostratigraphic Relationships

Vertical contacts are most commonly described as sharp, gradational, or interbedded. Lateral transitions are most often described as
gradational, intertonguing, or pinching out.

Figure : Diagram showing the major types of lateral and vertical lithologic contacts and lithostratigraphic units; a sequence
stratigraphic subdivision of the same units is provided along the right margin of the diagram (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

12.2.2: Lithostratigraphic Units

We are governed by the North American Stratigraphic Code which lays out a comprehensive set of rules for naming and
recognizing units. In order to have a unit be formally named (they are proper nouns) an author must provide all of the required
information (inc. justification, boundaries, type sections, history, etc.) in a peer-reviewed publication that is widely available. The
type section for a named lithostratigraphic unit must be accessible, well-exposed, and characteristic of the unit.
Lithostratigraphic units are given a two part name; the first part refers to a place where the unit is well exposed and the second part
tells the reader what the rank of the unit is. This, the Mauch Chunk Formation occurs near and is a lithostratigraphic formation
named for the town of Mauch Chunk (now renamed Jim Thorpe, after one of the greatest athletes of the last century). In descending
order, the different ranks of lithostratigraphic units include:
Supergroup – is the largest formal lithostratigraphic unit. They are composed of collections of named formations and or groups.
Group – the unit above formation, it may be composed entirely or partially of named formations.

12.2.1 [Link]
Formation – the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. They must be mappable at the surface or in the subsurface, usually across an
area that is at least the size of a 1:24k USGS topographic map.
Member – the lithostratigraphic unit below a formation in rank. All members must occur within formations. Formations need not be
divided (in whole or in part) into members. Members can extend laterally from one formation into another. Geographically
restricted members are often referred to as members or tongues.
Bed (or Flow) – the smallest formal lithostratigraphic unit. It is a discrete and distinctive unit that is easily recognized.

This page titled 12.2: Lithostratigraphy is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

12.2.2 [Link]
12.3: Biostratigraphy
Overview
Biostratigraphy uses fossil content as a framework for understanding the spatial and temporal relationships between sedimentary
rocks. Specifically, biostratigraphy uses the presence, absence, and/or distribution of fossils to determine stratigraphic relationships.
Note things can get a bit confusing because, according to the North American Stratigraphic code, biostratigraphic units refer to the
actual rock units themselves – not units of time. This goes back to the same confusion that can surround the terminology for rock
versus time (upper versus late, lower vs early, etc. – respectively).
Biostratigraphy works because evolution is unique, irreversible, and non-repeatable because it builds upon random mutations and
natural selection. The Principle of Faunal succession takes this one step further and states that fossils occur sedimentary rocks in a
definite, predictable, and reliable order through geologic time. Because speciation is unique and extinction is forever, fossils (some
more than others) can be used to correlate strata across wide geographic areas even when rock types vary.
Not all fossils are of equal biostratigraphic value; the most useful ones have a wide geographic range, a wide environmental range,
are relatively short lived (confined to a narrow stratigraphic range), are abundant, are easily and confidently identified, and are
readily preserved.

Biostratigraphic Units
The following features and principles are important concepts linked to biostratigraphic units:
They are defined only by fossil content, not by lithology, thickness, or any other physical trait.
They may cross lithostratigraphic boundaries, extending through multiple formations or rock types.
They are independent of chronostratigraphic units and may be diachronous (a biostratigraphic unit may represent slightly
different ages in different locations)
And it is also important to remember that biostratigraphic units can still be recognized in rocks that locally lack fossils provided
that their position can be inferred by correlation with fossiliferous sections elsewhere.

Biozones
The biozone is the fundamental unit of biostratigraphy – it is to biostratigraphy what the formation is to lithostratigraphy. A biozone
is a body of rock defined by a specific fossil taxon, group of taxa, or biologic event. They can vary in thickness, geographic extent,
and duration depending on the dynamics of local environments and events. The North American Stratigraphic code recognizes the
following types of biozones:

Range Biozones
A range biozone includes all strata between the first appearance datum (FAD; the oldest occurrence of a fossil) and last appearance
datum (LAD; the youngest occurrence of a fossil) of a single fossil taxon. Remember that these datums might be influenced by
local preservation or environmental exclusion, meaning the true speciation or extinction horizon may not always be captured in a
given section.

Interval Biozones
Interval biozone are defined by two biostratigraphic events, such as the first appearance of one species and the first/last appearance
of another. They are useful when no single fossil species has a continuous or reliable stratigraphic range.

12.3.1 [Link]
 Figure : Diagram showing the major types of biozones (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

Lineage Biozones
Lineage biozone are based on evolutionary change within a single lineage. Instead of appearance or extinction, boundaries are
defined by phyletic evolution. These biozones are important in microfossil groups with well-documented evolutionary successions.

Assemblage Biozones
Assemblage biozones are defined by the co-occurrence of three or more fossil taxa that together characterize a specific stratigraphic
interval. Assemblage biozones are common in environmentally complex settings and are especially valuable for regional
correlation.

Abundance Biozones
Abundance biozones are intervals with an unusually high abundance of a particular fossil taxon. These zones typically reflect
favorable environmental conditions rather than evolutionary events and may represent only part of a taxon’s stratigraphic range.

Boundaries and Recognition

Biozone boundaries correspond to biological events, such as first appearances, last appearances, or evolutionary transitions. These
boundaries are often gradational rather than sharp due to factors such as incomplete preservation, ecological controls, reworking, or
sampling limitations. To identify a biozone, one must have:
Accurate taxonomic identification
Adequate sampling density
Explicit documentation of defining fossils.

12.3.2 [Link]
Rank, Naming, and Formalization
The biozone is the fundamental rank in biostratigraphy. Although they can be subdivided into sub-biozones when finer resolution is
justified, they are not ranked in the same type of rigid hierarchy like lithostratigraphic or sequence stratigraphic units. Formal
biozone names typically consist of the name of the defining fossil taxon and the type of biozone, such as an interval or assemblage
biozone.
To formally establish a biostratigraphic unit, one must provide the following in a “recognized scientific medium” (typically a peer-
reviewed publication in a reputable and widely available scientific publication):
Provide a clear definition of the fossil criteria.
Identify the defining taxa.
Designate reference sections
Demonstration of the unit’s utility

Summary
Biostratigraphy uses fossils to subdivide and correlate strata. It is possible because of evolution and biozones are generally defined
using biological events such as speciation and extinction. Biozones can represent variable amounts of time and can cross lithologic
boundaries. Biostratigraphy is important for determining the relative age of rock units, for regional and global correlations, and any
application that requires detailed correlation of units (petroleum geology, etc.).

This page titled 12.3: Biostratigraphy is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

12.3.3 [Link]
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy is based on the recognition and correlation of stratigraphic surfaces that represent changes in depositional
trends (Embry, 2001). Remember that this is different from lithostratigraphy which is when we subdivide rocks into lithologic
formations based on their physical characteristics.

Figure : Diagram showing the major types of lateral and vertical lithologic contacts and lithostratigraphic units; a sequence
stratigraphic subdivision of the same units is provided along the right margin of the diagram (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

12.4.1: Parasequences
Relative relative sea-level (RSL) curves are the combined product of eustatic and tectonic curves. The RSL curve that we made is a
smooth theoretical one; in reality these curves are very complex and composed of a series of small-amplitude, short term
oscillations in RSL and sediment supply (caused by things like delta-lobe switching, etc).
Parasequences are the sedimentary record of the small amplitude changes described above. They are small scale, shallowing
upward succession of beds bounded by flooding surfaces (abrupt, nearly instantaneous increases in water depth). The flooding
surfaces are overlain by deposits that record progressive shallowing. Parasequence thickness is extremely variable and can range
from a few tens of centimeters to several meters. Laterally, parasequeces are often tracable over tens to thousands of square
kilometers.

12.4.1 [Link]
Figure : Typical facies successions in common types of clastic parasequences (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 4.0).

Figure : Typical facies successions in common types of carbonate parasequences (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons;
CC BY-SA 4.0).

12.4.2 [Link]
12.4.2: Parasequence Sets
When stacked atop one another, parasequences collectively show long-term changes in shoreline position. We can recognize three
different parasequence stacking patterns (parasequence sets).
Progradational parasequence sets – form when sedimentation rates outpace the creation of accommodation which results in each
parasequence being shallower than the previous one, progressive shallowing, and an overall seaward shift in shoreline position
(regression).
Aggradational parasequence sets – happen when there is no net shift in shoreline position or average water depth.
Retrogradational parasequence sets – form when accommodation rates are outpacing sediment supply rates. The result is that each
parasequence represents deepening relative to the previous one and an overall landward shift in shoreline position (transgression).

Figure : Parasequence set architecture (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 - after Figure 4.7 in Coe and
Church, 2003).

12.4.3 [Link]
12.4.3: Systems Tracts, Bounding Surfaces, and Sequences
Sequences are the fundamental unit of sequence stratigraphy. They are composed of a package of genetically-related strata
deposited during one cycle of sea-level rise and fall. In many basins, they are bounded by unconformities and their correlative
conformities.
Systems tracts are parts of a sequence that are deposited during a given phase of the sea-level cycle; each has a distinctive
parasequence architecture. There are a variety of models for sequence architecture; the simplest schemes have just two systems
tracts and the most complex ones have four. Each systems tract is separated from the next via a stratigraphically important surface.

Figure : Overview of sequence stratigraphic nomenclature relative to a sea level cycle (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Systems tracts and placement of sequence stratigraphic surfaces is after the Depositional Sequence IV
approach in Catuneanu (2022) which is based on Helland-Hanson and Gjelberg (1994), Hunt and Tucker (1995, 1996), and Plint
and Nummedal (2000).

[Link]: Highstand systems tract (HST)

The highstand systems tract forms when sea-level is still rising, but rising slowly enough that it is being overpowered by sediment
supply. The result is an aggradational to progradational parasequence set architecture, overall (normal) regression, and the position
of the shoreline to build both up and out to sea. It is composed of progradational to aggradational parasequence sets. It is bounded

12.4.4 [Link]
below by the maximum flooding surface and above by the basal surface of forced regression and/or the start of unconformity
development.

[Link]: Basal Surface of Forced Regression (BSFR)

The basal surface of forced regression occurs at the moment that sea-level starts to fall and negative accommodation is generated.
As the name implies, the resulting regression is forced because there is no option but for the shoreline to shift both seaward and
topographically down. That stands in contrast to a normal regression which can happen under a positive accommodation regime
any time that sediment supply outpaces the generation of accommodation.

[Link]: Falling Stage Systems Tract (FSST)

The falling stage systems tract is only preserved in basins that are experiencing a high subsidence rate and/or in deepwater parts of
basins that are not subaerially exposed. Sea level is falling throughout and the basin experiences a massive forced regression under
a negative accommodation regime. It is composed of downstepping progradational parasequnce sets. The shoreline is progressively
moving out and down and exposed sediments are eroded or pedogenically overprinted as unconformity development occurs across
an ever increasing percentage of the basin. It is underlain by the BSFR and overlain by the sequence boundary or its correlative
conformity.

[Link]: Sequence Boundary (SB)

The sequence boundary represents the maximum extent of the unconformity across the sedimentary basin. In parts of the basin that
were never subaerially exposed, it passes laterally into the correlative conformity. Remember that the unconformity is a
diachronous event, it starts sooner, ends later, and lasts longer in updip parts of the basin.

[Link]: Lowstand Systems Tract (LST)

The lowstand systems tract forms in the early phases of sea-level rise while sediment supply is still outpacing the generation of
accommodation. Regression continues, but its no longer forced and although the position of the shoreline continues to build out
into the basin it can also start to build topographically upward. It is composed of aggradational to progradational parasequence sets.
The LST is underlain by the sequence boundary and overlain by the transgressive surface.

[Link]: Transgressive surface (TS)

The transgressive surface marks the start of transgression and occurs at the moment when transgression begins because
accommodation overtakes sediment supply. Some authors will refer to this surface as the maximum regressive surface. At this time
the shoreline reaches its most basinward position.

[Link]: Transgressive Systems Tract (TST)

The transgressive systems tract occurs during the most rapid phase of sea level rise and is the only systems tract where A>S which
causes a transgression. It is composed of retrogradational parasequence sets formed as the shoreline moves up and in a landward
direction.
It is underlain by the transgressive surface and overlain by the maximum flooding surface.

[Link]: Maximum flooding surface (MFS)

The maximum flooding surface marks the end of transgression, the most landward position of the shoreline, and the deepest water
deposition in the basin.

12.4.5 [Link]
Figure : Cross-sections sketch of a shelf edge showing sequence stratigraphic stacking patterns (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0). Systems tracts and placement of sequence stratigraphic surfaces is after the Depositional Sequence IV
approach in Catuneanu (2022) which is based on Helland-Hanson and Gjelberg (1994), Hunt and Tucker (1995, 1996), and Plint
and Nummedal (2000).

12.4.6 [Link]
12.4.4: Lithostratigraphy vs. Sequence Stratigraphy

Figure : Comparison of sequence stratigraphic correlation versus lithostratigraphic correlation (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

12.4.5: Alternate Sequence Architectures

The sequence stratigraphic model described above represents the most complex and complete expression of a sequence. Its
important to remember that not all systems tracts are going to be preserved at all locations and/or in all sedimentary basins.
ExxonMobil invented sequence stratigraphy and their scheme does not identify the FSST, instead they lump these sediments
together with lowstand deposits.
In the “Genetic sequence” model, it’s the maximum flooding surface that defines the start and end of a sequence. This model works
well in rapidly subsiding basins where the flooding event is widespread/well preserved and the regression and sequence boundary
is suppressed.

12.4.7 [Link]
12.4.6: Readings and Resources
Catuneanu, O., 2022, Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy, Elsevier, Oxford, 375 p.
Coe, A.L. and Church, K.D., 2003, Sequence Stratigraphy, in Coe A.L. (ed), The Sedimentary Record of Sea-Level Change,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge U.K., p. 57-98. ISBN 9780521538428. Publisher URL.
Hunt, D. and Tucker, M.E., 1995, Stranded parasequences and the forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposition during
base-level fall—reply, Sedimentary Geology, volume 95, Issues 1–2, p. 147-160.
North American Stratigraphic Code
Plint, A.G., Nummedal, D., 2000, The falling stage systems tract: recognition and importance in sequence stratigraphic analysis.
In: Hunt, D., Gawthorpe, R.L. (Eds.), Sedimentary Response to forced regression, Geol. Soc. London Special Publication 172,
p. 1–17.

This page titled 12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

12.4.8 [Link]
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
12.5.1: Seismic Reflection
Seismic reflection is a technique used to image structures and stratigraphy in the subsurface. The general idea is broadly similar to
sonar, in that you are producing an image by sending energy into material and creating images from reflected energy. Advances in
computing power in the last few decades has dramatically improved data quality and we can now resolve horizons that are <5 m
thick thousands of meters down in the subsurface.

3D Seismic
ge0physicsrocks

Watch on

Video : A general overview of seismic data collection and what is it used for.

12.5.2: Data Collection

Seismic reflection data can be collected on land or at sea. Data collection begins when a seismic source (airguns at sea; small
explosions or truck-mounted vibrating plates on land) generate seismic waves that travel into the Earth and pass through layers of
sediment and rock. Different layers have different physical properties which result in different seismic velocities as the waves pass
through them (generally 2-8 km/s). Some of the energy reflects off of boundaries between layers, unconformities, and faults and
reflects back to the surface. Sensors called geophones or hydrophones detect the reflected seismic waves and produce traces that
show the two-way travel time from the energy source to the boundary and up to the sensor.
In the greatly simplified portrayal in Figure 1, we show what a single geophone would record the energy from a single source; the
source and the geophone are moved to get a second trace. In practice, geophones/hydrophones are deployed in long arrays with
hundreds or thousands of evenly-spaced sensors; each release of seismic energy is recorded by the entire array. Having large arrays
allows the reflections to be picked up from multiple perspectives which removes noise from the system. The data is collected,
processed, and most commonly displayed in two-dimensional lines or three-dimensional cubes that can be examined from a variety
of perspectives.

12.5.1 [Link]
Figure : Simplified illustration of seismic reflection data collection. Energy is released from a source and travels into the
subsurface. Different layers have different physical properties that impact seismic velocities and some energy reflects back to the
surface when the waves hit the coundaries between layers. Geophones pick up the reflections and make a trace that shows two way
travel time for each reflection. By combining multiple releases of energy and deploying extensive arrays of geophones, a detailed
picture of the subsurface can be created (Page Quinton, via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

12.5.2 [Link]
Figure : Simple two-dimension seismic reflection line. The vertical axis shows depth (converted from two-way travel time)
and the horizontal axis shows regularly spaced traces along the line. Troughs on individual traces are colored black to enhance the
appearance of reflectors in the subsurface (United States Geological Survey, via Wikimedia Commons; public domain).

Figure : Animation of a 3D seismic cube. Peaks and troughs are colored red and blue to enhance the appearance of reflectors
in the subsurface. 3D cubes can be sliced in a variety of ways to enable visualization and correlation (Pacific Coastal and Marine
Science Center via USGS; public domain).

12.5.3 [Link]
 Figure : Bedding contacts, unconformities, and faults can be mapped in great detail using high quality seismic datasets. In this
example dataset from the Santa Barbara Channel, offshore southern California faults are shown in black, landslide headscarps are
shown in yellow, and various marker beds are shown in blues, green, and purple (Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center via
USGS; public domain).

12.5.3: Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis of Seismic Lines

As discussed above, seismic reflectors can represent bedding surfaces or unconformities. Each one roughly approximates a timeline
that marks the depositional surface at a moment in time. Improved processing and interpretation techniques can allow for some
interpretation of the properties of the material between reflectors, but generally speaking lithologic facies changes do not image
well. Careful examination of seismic lines shows that in many areas, distinctive patterns in reflector terminations and geometries
are present. Major termination types include:
onlap - progressive termination against a surface with a greater dip
downlap - progressive termination against a surface with a lower dip
toplap - very low angle termination against an overlying surface
erosional truncation - termination by an erosional surface (often somewhat irregular)
A seismic sequence is a package of genetically-related strata deposited during one sea-level cycle. In the simplest case, this would
be an unconformity-bound package where a package of retrogradational reflectors (TST) onlap the basal sequence boundary and a
progradational package of reflectors (HST or a "regressive systems tract") downlap the maximum flooding surface.

12.5.4 [Link]
Figure : Portion of an uninterpreted 2D seismic line showing many of the distinctive patterns in reflector terminations
illustrated below (Seismological Facility for the Advancement of Geoscience via Seismic Sequences; CC BY 4.0).

Figure : Diagram showing main types of reflector terminations, sequence stratigraphic surfaces, and clinoform stacking
patterns (Page Quinton, via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0; diagram is after Vail, 1987)

12.5.5 [Link]
12.5.4: Seismic Facies
Within, or in addition to, a sequence stratigraphic framework, reflector terminations, patterns, and properties can be used to
delineate seismic facies, which are mappable packages of reflectors that are distinct from surrounding ones. Seismic facies can be
used to match seismic attributes to drilling data and to provide information about lateral changes in lithology and/or fluid types.

Figure : Example seismic facies from a seismic reflection dataset (Al-Masgari et al, 2021 via Seismic Sequence Stratigraphic
Sub-Division Using Well Logs and Seismic Data of Taranaki Basin, New Zealand; CC BY 4.0).

12.5.5: Resources and Readings

Al-Masgari, A. A.-S., Elsaadany, M., Abdul Latiff, A. H., Hermana, M., Hamzah, U. B., Babikir, I., Adeleke, T., Sohail Imran,
Q., & Al-Bared, M. A. M. (2021). Seismic Sequence Stratigraphic Sub-Division Using Well Logs and Seismic Data of Taranaki
Basin, New Zealand. Applied Sciences, 11(3), 1226.
Seismic Facies Analysis on AAPG Wiki
Vail, P.R., 1987, Seismic Stratigraphy Interpretation Using Sequence Stratigraphy: Part 1: Seismic Stratigraphy Interpretation
Procedure, in Bally, A.W. (ed), AAPG Studies in Geology #27, volume 1: Atlas of Seismic Stratigraphy, p. 1-10.

This page titled 12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

12.5.6 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

13: Sedimentary Basins

Sedimentary basins are extremely important geological features because they are long-lived subsiding areas that were able to
accumulate thick successions of sediment and sedimentary rock. Basin fills record the interactions of tectonics, climate, biological
and surficial processes and are thus important archives of Earth’s history that record information about ancient environments,
paleoclimate, sea-level history, tectonics, and the dynamics of ancient ecosystems.
In the following sections, we describe the most common/important types of sedimentary basins using the approach of Allen and
Allen (2005), who organized them into three bins according to the tectonic processes responsible for their creation:
1. Basins formed by crustal extension
2. Basins caused by crustal flexure
3. Basins caused by strike slip faulting
Crustal dynamics control the basin’s size, subsidence history, geometry, and stratigraphic architecture and the resulting sedimentary
record can be used to interpret these variables.
Sedimentary basins are of great economic importance because they host nearly all fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal), economic
minerals (evaporites, phosphorites, etc.), and may be significant aquifers and sources of geothermal energy (especially in
extensional settings).

1
 Figure : Map showing the relationship between plate tectonics and sedimentary basins (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is after Sedimentary Basins and Ingersoll, 1988).

 Learning Objectives
Characterize the tectonic processes that are responsible for the major types of sedimentary basins
Describe the broad sedimentological patterns that characterize the major types of sedimentary basins

13.1: References and Resources

Allen, P.A., and Allen, J.R. Basin Analysis: Principles and Application to Petroleum Play Assessment: Wiley-Blackwell, 640 p.
Ingersoll, R., 1988, Tectonics of sedimentary basins: GSA Bulletin, v. 100, p. 1704–1719.
Sedimentary Basins page in Geological Digressions website
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics
13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Thermal Sag
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or Flexure
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting

Chapter thumbnail shows the fill of a rift basin (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0).

This page titled 13: Sedimentary Basins is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and
Page Quinton.

2
3
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics
The text provided below is reused from 4.4: Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes in Karla Panchuk's Physical
Geology textbook on Libretexts.

Shifting the Paradigm to Shifting Plates

Critics of continental drift shared a mental picture of Earth’s outer layer that made it very difficult for them to imagine how
continents could move. They envisioned Earth as having a solid one-piece outer shell, represented by the rocks making up the
ocean floor. They thought of continents as large blocks of rock that would have to slide across or through the ocean floor in order to
move. On the cusp of the plate-tectonics paradigm shift In the 1960s, geologists were faced with increasingly difficult-to-deny
evidence that continents had moved, and they also knew more than ever before about the shape of the ocean floor. They did the best
they could to reconcile what they knew with an unworkable model of Earth’s structure: some even hypothesized about how the
newly discovered ocean floor structures might actually be the deformation in the wake of a continent plowing through ocean crust.
Imagine their plight as a fly bonk-bonk-bonking against a window, trying to get outside, but working within a conceptual
framework that has no place for the existence of glass.
Now we know from the shape of the ocean floor and the distribution of earthquakes that Earth’s outer layer is broken into many
fragments, called tectonic plates. This is why the term continental drift doesn’t match up very well with our present-day
understanding of plate tectonics. It isn’t just continents that are moving, but entire slabs of lithosphere that can include both
continental and oceanic crust attached to the uppermost part of the mantle (Figure 4.23). The lithospheric plates not only move, but
can grow and also split into pieces. They crash into each other, break, and fold. Some are being swallowed up by the Earth as you
read this. “Continental drift” is far too peaceful a term to describe the behaviour of Earth’s lithosphere.

Figure 4.23 The crust and upper mantle. Tectonic plates consist of lithosphere, which includes the crust and the lithospheric (rigid)
part of the mantle. Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.
While lithospheric plates are rigid, the asthenosphere immediately below the lithosphere is not. It contains very small amounts of
melted rock, and this makes it weak. Lithospheric plates can move because the weak asthenosphere deforms by flowing. The
behavior of the asthenosphere is exactly what some geologists thought the ocean crust would have to behave like in order for
continents to drift through it.

A Map of Moving Plates

The ideas of “continental drift” and sea-floor spreading became widely accepted by 1965, and more geologists started thinking in
these terms. By the end of 1967, Earth’s surface had been mapped into a series of plates (Figure 4.24). The major plates are
Eurasian, Pacific, Indian, Australian, North American, South American, African, and Antarctic plates. There are also numerous
small plates (e.g., Juan de Fuca, Nazca, Scotia, Philippine, Caribbean), and many very small plates or sub-plates. The Juan de Fuca
Plate is actually three separate plates (Gorda, Juan de Fuca, and Explorer), all moving in the same general direction but at slightly
different rates.

13.1.1 [Link]
 Figure 4.24 A detailed map of Earth’s tectonic plates. Source: Paul Lowman and Jacob Yates, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
(2002), Public Domain. View source.
Plate motions can be tracked using Global Positioning System (GPS) data from different locations on Earth’s surface. Rates of
motions of the major plates range from less than 1 cm/y to more than 10 cm/y. The Pacific Plate is the fastest, moving at more than
10 cm/y in some areas, followed by the Australian and Nazca Plates. The North American Plate is one of the slowest, averaging ~1
cm/y in the south up to almost 4 cm/y in the north.
Plates move as rigid bodies, so it may seem surprising that the North American Plate can be moving at different rates in different
places. The explanation is that plates can rotate as they move. The North American Plate rotates counter-clockwise, while the
Eurasian Plate rotates clockwise.
The fact that plates include both crustal material and lithospheric mantle material makes it possible for a single plate to be include
both oceanic and continental crust. Notice in Figure 4.24 how the North American Plate includes most of North America, plus half
of the northern Atlantic Ocean. Similarly the South American Plate extends across the western part of the southern Atlantic Ocean,
while the European and African plates each include part of the eastern Atlantic Ocean. The Pacific Plate is almost entirely oceanic,
but it does include the part of California west of the San Andreas Fault.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Boundaries between the plates are of three types: divergent (moving apart), convergent (moving together), and transform
(moving side by side). Although the plates are in constant motion, and move in different directions, there is never a significant
amount of space between them.
Practice with Plate Boundary Types

Divergent Boundaries
Most divergent boundaries are spreading centres within oceans, where magma from partially melted mantle rock rises up and
freezes to form new oceanic crust (Figure 4.25). Normally the pressure is too high in Earth’s mantle to allow melting, but spreading
centres are places where mantle convection is moving rocks upward, thus decreasing the pressure on them. The decrease is enough
to trigger partial melting of the rock, meaning that some of the minerals in the mantle rock can begin to melt.

13.1.2 [Link]
 Figure 4.25 Mantle upwelling taking place along an oceanic divergent plate margin. Source: Karla Panchuk (2021), CC BY-NC-
SA. Adapted from Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.
The triangular zone of partial melting near the ridge crest is approximately 60 km thick and the proportion of magma is about 10%
of the rock volume. This produces crust that’s about 6 km thick once the melt rises up from the rock in which it formed. Crustal
material created from mantle partial melts at a spreading boundary is always oceanic in character; in other words, it’s mafic igneous
rock (basalt or gabbro, with minerals rich in iron and magnesium).
Spreading rates vary considerably, from 1 cm/y to 3 cm/y in the Atlantic, to between 6 cm/y and 10 cm/y in the Pacific. Some of
the processes taking place in this setting include (Figure 4.26):
Melted rock (magma) from the mantle rising up to fill the voids left by divergence of the two plates
Pillow lavas forming where melted rock emerges on the ocean floor and is cooled by seawater (inset)
Vertical sheeted dykes intruding into cracks resulting from the spreading
Magma cooling more slowly in the lower part of the new crust, forming bodies of gabbro

Figure 4.26 Expanded view of the white box in Figure 4.25 showing divergent boundary processes and materials. Inset: Pillow
basalts from the ocean floor of Hawai’i. Source: Karla Panchuk (2021), CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Adapted from Steven Earle (2015), CC
BY 4.0. View source. (Modified after Sinton and Detrick (1992)). Inset: NOAA (1988), Public Domain. View source.
Spreading is thought to start with lithosphere being warped upward into a dome by buoyant material from an underlying mantle
plume or series of mantle plumes. The buoyancy of the mantle plume causes the dome to fracture in a radial pattern, with three
arms spaced at approximately 120° (Figure 4.27).

13.1.3 [Link]
 Figure 4.27 Dome and three-part rift formation (left) and continental rifting (right) between the African and South American parts
of Pangea at around 200 Ma. Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.
When a series of mantle plumes exists beneath a large continent, the resulting rifts may align and lead to the formation of a rift
valley, such as the present-day Great Rift Valley in eastern Africa (Figure 4.28). This type of valley may eventually develop into a
linear sea (such as the present-day Red Sea), and finally into an ocean (such as the Atlantic). It’s likely that as many as 20 mantle
plumes—many of which still exist—were responsible for the initiation of the rifting of Pangea along what is now the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge.

Figure 4.28 The East African Continental Rift Zone and spreading centres in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. If spreading continues
along continental rift zones, ocean basins form. See this region in Google Earth. Source: U. S. Geological Survey (1999), Public
Domain. View source.

Convergent Boundaries
Convergent boundaries are where two plates are colliding with each other. There are three types, classified according to whether
ocean or continental crust is present on either side of the boundary. These are ocean-ocean, ocean-continent, and continent-
continent convergent boundaries.

Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundaries

At an ocean-ocean convergent boundary, a plate margin consisting of oceanic crust and lithospheric mantle is subducted, or travels
beneath, the margin of the plate it’s colliding with (Figure 4.29). Often it’s the older and colder plate that is denser and subducts
beneath the younger and hotter plate. Ocean trenches commonly form along these boundaries.

13.1.4 [Link]
 Figure 4.29 Configuration and processes of an ocean-ocean convergent boundary Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View
source.
As the subducting crust is heated and the pressure increases, water is released from within the subducting material. This water
comes primarily from alteration of the minerals pyroxene and olivine to serpentine near the spreading ridge shortly after the rock’s
formation. The water mixes with the overlying mantle, which lowers the melting point of mantle rocks, causing magma to form.
This process is called flux melting or fluid-induced melting.
The newly produced magma rises through the mantle and sometimes through the overlying oceanic crust to the ocean floor where it
creates a chain of volcanic islands known as an island arc. A mature island arc develops into a chain of relatively large islands
(such as Japan or Indonesia) as more and more volcanic material is extruded and sedimentary rocks accumulate around the islands.
The largest earthquakes occur near the surface where the subducting plate is still cold and strong.
Examples of ocean-ocean convergent zones are subduction of the Pacific Plate south of Alaska (Aleutian Islands, view in Google
Earth) and west of the Philippines, subduction of the Indian Plate south of Indonesia, and subduction of the Atlantic Plate beneath
the Caribbean Plate.

Ocean-Continent Convergent Boundaries

Subduction of an oceanic plate also happens at an ocean-continent convergent boundary, except this time the overriding plate
carries continental crust. Rocks and sediment on the continental slope are thrust up into an accretionary wedge, and compression
leads to faults forming within the continental plate (Figure 4.30). The mafic magma produced adjacent to the subduction zone rises
to the base of the continental crust and leads to partial melting of the crustal rock. The resulting magma ascends through the crust,
producing a mountain chain with many volcanoes.

Figure 4.30 Configuration and processes of an ocean-continent convergent boundary Source: Karla Panchuk (2018), CC BY 4.0.
Modified after Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.
Examples of ocean-continent convergent boundaries are subduction of the Nazca Plate under South America (which has created the
Andes Range) and subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under North America (creating the mountains Garibaldi, Baker, St. Helens,
Rainier, Hood, and Shasta, collectively known as the Cascade Range).

Continent-Continent Convergent Boundary

A continent-continent collision occurs when a continent or large island that has been moving along with subducting oceanic crust
collides with another continent (Figure 4.31). Prior to the continent-continent collision, the situation would have looked like the
ocean-continent collision shown in Figure 4.30, except imagine that continental lithosphere is attached to the plate of oceanic

13.1.5 [Link]
lithosphere just to the left of the area shown in the image. Continent-continent collisions build on to the edges of existing
continents, and can even merge two continents into a single larger one.

Figure 4.31 Configuration and processes of a continent-continent convergent boundary Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0.
View source.
Continental lithosphere is too low in density to be forced into the mantle the way that oceanic lithosphere is, so subduction doesn’t
happen. Pre-existing continental rocks are deformed into giant mountain belts, as are any sediments that accumulated along the
shores of both continental masses. Some ocean crust and upper mantle material may also be included. These mountains are not
volcanic, because not only is the pressure on the mantle increased, water is no longer being added by a subduction zone.
Eventually, the edge of the ocean plate that was subducted (before the two masses of continental lithosphere collided) will break off
and sink into the mantle. When this happens, the weight of rock in the collision zone is suddenly reduced, and the mountain belt
can spring upward and float higher in the mantle (like your air mattress in a swimming pool once you push your friend off).
Examples of continent-continent convergent boundaries are the collision of the India Plate with the Eurasian Plate, creating the
Himalaya mountain range (view in Google Earth), and the collision of the African Plate with the Eurasian Plate, creating the series
of ranges extending from the Alps in Europe (view in Google Earth) to the Zagros Mountains in Iran.
When a subduction zone is jammed shut by a continent-continent collision, plate tectonic stresses that are still present can
sometimes cause a new subduction zone to develop outboard of the colliding plate.

Transform Boundaries
Transform boundaries exist where—in an ideal scenario—one plate slides past another without producing or destroying crust. In
situations where the transform boundary has bends and jogs, however, there will be small-scale collisions and divergence as the
jogs crash into the bends, or open up small windows to deeper crust.
Most transform faults connect segments of mid-ocean ridges and are thus ocean-ocean plate boundaries. Notice where the red
segments in Figure 4.32 offset the black segments marking mid-ocean ridges. Some transform faults connect continental parts of
plates. The San Andreas Fault connects the southern end of the Juan de Fuca Ridge with the northern end of the East Pacific Rise (a
ridge) in the Gulf of California. The part of California west of the San Andreas Fault and all of Baja California are on the Pacific
Plate (Figure 4.33). But transform faults don’t just connect divergent boundaries; the Queen Charlotte Fault connects the north end
of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, starting at the north end of Vancouver Island, to the Aleutian subduction zone.

13.1.6 [Link]
 Figure 4.32 The San Andreas Fault extends from the north end of the East Pacific Rise in the Gulf of California to the southern end
of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. All of the red lines on this map are transform faults. Black lines are divergent margins, and the blue line
is a convergent margin. Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.

Figure 4.33 The San Andreas Fault at Parkfield in central California. The person with the orange shirt is standing on the Pacific
Plate and the person at the far side of the bridge is on the North American Plate. The bridge is designed to slide on its foundation.
Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.
Practice with Plate Boundary Features

Plate Tectonics and Supercontinent Cycles

The present continents were once all part of a supercontinent that Alfred Wegener named Pangea (all land). More recent studies of
continental matchups and the magnetic ages of ocean-floor rocks have enabled us to reconstruct the history of the break-up of
Pangea.
Pangea began to rift apart along a line between Africa and Asia and between North America and South America at around 200 Ma
(Figure 4.34). During the same period the Atlantic Ocean began to open up between northern Africa and North America, and India
broke away from Antarctica. Between 200 and 150 Ma, rifting started between South America and Africa and between North
America and Europe, and India moved north toward Asia. By 80 Ma, Africa had separated from South America, and most of
Europe had separated from North America. By 50 Ma, Australia had separated from Antarctica, and shortly after that, India collided
with Asia.

13.1.7 [Link]
 Figure 4.34 Sequence of paleogeographic reconstructions showing the breakup of Pangea. Source: Karla Panchuk (2017) CC BY-
NC-SA 4.0. Maps from C. R. Scotese, PALEOMAP Project ([Link]). Click for map sources and terms of use.
Within the past few million years, rifting has occurred in the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, and also within the Gulf of California.
Incipient rifting has begun along the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa, extending from Ethiopia and Djibouti on the Gulf of Aden
(Red Sea) all the way south to Malawi.
Pangea was not the first supercontinent. It was preceded by Pannotia (600 to 540 Ma), Rodinia (1,100 to 750 Ma), and by others
before that. In fact, in 1966, Tuzo Wilson proposed that supercontinents are part of an on-going cycle, which we now refer to as a
Wilson cycle. In a Wilson cycle, continents break up, and fragments drift apart only to collide again and make a new continent.
At present we are in the stages of a Wilson cycle where fragments are drifting and changing their configuration. North and South
America, Europe, and Africa are moving with their respective portions of the Atlantic Ocean. The eastern margins of North and
South America and the western margins of Europe and Africa are called passive margins because there is no subduction taking
place along them. Because the oceanic crust formed by spreading along the mid-Atlantic ridge is not currently being subducted
(except in the Caribbean), the Atlantic Ocean is slowly getting bigger, and the Pacific Ocean is getting smaller.

13.1.8 [Link]
This situation may not continue for too much longer, however. As the Atlantic Ocean floor gets weighed down around its margins
by great thickness of continental sediments, it will be pushed farther and farther into the mantle, and eventually the oceanic
lithosphere may break away from the continental lithosphere and begin to subduct (Figure 4.35).

Figure 4.35 Development of a subduction zone at a passive margin. Times A, B, and C are separated by tens of millions of years.
Once the oceanic crust breaks off and starts to subduct, the continental crust (North America in this case) may no longer be pushed
to the west and could start to move east because the rate of spreading in the Pacific basin is faster than along the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge. Source: Steven Earle (2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.
A subduction zone will develop, and the oceanic plate will begin to descend under the continent. Once this happens, the continents
will no longer continue to move apart because the spreading at the mid-Atlantic ridge will be taken up by subduction. If spreading
along the mid-Atlantic ridge continues to be slower than spreading within the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean will start to close
up, and eventually (in a 100 million years or more) North and South America will collide again with Europe and Africa. If this
continues without changing for another few hundred million years, we will be back to where we started, with one supercontinent
(Figure 4.36).

13.1.9 [Link]
 Figure 4.36 Sequence of reconstructions showing the possible future configuration of land masses on Earth at 50, 150, and 250
million years from now. Movements culminate in the formation of a new supercontinent called Pangea Ultima. Source: Karla
Panchuk (2017) CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Maps from C. R. Scotese, PALEOMAP Project ([Link]). Click for map sources and
terms of use.
There is strong evidence around the margins of the Atlantic Ocean that this process has taken place before. There are roots of
ancient mountain belts along the eastern margin of North America, the western margin of Europe, and the north-western margin of
Africa, which show that these landmasses once collided with each other to form a mountain chain. The mountain chain might have
been as big as the Himalayas.
The apparent line of collision runs between Norway and Sweden, between Scotland and England, through Ireland, through
Newfoundland and the Maritimes, through the north-eastern and eastern states, and across the northern end of Florida. When rifting
of Pangea started at approximately 200 Ma, the fissuring was along a different line from the line of the earlier collision. This is why
some of the mountain chains formed during the earlier collision can be traced from Europe to North America and from Europe to
Africa.
It is probably no coincidence that the Atlantic Ocean rift may have occurred in approximately the same place during two separate
events several hundred million years apart. The series of hot spots that has been identified in the Atlantic Ocean may also have

13.1.10 [Link]
existed for several hundred million years, and thus may have contributed to rifting in roughly the same place on at least two
separate occasions (Figure 4.37).

Figure 4.37 A scenario for the Wilson cycle. The cycle starts with continental rifting above a series of mantle plumes (red dots, A).
The continents separate (B), and then re-converge some time later, forming a fold-belt mountain chain. Eventually rifting is
repeated, possibly because of the same set of mantle plumes (D), but this time the rift is in a different place. Source: Steven Earle
(2015), CC BY 4.0. View source.

References
Sinton, J. M., and Detrick, R. S. (1992). Mid-Ocean Ridge Magma Chambers. Journal of Geophysical Research 97(B1), 197-216.

This page titled 13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.
4.4: Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes by Karla Panchuk is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Original source:
[Link]

13.1.11 [Link]
13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Thermal Sag
Rift Basins
Tectonics and crustal dynamics

Figure : Two map view sketches showing the progression from an initial three armed rift (triple junction) caused by thermal
doming to the development of a new divergent boundary and failure of one of the rift arms (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0; which is after DiPietro, 2018).
Rift basins form in extensional settings where the Earth’s crust is pulled apart and thinned. This can happen either as passive
rifting where the crust is pulled apart which results in the upwelling of the asthenosphere or as active rifting where heat builds up
beneath the crust which causes uplift and then extension via gravitational sliding.
Rift basins often begin as three-armed structures; clusters of these structures can exist in areas experiencing extension. As time
goes on, two of the arms are often successful in that extension continues and those arms link with other successful arms in nearby
structures to form new divergent plate boundaries. in these areas and those arms link up with successful arms in adjacent areas.
The third, “failed” arm or aulocogen is commonly filled with thick sedimentary deposits from the early phases of rifting.
Rift basin development and sedimentation can be subdivided in several different phases throughout the life of the basin. The
earliest pre-rift phase takes place during the early phase of active or passive rifting where the area is thinned and uplifted ahead of
major extension and faulting. The syn-rift phase is characterized by active faulting, rapid subsidence and sedimentation, and
commonly bimodal volcanism. The post-rift phase is characterized by slower thermal subsidence; in failed rift arms this can result
in the “steer’s head” model/morphology where more gradual and widespread sedimentation blankets a broader area. The post-rift
phase can also be accompanied by more widespread volcanism (inc. flood basalts) enabled by the upwelling asthenosphere and
thinned crust. In areas where rifting was successful, rift basins eventually transition into a passive margin; these tectonically
inactive continental margins are characterized by very slow thermal subsidence and widespread sedimentation across a large area
that marks the transition between continental and oceanic crust.

13.2.1 [Link]
 Figure : Cross sectional sketches showing the architecture of rift basins and passive margins. Brown color indicates relatively
sedimentation during active rifting and yellow color indicates slower sedimentation during post rift thermal subsidence (Page
Quinton via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0; which is after Bradley, 1982 and Transect passive [Link])

Morphology
Rift basins are bounded by normal faults that are at a relatively high angle in the brittle rocks of the upper crust and become gently
curved low-angle listric faults at depth. This fault configuration causes tilted and rotated fault blocks along the margins of the
basin. Most rift basins are strongly asymmetric and form “half grabens” that are bounded by a steep border fault on one side that
produces significant offset and rotation and a minor fault with minor displacement and relatively gentle rotation on the other side.
Arrays of bounding faults along basin margins can cause stepped “shoulders” along the edge of rift basins – especially on the most
actively subsiding side. In some places, rifting produces more symmetric faulting resulting in symmetric downdropped grabens
and elevated horsts.

13.2.2 [Link]
 Figure : Cross section showing grabens and half grabens developed in association with normal faults (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0; which is after a diagram at GeologyIn.

Sedimentology
Broadly speaking, rift basins typically contain some combination of coarse-grained clastics near basin margins and early in the
history of the basin), fine-grained clastics and/or evaporites in the central part of the basin, and volcanics facilitated by the thinned
lithosphere and partial melting. The details of a particular basin can be profoundly influenced by climate, connectivity with
adjacent rift basins, topographic elevation, proximity to the ocean, and success or failure of the rift arm. Given their relatively
small size and proximity to uplifted continental crust, rift basin sediments tend to be compositionally immature – especially in arid
environments.
During active rifting, high relief along basin margins enables the deposition of coarse-grained sediments (inc. diamictites, breccias,
and conglomerates) in alluvial fans and fluvial systems. Debris flow deposits are thickest and most common in proximal alluvial
fan settings; they are commonly modified by, and transition downdip into, fluvial deposits. Fluvial systems are composed of gravel
and/or sand transported downdip from basin margins. Transverse systems sourced by basin margin fans can link up to form
through going axial systems in open basins with adequate rainfall. Depending on sediment flux, climate, and connectivity to other
bodies of water, basin centers can be dominated by fine-grained clastics (floodplain and/or lacustrine) or freshwater/marine
evaporites. Volcanism in rift basins is commonly mafic or bimodal (mafic and felsic with few/no intermediate rocks). Mafic rocks
are sourced by partial melting of the asthenosphere and can include flood basalts, sills, and dikes. Felsic volcanism happens when
rising magmas heat and partially melt continental crust resulting in rhyolites and/or tuffs. Rift settings typically don’t enable the
type of magma mixing, assimilation, or differentiation that produces intermediate rocks.
Coarse-grained deposition is more abundant and important during phases of active rifting earlier in the history of the basin. During
the post-rift phase, sedimentation becomes more widespread and fluvial, shallow lacustrine, and/or shallow marine dominates.

Passive Margins
Tectonics and crustal dynamics
Passive margins are the product of successful continental rifting and the development of a new divergent plate boundary. As the
continental margin moves away from the spreading center, it enters a prolonged period of tectonic quiescence and thermal
subsidence. Early in its history, a passive margin exhibits rotated fault blocks (from preceding rifting), variable crustal thickness
marking the transition from continental to oceanic crust, and variable topography with localized highs and depocenters. As time
goes on, variability diminishes as a vast prograding wedge of sediment buries remnant rift structures and forms extensive wedge of
seaward dipping clinoforms.

13.2.3 [Link]
Morphology
Passive margins record the transition from rifting to tectonic quiescence and from continental to oceanic crust. Once remnant fault
blocks and rift basin sediments are buried, more mature passive margins develop the traditional continental margin morphology
composed of a gently sloping continental shelf, the steeply dipping continental slope, and the modestly dipping continental rise.
Over tens to hndreds of millions of years, this wedge of sediment deposited in these environments thickens and progrades seaward
forming a series of seaward-dipping clinoforms.

Sedimentology
Given their geographic extent, longevity, and large potential accommodation, passive margin sediments are laterally extensive and
thick. Stratigraphic architecture is variable given the potential influence of climate, paleogeomorphic variability, and changes in
sea level.
Clastic-dominated coastlines contain the spectrum of environments described in Sections 10.3 and 10.4, including deltas,
shorefaces, as well as the spectrum of shelf, slope, and rise deposits. In warm areas with reduced clastic input, carbonate platforms
can develop; they can include reefs, shoals, and the spectrum of deposits associated with carbonate ramps.
The transition from rift to passive margin is accompanied by a progressive increase in compositional maturity as sediment is
subjected to recycling, reworking and prolonged transport. Although broadly progradational, modest subsidence rates and
proximity to the open ocean means that passive margin successions can be greatly influenced by eustasy can contain numerous
transgressive-regressive cycles and a high fidelity sequence stratigraphic record.

Back Arc Basins

Figure : Schematic cross section of a back arc basin ((Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is after
Artemieva, 2023).
A back-arc basin forms in an extensional area formed behind a volcanic arc (on the overriding plate) in a convergent plate
boundary. It can form in either continental or oceanic crust. The area behind the volcanic arc (on the opposite side of the arc from
the trench) can experience extension because of slab rollback and/or a variety of other processes associated with the subducting
slab and/or associated processes in the mantle. In some cases, this extension can continue and lead to the development of a new
spreading center.
Back arc basins are elongate features that parallel the volcanic arc and have an overall geometry comparable to the early stages of a
rift basin. The sedimentology is also broadly comparable to a rift basin, however volcanic and marine rocks are more common and
abundant and the source area is more intermediate in composition.

13.2.4 [Link]
Intracratonic Basins

Figure : Schematic cross section of an intracratonic basin (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is
after Leighton and Kolata, 1990).

Tectonic setting and crustal dynamics

Intracratonic basins form in the interior of continental cratons and are far removed from active plate boundaries. The exact
processes responsible for their formation are still debated, but they are most often attributed to some combination of thermal
subsidence in association with older rifts, general lithospheric cooling, and/or mantle driven topography. They tend to be long-
lived features with relatively modest subsidence rates.

Morphology
In map view, intracrstonic basins are circular to elliptical features with broad, subtle boundaries formed where sediments onlap the
adjacent crust (as opposed to the sharp, fault-related boundaries associated with other structurally driven basins). In cross-section
view they have a symmetric, bowl-like shape wither laterally continuous stratigraphy and little/no structural complications.
Intracratonic basins are typically broad, gently subsiding depressions with simple geometries. In plan view, they are commonly
circular to elliptical, reflecting radially symmetric subsidence rather than linear, tectonically controlled deformation. Basin margins
are subtle and gradational, lacking the sharp structural boundaries seen in rift or foreland settings.

Sedimentology
Their modest subsidence rate and structural simplicity mean that the fill of intracratonic basins is typically composed of extensive,
laterally continuous deposits organized into a symmetric, bowl-shaped configuration. If present, coarse-grained clastic sediment is
relatively mature. Carbonates, evaporites, and fine-grained clastics are abundant. Intracratonic basins is dominated by regionally
extensive, laterally continuous facies deposited under relatively stable conditions. Because subsidence is slow and long-lived,
sedimentation is commonly controlled by eustatic sea-level fluctuations, climate, and sediment supply rather than rapid tectonic
events. Given their modest subsidence rates, intracratonic basins are particularly sensitive to eustatic and climatic influences on
stratal architecture.

Readings and Resources

Stretching the lithosphere; Rift basins
Nascent conjugate, passive margins
Artemieva, I.M., 2023, Back-arc basins: A global view from geophysical synthesis and analysis: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 236,
p. 104242.

13.2.5 [Link]
 Bradley, D.C., 1982, Subsidence in Late Paleozoic basins in the northern Appalachians: Tectonics, v. 1, p. 107–123,
doi:10.1029/TC001i001p00107.
Buschbach, T.C., and Kolata, D.R., 1990, Regional Setting of Illinois Basin, in Leighton, M.W., Kolata, D.R., Oltz, D.F., Eidel,
J.J., and Coury, A.B. eds., Interior Cratonic Basins, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 51, p. 29–55.
Buschbach, T.C., and Kolata, D.R., 1990, Regional Setting of Illinois Basin, in Leighton, M.W., Kolata, D.R., Oltz, D.F., Eidel,
J.J., and Coury, A.B. eds., Interior Cratonic Basins, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 51, p. 29-55.
Buschbach, C.R., Jr., 1991, The Michigan basin, in Gluskoter, H.J., Rice, D.D., and Taylor, R.B. eds., Economic Geology, U.S.,
Geological Society of America, v. P-2, p. 287–300.
DiPietro, J.A., 2018, Chapter 5 - Forcing Agent: The Tectonic System, in DiPietro, J.A. ed., Geology and Landscape Evolution
(Second Edition), Elsevier, p. 59–77.
Ettensohn, F.R., Pashin, J.C., and Gilliam, W., 2019, Chapter 4 - The Appalachian and Black Warrior Basins: Foreland Basins in
the Eastern United States, in Miall, A.D. ed., The Sedimentary Basins of the United States and Canada (Second Edition),
Elsevier, p. 129–237.
Horton, B.K., Capaldi, T.N., Mackaman-Lofland, C., Perez, N.D., Bush, M.A., Fuentes, F., and Constenius, K.N., 2022, Broken
foreland basins and the influence of subduction dynamics, tectonic inheritance, and mechanical triggers: Earth-Science
Reviews, v. 234, p. 104193
Leighton, M.W., and Kolata, D.R., 1990, Selected Interior Cratonic Basins and Their Place in the Scheme of Global Tectonics:
A Synthesis, in Leighton, M.W., Kolata, D.R., Oltz, D.F., Eidel, J.J., and Coury, A.B. eds., Interior Cratonic Basins, American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 51, p.727-797.
Miall, A.D., and Catuneanu, O., 2019, Chapter 9 - The Western Interior Basin, in Miall, A.D. ed., The Sedimentary Basins of
the United States and Canada (Second Edition), Elsevier, p. 401-443.
Olsen, P.E., 1990, Tectonic, Climatic, and Biotic Modulation of Lacustrine Ecosystems—Examples from Newark Supergroup of
Eastern North America, in Katz, B.J. ed., Lacustrine Basin Exploration: Case Studies and Modern Analogs, American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 50, p. 209-224.
Selley, R.C., and Sonnenberg, S.A., 2015, Chapter 8 - Sedimentary Basins and Petroleum Systems, in Selley, R.C. and
Sonnenberg, S.A. eds., Elements of Petroleum Geology (Third Edition), Boston, Academic Press, p. 377-426.
Sheridan, R.E., 1989, The Atlantic passive margin, in Bally, A.W. and Palmer, A.R. eds., The Geology of North America—An
Overview, Geological Society of America, v. A, p. 81-96.
Stern, R.J., and Dickinson, W.R., 2010, The Gulf of Mexico is a Jurassic backarc basin: Geosphere, v. 6, p. 739–754.

This page titled 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Thermal Sag is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

13.2.6 [Link]
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or Flexure
Foreland Basins

Figure : Idealized cross section through a foreland basin (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0; which is
modified from Miall and Catuneanu (2019) which was after Kauffman (1977, 1984).

Tectonics and Crustal Dynamics

Foreland basins develop in convergent plate tectonic settings where shortening causes the development of stacked thrust sheets
which in turn cause flexural subsidence in adjacent areas. These basins can be very large (thousands of km2) and contain thick
sedimentary successions (hundreds to thousands of meters).
Foreland basins can develop in two positions relative to the rising mountain belt:
Peripheral (or proforeland) basins develop on the subducting plate in front of the advancing thrust front.
Retroforeland basins develop on the overriding plate behind the core of the orogen.
In both cases, the basins develop in response to crustal shortening, the development of stacked thrust sheets and loading of the
crust.
Within individual foreland basin systems, individual subbasins or depocenters can develop. Wedge-top (piggyback) basins form
atop active thrust sheets. The foredeep is the primary and deepest depocenter in most foreland basin systems; it forms ahead of the
thrust front at the point of maximum downwarping of the crust. Further basinward, flexure of the crust can cause the development
of a low amplitude forebulge, which is a slightly uplifted area that can experience nondeposition and/or erosion. The forebulge
separates the main foreland basin from the gently downwarped back-bulge basin.

Morphology
In plan view, foreland basins are relatively large features that are elongate along the trend of the thrust front and orogenic core. In
cross-section they typically display a strongly asymmetric profile with the thicket basinfill developed in the foredeep immediately
adjacent to the thrust front. Some retroforeland basins (ex: Laramide basins of the American west) are structurally segmented into
smaller subbasins separated by uplifted blocks. Wedgetop basins developed atop the thrust sheets are discontinuous and have
intense internal deformation. Backbulge basins are typically smaller, thinner, and more symmetric than the main foreland basin.
As deformation progresses, the thrust front can overrun older portions of the basinfill as it migrates outward away from the
orogenic core. This results in a complex and diachronous succession that might be more deformed (even syndepositionally) in
proximal areas and youngs in more distal areas.

13.3.1 [Link]
Sedimentology
In simple, conventional foreland basins the fill is strongly asymmetric and thicknens toward the foredeep. Early in the history of
the basin, the generation of accommodation outpaces the ability of river systems to deliver sediment. This early, “flysch” phase of
sedimentation is characterized by deep-water (commonly marine) sedimentation characterized by black shales and
mudrocks/sandstones associated with turbidite deposits. Greywackes and immature (sometimes intraformational) conglomerates
and breccias can be present locally. Coarser-grained, syntectonic conglomerates might be present in areas adjacent to the thrust
front.
As mountain building continues, subsidence rates decrease and more established river systems become capable of transporting
large amounts of sediment into the basin. During this later molasse phase of sedimentation, average water depths decrease and
shallow water/nonmarine clastic sedimentation becomes the norm across much of the basin.
Overall, the major trends in foreland basin sedimentation include:
Thickening of the basin fill adjacent to the thrust front
Overall shallowing via the transition from flysch to molasse sedimentation
An overall decrease in grain size away from the mountain front

Accretionary Wedges and Forearc Basins

Figure : Cross section of an accretionary wedge and forearc basin formed at a convergent margin (Page Quinton via
Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0; which is after the Accretionary prisms and forearc basins entry in Geological Digressions
webpage).
At subduction zones, where oceanic crust is subducted beneath an overriding plate (continental or oceanic), a linear volcanic arc
develops on the overriding plate as a consequence of partial melting. The arc forms a structural buttress or backstop for the
compressive forces that exist in the area between the arc and the trench (an area commonly referred to as the arc-trench gap).
Within the arc-trench gap, sediment accumulation can take place in the accretionary wedge and the forearc basin.
The accretionary wedge (or prism) is a wedge-shaped body of deformed sediment composed of marine sediment and fragments of
oceanic crust scraped from the subducting plate. Common sedimentary rocks include black shales, cherts, turbidites, and other

13.3.2 [Link]
litholgies formed in deepwater environments. This material is intensely deformed and crosscut by imbricated, arc-dipping thrust
faults and may form bathymetric highs. Although the driving processes are different, the accretionary wedge and thrust faults
broadly resemble the fold and thrust belts formed in other convergent settings.
Unlike foreland basins which develop in areas that are adjacent to, and loaded by thrust faults, forearc basins develop on the
overlying plate in the low areas between the volcanic arc and the bathymetric highs of the accretionary wedge. They are filled by
relatively immature sediment shed from the volcanic arc and/or the accretionary wedge. Forearc basins are relatively small,
dynamic, and internally deformed areas of sediment accumulation.

References and Resources

Classification of sedimentary basins
Basins formed by lithospheric flexure
Sedimentary basins: Regions of prolonged subsidence
Accretionary prisms and forearc basins
Allen, P.A., and Allen, J.R. Basin Analysis: Principles and Application to Petroleum Play Assessment: Wiley-Blackwell, 640 p.
Kauffman, E.G., 1977, Evolutionary rates and biostratigraphy, in Kauffman, E.G. and Hazel, J.E. eds., Concepts and Methods
of Biostratigraphy, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross Inc., p. 109–142.
Kauffman, E.G., 1984, Paleobiogeography and evolutionary response dynamic in the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway of
North America, in Westerman, G.E. ed., Jurassic-Cretaceous Biochronology and Paleogeography of North America, Geological
Association of Canada, Special Paper 27, p. 273–306.
Miall, A.D., and Catuneanu, O., 2019, Chapter 9 - The Western Interior Basin, in Miall, A.D. ed., The Sedimentary Basins of
the United States and Canada (Second Edition), Elsevier, p. 401–443, doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63895-3.00009-7.

This page titled 13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or Flexure is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

13.3.3 [Link]
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting
Tectonics and crustal dynamics
Strike-slip basins form in areas where the horizontal along fault-bounded crustal blocks causes localized zones of extension
(transtension) or compression (transpression). We will focus mainly on extensional situations in the following text.
Extension commonly takes place where strike slip faults curve or bend (releasing bends). This localized extension is associated
with near vertical faults or fault zones which bound blocks of downdropped crust. Given their close association with strike slip
fault systems, tectonism (and thus sedimentation) in these basins is commonly episodic and corresponds to periods of activity along
basin-bounding faults.

Figure : Series of maps showing the development of a pull-apart basin caused by a right lateral strike slip fault (Page Quinton
via Wikimedia Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is after Mann et al, 1983).

Morphology
Strike-slip basins are relatively small (tens to hundreds of km2) features that, in map view, are relatively narrow rhombohedral or
lens-shaped features. The basin-bounding faults and/or fault zones are near vertical. In the case of pull-apart basins developed in
association with releasing bends, the faults and long axis of the basin broadly parallels the bend and is oblique to the trend of the
major strike-slip faults. Given the profound influence of local fault geometry, individual strike-slip basins and be internally
segmented and linear arrays of individual basins can form in association with regional strike-slip fault zones. Although strike slip-
basins are relatively small in terms of surface area, the basin fill can be hundreds to thousands of meters thick and relief along basin
margins can be pronounced.

13.4.1 [Link]
 Figure : Cross sectional sketch of a pull-apart basin formed by a right lateral strike slip fault. (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0 which is based on Larue and Allen, 2021).

Sedimentology
Given their small size, proximity to active faults, significant relief, and short transport distance, strike-slip basins is dominated by
coarse-grained, immature clastic sediments including breccias, conglomerates, and sandstones deposited in association with alluvial
fans and fluvial systems – particular during periods of active tectonism. During periods of quiescence and/or under certain climatic
regimes, fine-grained mudrocks and sandstones associated with floodplains, lakes, and shallow marine deposits may be present.
Abrupt facies changes are characteristic and soft-sediment deformation can be common.
Volcanism is rare given that these basins are typically not associated with sufficient crustal thinning to enable partial melting.

References and Resources

Basins formed by strike-slip tectonics
Larue and Allen, 2021, Field Trip to Ridge Basin, Southern California: Studies in Deltaic Accommodation
Mann, P., Hempton, M.R., Bradley, D.C., and Burke, K., 1983, Development of Pull-Apart Basins: The Journal of Geology, v.
91, p. 529–554.

This page titled 13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

13.4.2 [Link]
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

14: Appendices

Topic hierarchy
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
14.2: Rock Identification Charts
14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale
14.4: Sieve and Grain Size Terminology
14.5: Geologic Sketches
14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
14.8: Book Content Mapped to ASBOG's Domain C - Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Paleontology

Chapter thumbnail shows An outcrop-scale sketch (1878) and photograph (2021) of the unconformity
between Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and much younger volcanic rocks in Yellowstone National Park
(Geology of the unconformity on Mount Everts in Yellowstone National Park via USGS; public domain).

This page titled 14: Appendices is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page
Quinton.

1
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
Identification table for minerals with metallic luster
Streak Hardness Cleavage Summary Mineral Name

Color: Golden yellow, Luster: bright metallic, streak:

greenish or brownish black/gray, D=4.9, H=6.25
indistinct Pyrite
Commonly forms cubic crystals, some may have striated
faces. Commonly referred to as “Fool’s Gold”.
>5.5
Color: Black to dark gray, Luster: pearly, Streak: black,
indistinct D=5.2, H=5.5–6 Magnetite
May be attracted to a magnet or magnetized
Black, gray,
green Color: Silver or lead gray, Luster: bright metallic, Streak:
excellent; three
gray, D=7, H=2.5 Galena
directions at 90°
Three cleavage directions form cubes, high density

<5.5 Color: Brassy yellow, may tarnish to dull brass or brown,

indistinct; poor
Luster: metallic to submetallic, Streak: greenish-brown, Chalcopyrite
in one direction
D=4.2, H=3.5–4

indistinct; poor
Looks like a brassy or tarnished version of pyrite Graphite
in one direction

Color: steel gray, Luster: bright metallic, Streak: red, D=5.3,

H=5–6 Hematite
Red 5–6 indistinct
Commonly appears micaceous or foliated, some specimens (specular)
may be slightly magnetic

Color: Dark brown to yellowish-brown, Luster: metallic to

six directions, submetallic or resinous, Streak: brown or yellow, D=4,
Yellow-
<5.5 difficult to H=3.5–4 Sphalerite
brown
distinguish May smell slightly like sulfur when powdered on streak
plate

14.1.1 [Link]
Identification table for minerals with nonmetallic luster and
dark-colored streak

14.1.2 [Link]
 Streak Hardness Cleavage Summary Mineral Name

Dark colored good to Color: Black, Luster: Vitreous, Streak: White to gray or
excellent; two
greenish gray, D=3.0-3.5, H=5.5 Hornblende
directions at 56°
and 124° Cleavage more obvious when rotated in bright light

Color: medium green to greenish black, some sample light

good to greenish gray, Luster: Vitreous, Streak: white to green,
excellent; two Diopside
D=3.4, H=6
directions at (pyroxene)
~90° Commonly forms large blocky crystals, cleavage not always
obvious

Color: greenish gray to black, Luster: Vitreous, Streak:

good to White, D=2.7, H=6-6.5 Plagioclase
excellent; two Feldspar
Individuals crystals have striations on cleavage planes, some
directions at (Labradorite or
~90° samples are iridescent, commonly occurs in coarsely Anorthite)
crystalline aggregates

Color: Black, Luster: Vitreous, Streak: White, D=3-3.2,

H=7-7.5
none Tourmaline
Looks superficially like hornblende, good samples form
>5.5 elongate striated prisms with triangular cross-sections

Color: most commonly red to brown, Luster: Vitreous;

Streak: white; D = 3.1-4.3; H = 6.5-7.5
none/indistinct Garnet
Color: most commonly red to brown, Luster: Vitreous;
Streak: white; D = 3.1-4.3; H = 6.5-7.5

Color: red to gray, Luster: Earthy, Streak: Red, D=5.2, H=5-

none 6 Hematite
Red, rusty color with a drab luster.

Color: Black to dark gray, Luster: pearly or submetallic,

Streak: black, D=5.2, H=5.5-6
indistinct Magnetite
Color: Black to dark gray, Luster: pearly or submetallic,
Streak: black, D=5.2, H=5.5-6

Color: olive green to army green, Luster: Vitreous, Streak:

white to light green, D=3.2-4.4, H=6.5-7
indistinct Olivine
Distinct green color, commonly forms granular crystalline
masses

<5.5 Color: Black, Luster: Vitreous to pearly (looks like plastic),

good to Streak: White to gray, D=2.7-3.4, H=2.5-3
excellent; one Biotite Mica
Perfect cleavage causes the specimen to break in to thin
direction
sheets

Color: Dark brown to yellowish-brown, Luster: metallic to

six directions, submetallic or resinous, Streak: Brown or yellow, D=4, H-
difficult to 3.5-4 Sphalerite
distinguish May smell slightly like sulfur when powdered on streak
plate

14.1.3 [Link]
Streak Hardness Cleavage Summary Mineral Name

Color: Reddish brown, Luster: Vitreous to pearly, Streak:

poor to absent; White, D=3.9, H=3.5-4.5
some may show
May react with HCl when powdered, often found as nodules Siderite
three directions
≠90° in sedimentary rocks, may appear broadly similar to garnet
or hematite.

14.1.4 [Link]
Identification table for minerals with nonmetallic luster and light-
colored streak

14.1.5 [Link]
Streak Hardness Cleavage Summary Mineral Name

Light good to Color: Pink to white to light gray, Luster: Vitreous to

colored excellent; two resinous, Streak: White, D=2.7, H=6-6.5 Potassium
directions at Cleavage planes show white exsolution lamellae that give it Feldspar
~90° a fibrous look similar to muscle tissue

good to Color: light greenish gray to dark gray, Luster: Vitreous, Plagioclase
excellent; two
Streak: White, D=2.7, H=6-6.5 Feldspar
directions at
Striations on cleavage planes in good samples (Albite)
~90°

good to Color: medium green to greenish black, Luster: Vitreous,

excellent; two Streak: white to green, D=3.4, H=6 Diopside
directions at Commonly forms large blocky crystals, cleavage not always (pyroxene)
~90° obvious, looks like a green feldspar

Color: clear, white, purple, pink, gray, Luster: Vitreous,

none; crystals
>5.5 Streak: white, D=2.6, H=7. Quartz
common
Conchoidal fracture, commonly forms large 6-sided crystals

Color: olive green to army green, Luster: Vitreous, Streak:

white to light green, D=3.2-4.4, H=6.5-7
indistinct Olivine
Distinct green color, commonly forms granular crystalline
masses

Colors: Commonly green or purple, Luster: Vitreous, streak:

good; four
white, D=3.2, H=4 Flourite
directions
Looks similar to quartz but does not scratch glass.

Color: White to clear, variety of other colors possible,

Luster: vitreous to earthy, streak: white to gray, D=3, H=3
excellent; three
Effervesces vigorously in dilute HCl, commonly breaks into Calcite
directions ≠90°
rhombohedrons, clear specimens may show double
refraction

<5.5 Color: Commonly white to clear, other colors possible,

Luster: vitreous to pearly, streak: white to gray, D=2.9,
excellent; three
H=3.5-4 Dolomite
directions ≠90°
Effervesces when powdered, commonly breaks into
rhombohedrons, looks very similar to calcite

Effervesces when powdered, commonly breaks into

excellent; three rhombohedrons, looks very similar to calcite
Halite
directions at 90° Tastes like salt, three cleavage directions at 90° causes it to
break in to small cubes

Color: Pale green to white or light gray, Luster: greasy to

indistinct; one
pearly, Streak: white, D=2.7, H=1. Talc
direction
Has a greasy or soapy feel

excellent; one Color: white to light yellow or brown, Luster: vitreous to Muscovite Mica
direction pearly (looks like plastic), Streak: white, D=2.8, H=2.5-3.5

14.1.6 [Link]
Streak Hardness Cleavage Summary Mineral Name
Perfect cleavage causes the specimen to break in to thin
sheets

good; one Color: clear to white, Luster: vitreous, Streak: white, D=2.3, Gypsum
direction H=2 (Selenite)

Color: White to clear, variety of other colors possible,

Luster: vitreous to earthy, streak: white to gray, D=3, H=3
excellent; three
Effervesces vigorously in dilute HCl, commonly breaks into Calcite
directions ≠90°
rhombohedrons, clear specimens may show double
refraction

Color: White or other subtle light shades of off-white, Gypsum

indistinct
Luster: earthy to pearly, Streak: white, D=2.3, H=2 (Alabaster)

Color: Pale green to white or light gray, Luster: greasy to

indistinct; one
pearly, Streak: white, D=2.7, H=1. Talc
direction
Has a greasy or soapy feel

Color: bright yellow, Luster: Earthy to resinous, Streak:

indistinct; two
yellow to yellow-white, D=2, H=2 Sulfur
directions
Distinctive yellow color, may form crystals

Colors: Commonly green, purple, or light blue, Luster:

good; four
Vitreous, streak: white, D=3.2, H=4 Flourite
directions
Looks similar to quartz but does not scratch glass.

14.1.7 [Link]
This page titled 14.1: Mineral Identification Tables is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

14.1.8 [Link]
14.2: Rock Identification Charts

Identification chart for common igneous rocks based on their mineralogy and texture (Page Quinton via Wikimedia Commons; CC
BY-SA 4.0)

14.2.1 [Link]
Identification chart for common sedimentary rocks based on their grain size and composition (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

14.2.2 [Link]
Identification chart for common metamorphic rocks based on their composition and texture (Page Quinton via Wikimedia
Commons; CC BY-SA 4.0)

14.2.3 [Link]
This page titled 14.2: Rock Identification Charts is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

14.2.4 [Link]
14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale

Wentworth grain size chart modified to include particle diameters in inches and phi units as well as standard sieve sizes and other
useful parameters. Diagram is from Williams, S.J., Arsenault, M.A., Buczkowski, B.J., Reid, J.A., Flocks, J.G., Kulp, M.A.,
Penland, S., and Jenkins, C.J., 2006, Surficial sediment character of the Louisiana offshore Continental Shelf region: a GIS
Compilation, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1195, content is in the public domain.

14.3.1 [Link]
This page titled 14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael
Rygel and Page Quinton.

14.3.2 [Link]
14.4: Sieve and Grain Size Terminology

14.4.1 [Link]
 ISO
ASTM E11 565/3310- Geology
Size ASTM E11 φ Geology Geology
opening 1 Mesh (sediment AASHTO USCS
(mm) Opening (mm) (phi) (grade) (class)
(in) Opening fraction)
(mm)

4096 -12.00 Fine Block Megagravel Boulder Gravel

Very
2048 -11.00 Boulder Gravel Boulder Gravel
Coarse

1024 -10.00 Coarse Boulder Gravel Boulder Cobble

512 -9.00 Medium Boulder Gravel Boulder Cobble

256 -8.00 Fine Boulder Gravel Boulder Cobble

128 −7.00 Coarse Cobble Gravel Cobble Cobble

100.0 4 Fine Cobble Gravel Cobble Cobble

90.0 3 1/2 Fine Cobble Gravel Cobble Cobble

76.2 Fine Cobble Gravel Cobble Cobble

Fine
75.0 3 Fine Cobble Gravel Cobble
gravel

Coarse Fine
64 -6.00 Fine Cobble Gravel
Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

63.0 2 1/2 63.0 -5.98 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

56.0 -5.81 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

53.0 2.12 53.0 -5.73 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

50.0 2 50.0 -5.64 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

45.0 1 3/4 45.0 -5.49 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

40 -5.32 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

37.5 1 1/2 37.5 -5.23 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

35.5 -5.15 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Very Coarse Fine

32 -5.00 Pebble Gravel
coarse Gravel gravel

Coarse Fine
31.5 1 1/4 31.5 -4.98 Coarse Pebble Gravel
Gravel gravel

28.0 -4.81 Coarse Pebble Gravel Coarse Fine

14.4.2 [Link]
 ISO
ASTM E11 565/3310- Geology
Size ASTM E11 φ Geology Geology
opening 1 Mesh (sediment AASHTO USCS
(mm) Opening (mm) (phi) (grade) (class)
(in) Opening fraction)
(mm)
Gravel gravel

Coarse Fine
26.5 1.06 26.5 -4.73 Coarse Pebble Gravel
Gravel gravel

Coarse Fine
25 1 25 -4.64 1 in Coarse Pebble Gravel
Gravel gravel

7/8 Coarse Fine

22.4 7/8 22.4 -4.49 Coarse Pebble Gravel
in Gravel gravel

Fine
20.0 -4.32 Coarse Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

3/4 Fine
19.0 3/4 19.0 -4.25 Coarse Pebble Gravel Gravel
in gravel

Fine
18.0 18.0 -4.17 Coarse Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

5/8 Fine
16 16.0 5/8 16.0 −4.00 Coarse Pebble Gravel Gravel
in gravel

Fine
14.0 -3.81 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
13.2 0.530 13.2 -3.72 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

1/2 Fine
12.5 1/2 12.5 -3.64 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
in gravel

7/16 Fine
11.2 7/16 11.2 -3.49 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
in gravel

Fine
10 -3.32 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

3/8 Fine
9.5 3/8 9.5 -3.25 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
in gravel

Fine
9.0 -3.17 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
8 8.0 5/16 8.0 −3.00 Medium Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
7.1 -2.83 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
6.7 0.265 6.7 -2.74 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
6.3 1/4 6.3 -2.65 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

14.4.3 [Link]
 ISO
ASTM E11 565/3310- Geology
Size ASTM E11 φ Geology Geology
opening 1 Mesh (sediment AASHTO USCS
(mm) Opening (mm) (phi) (grade) (class)
(in) Opening fraction)
(mm)

Fine
5.6 No. 3 1/2 5.6 -2.49 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
5.0 -2.32 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel
gravel

Fine
4.75 No. 4 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel
Gravel

4 4.0 No. 5 −2.00 Fine Pebble Gravel Gravel Sand

3.55 3.55 -1.83 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

3.35 No. 6 3.35 -1.74 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

1/8 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

3.15 3.15 -1.65 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

2.80 No. 7 2.80 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

2.50 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

2.36 No. 8 2.36 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

2 2.00 No. 10 2.00 −1.00 - Granule Gravel Gravel Sand

Very Coarse
1.80 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1.70 No. 12 1.70 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1.60 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1.40 No. 14 1.40 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1.25 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1.18 No. 16 1.18 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1.12 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Very Coarse
1 1.00 No. 18 1.00 0.00 Sand Sand Sand
coarse sand

Coarse
0.900 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.850 No. 20 0.850 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

14.4.4 [Link]
 ISO
ASTM E11 565/3310- Geology
Size ASTM E11 φ Geology Geology
opening 1 Mesh (sediment AASHTO USCS
(mm) Opening (mm) (phi) (grade) (class)
(in) Opening fraction)
(mm)

Coarse
0.800 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.710 No. 25 0.710 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.630 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.600 No. 30 0.600 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.560 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
1/2 0.500 No. 35 0.500 1.00 Coarse Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.450 Medium Sand Sand Sand
sand

Coarse
0.425 No. 40 0.425 Medium Sand Sand Sand
sand

0.400 Medium Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.355 No. 45 0.355 Medium Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.315 Medium Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.300 No. 50 0.300 Medium Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.280 Medium Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

1/4 0.250 No. 60 0.25 2.00 Medium Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.224 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.212 No. 70 0.212 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.180 No. 80 0.180 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.160 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.150 No. 100 0.150 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

0.140 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

1/8 0.125 No. 120 0.125 3.00 Fine Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

Very
0.112 Sand Sand Fine sand Sand
fine

Very
0.105 No. 140 0.106 Sand Sand Fine sand Sand
fine

0.100 Very Sand Sand Fine sand Sand

14.4.5 [Link]
 ISO
ASTM E11 565/3310- Geology
Size ASTM E11 φ Geology Geology
opening 1 Mesh (sediment AASHTO USCS
(mm) Opening (mm) (phi) (grade) (class)
(in) Opening fraction)
(mm)
fine

Very
0.090 No. 170 0.090 Sand Sand Fine sand Sand
fine

Very
0.080 Sand Sand Fine sand Sand
fine

Very Fine
0.075 No. 200 0.075 Sand Sand Sand
fine sand

Very Silt Clay or

1/16 0.064 4.00 Sand Sand
fine fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.063 No. 230 0.63 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.056 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.053 No. 270 0.053 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.050 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.045 No. 325 0.045 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.038 No. 400 0.038 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.036 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
1/32 0.032 No. 450 0.032 5.00 Coarse Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.0250 No. 500 0.0250 Medium Silt Mud
fraction silt

Silt Clay or
0.020 No. 635 0.020 Medium Silt Mud
fraction silt

Clay Clay or
1/64 0.016 Medium Silt Mud
fraction silt

Clay Clay or
0.0078 7.00 Fine Silt Mud
fraction silt

Very Clay Clay or

1/256 0.0039 8.00 Silt Mud
fine fraction silt

Clay Clay or
- Clay Mud
fraction silt

14.4.6 [Link]
The information provided in this graph is derived from Pavement Interactive (AASHTO and USCS terms) and Blair and
McPherson (1999) for geology terms. Note that there are some small discrepenncies in the size (in mm and inches)
between [Link]
eUqMLOM4q24mBO8sj_APIzl9OmbrDEGFa3ti and [Link] Although clay
is ginerally finer than silt in the USCS system, the distinction is made based on plasticity.

This page titled 14.4: Sieve and Grain Size Terminology is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

14.4.7 [Link]
14.5: Geologic Sketches
The importance of sketching
Sketches are an effective way for geologists to quickly and effectively convey key geologic observations and relationships. They
began out of necessity at a time when the only way to convey what you were seeing was a sketch or a written description. Although
technology now allows us to take photographs and even make three dimensional models, sketches remain an important way to
capture information because they allow the creator to highlight things that are important, de-emphasize things that are not, and
convey what it all means. The example in Figure 1 shows an outcrop-scale sketch; other common types/scales including: views
through a microscope (see 5: Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks and 6: Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks), hand samples (Figure 2),
general notes (Figure 3), sketch maps (Figure 4), and measured sections (Figure 5).
Sketching is a skill that can be learned and does not require someone to be a gifted artist; it just requires neatness and a plan. In
fact, a good sketch does not require photo-realism, but rather a simplified portrayal that conveys geologic realism. In many cases,
annotations on sketches are of greater or equal value than the artwork itself.

Figure : An outcrop-scale sketch (1878) and photograph (2021) of the unconformity between Cretaceous sedimentary rocks
and much younger volcanic rocks in Yellowstone National Park. In many ways, the sketch is the more valuable tool for conveying
geologic information because it emphasizes things that are most important and allows the use of artistic license to show things that
might not be obvious from a distance (Geology of the unconformity on Mount Everts in Yellowstone National Park via USGS;
public domain).

14.5.1 [Link]
Notebook best practices
A geologic sketch is just one part of the geologist's notebook. No matter whether you are in the field, in a lab, or looking through a
microscope, a notebook is an extremely important tool for geologic data collection. The details will vary based on the task, but in
general, one's notebook entry for a day/project should include:
A descriptive heading
Day, date, time
Location - as appropriate this could include coordinates, sketch map, access details, etc.
Overview of goals/objectives
Names of field party or collaborators
Notes on weather, challenges, or anything extraordinary that might help you recall the specifics of that day.
Pencil is generally much better for making detailed sketches because it allows you to erase.

How to make a sketch

1. Identify the subject of your sketch and think about what is most important about it.
2. Define the limits of the subject and orient your notebook in a way that matches with the layout of the subject. Paper is relatively
inexpensive and its typically worth it to center the drawing in the page and give yourself ample margins for annotations.
3. Frame the subject by using a few simple strokes to outline its basic shape in the area you've allotted for the drawing. Don't start
with detailed lines, that is a great way to run out of room or end up with inaccurate proportions. Instead, begin with a few
simple strokes and then come back and modify them if needed. Things like edges of a feature, the skyline, and/or the boundaries
with the background and foreground are good things to start with.
4. Once you've framed the edges of the subject, you should start making lines that represent the most important geologic features.
You can and should use artistic license to show things that might not be obvious given the perspective that you are drawing
from. Most commonly the major geologic lines are going to be things like:
Stratification - to shows changes in orientation and boundaries between units
Edges of grains, clasts, fossils to show things like size, shape, orientation, and changes in these characteristics
Structural features like folds, faults, and cleavage - these features are often easier to draw if done in combination the things
listed above.
Remember that you should show only the most important features.
5. Remember that if you can't show everything that you need to with a sketch of a given scale that you can use things like pop-out
windows to illustrate details.
6. Use subtle labels or lines/shading to show things like talus and vegetation to help the viewer link the drawing to the view. You
can also use geologically-appropriate fill patterns to help show lithology, texture, etc. Avoid cross-hatching and other bold
geometric patterns because they can confuse the reader.
7. Annotate your drawing to make it obvious to yourself and others what you are drawing and why. If you can show everything
that you need to, remember that you can have windows that show enlarged areas.
8. Give the drawing a title, a vertical and horizontal scale bar, and a label to indicate perspective (facing north, map view, cross-
sectional view, etc.). Be sure to record structural data if appropriate

14.5.2 [Link]
Figure : Initial steps in creating a geologic sketch

14.5.3 [Link]
Figure : Finished geologic sketch. The addition of annotations adds value to the sketch by recording interpretive infromation
and enhancing the visuals.

14.5.4 [Link]
Figure : General notes and sketches summarizing the early Paleozoic stratigraphy of the northern Rocky Mountains.

14.5.5 [Link]
Figure : Sketch map summarizing a day of geologic mapping. Details include route, topography, and geology.

14.5.6 [Link]
 Figure : A graphic measured section showing unit thicknesses, rock types, fossils, and sedimentary structures.

This page titled 14.5: Geologic Sketches is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel
and Page Quinton.

14.5.7 [Link]
14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
The text provided below is remixed from 7.3: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology in Bentley et al's Historical
Geology textbook on Libretexts.

Uniformitarianism
Our ability to use evidence left behind in rocks to interpret and reconstruct events that happened thousands, millions, or billions of
years ago is dependent upon geology’s most fundamental assumption: uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism is the assumption
that the chemical and physical laws of nature have not changed over the course of Earth’s long history. The laws have remained
constant, or “uniform” in their [Link] means, for example, if geoscientists determine rates of plate motion are a few
centimeters per year, there has likely never been a time that pieces of the lithosphere were zooming around the planet at 50
kilometers per hour! While geoscientists cannot have direct observations of Earth processes occurring billions of years ago, there is
no evidence to suggest the basic principles of biology, chemistry, and physics should be different than today.

Figure : Portrait of James Hutton by Sir Henry Raeburn (public domain; Wikimedia Commons).
The beauty of uniformitarianism is that it allows us to use observations of the modern world to understand Earth’s history. We
credit James Hutton (1726-1797) with development of the assumption of uniformitarianism. Hutton was a careful observer of the
landscapes around him and he paid close attention to the slow rates at which rocks naturally erode, and the similarly, slow rates at
which new layers of sediment are formed. Given such slow rates, what were the implications for interpreting the time it must have
taken to form the countless thick layers of rocks exposed at Earth’s surface? Hutton’s observations led him to conclude that
geological time must be unimaginably vast. He asked, “What more can we require? Nothing but time.” He viewed Earth as
constantly changing and renewing itself, a view radically different from the orthodoxy of the day, which commanded that Earth had
been created a few thousand years ago just as we see it today. Referring to Earth’s history, Hutton famously quipped that it shows
“no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end.”

Figure : Portrait of Charles Lyell by Alexander Craig (1840) (public domain; Wikipedia).

14.6.1 [Link]
While Hutton developed the concept of uniformitarianism, Charles Lyell (1797-1875) made the idea famous in his influential book
Principles of Geology, first published in 1830. Based on many observations and examples, he convinced many people that
geological processes act slowly and continuously. We now know that this is not strictly true: the intensities and rates of some
processes have changed over Earth’s history (for example, the interior of the Earth used to be much hotter than it is today, as it once
contained much more heat-generating radioactive material) and Earth’s history has been occasionally punctuated by catastrophic
events (such as the asteroid impact that sealed the fate of most dinosaurs 66 Ma). But, we still accept the uniformitarian view that
the chemical and physical laws of nature have nevertheless remained constant over time.
Fundamentally, the work of Hutton and Lyell solidified the uniformitarian view that “the present is the key to the past.” This
means that by studying how Earth processes work today, we can also make sense of how Earth operated in the past, as well as
predict its future. Because of this, uniformitarianism is the single most important and fundamental idea in all of geology.

Principles of Relative Dating

It may surprise you to learn that geologists were able to determine much of the history of the Earth and its life without knowing
anything about the actual ages of the rocks that they studied. Through use of numerical (absolute) dating techniques (which were
developed during the 20th century; discussed later), they were able to later assign dates in years before present to important events
in Earth’s history. But, before that, they relied upon a different approach to first determine the sequence of important events in
Earth’s past: relative dating.

Relative Dating

Figure : Grand Canyon, Arizona. (CC BY-SA ([Link] By Niagara66,

[Link]
The principles of relative dating are largely applied to unraveling the geologic history of the thin blanket of sedimentary rock that
covers much of continental land surfaces. Most of what we know about the development, diversity, and evolution of complex life is
preserved in this thin blanket. The thickness of the sedimentary rock layers, or strata, varies quite a bit. In the northern Canadian
Shield areas, which have been stripped clean of sedimentary cover during the past several million years of ice age glaciations, the
cover is essentially zero. In locations uninterrupted by recent mountain building or the effects of glaciation, like the Gulf Coast of
the United States, this cover can be substantial, up to 20 km thick (~12 miles)! The average cover is about 1800m thick (5900ft or
just over 1 mile). The thickness of the sedimentary rock layers exposed in the Grand Canyon is close to the average at 1850m. This
extent of visual exposure in the canyon is not found elsewhere in the U.S. which is what makes it so spectacular.

14.6.2 [Link]
 Figure : Sedimentary rock layers exposed at Quebrada de Cafayate, Salta (Argentina). (CC BY-SA 2.0,
[Link] by travelwayoflife
[Link]
The following relative dating principles apply to this covering of strata which is largely sedimentary in origin. However, igneous
rock may also be included in the layers when it forms horizontally, in layers parallel to the Earth’s surface, as in lava flows,
pyroclastic flows and ash falls.
Very simply, relative dating has to do with determining whether one geological or paleontological event happened before or after a
second event. For example:
Did rock layer A form before or after rock layer B?
Did the crinoid from Indiana (below, left) live before or after the trilobite from Oklahoma (below, right)?

Figure : Fossil Trilobite. Cravat Member, Bois d’Arc formation, Lower Devonian (Held.) age, Clarita, Coal Co., Oklahoma,
U.S.A. (CC BY-SA 3.0; Moussa Direct Ltd., [Link]

14.6.3 [Link]
 Figure : Fossil Crinoid. Agaricocrinus americanus, Carboniferous, Indiana. (CC BY-SA 3.0;
[Link]
We can answer these questions with a handful of principles that help guide our thinking when establishing how old one geologic
feature is relative to another. Relative dating has to do with determining the ordering of events in Earth’s past. Geologists employ
six simple principles in relative dating; the most important of which is the principle of superposition

Principle of superposition

Figure : Portrait of Nicholas Steno (public domain; Wikimedia Commons).

Nicholas Steno (1638-1686) was a well traveled Danish anatomist and one of the earliest scientists associated with studying
paleontology and geology. He was the first to study relationships between layers of rock and the association of sediment, minerals
and fossils to the surrounding and containing rock. He recognized the stories that rock could tell through their history of formation
read as clues found within each rock. Steno’s principle of superposition is simple, intuitive, and is the basis for relative dating of
geological formations. It states that rocks positioned below other rocks are older than the rocks above.

14.6.4 [Link]
 Figure : Taughannock Falls near Trumansburg, New York, illustrating the Principle of Superposition. (This work is licensed
under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
The image to the right demonstrates this principle as it shows a sequence of Devonian-aged (~380 Ma) rocks exposed at the
magnificent waterfall at Taughannock Falls State Park in central New York. The rocks near the bottom of the waterfall were
deposited first and the rocks above are subsequently younger and younger. Superposition is observed not only in rocks, but also in
our daily lives. Consider the trash in your kitchen garbage can. The trash at the bottom was thrown out earlier than the trash that
lies above it; the trash at the bottom is therefore older (and likely smellier!).
The photograph below was captured at Volcano National Park on the Big Island of Hawaii. Use superposition to determine which is
older: the road or the lava flow? How do you know?

14.6.5 [Link]
 Figure : Volcano National Park, Big Island of Hawaii. (This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)

Principle of faunal succession

Figure : Sequence and correlation of fossils from different locations. (CC BY-SA;
[Link] by: Kurt Rosenkrantz)
William Smith (1769 – 1839) worked as a surveyor in the coal-mining and canal-building industries in southwestern England in the
late 1700s and early 1800s. While doing his work, he had many opportunities to look at the Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary
rocks of the region, and he did so in a way that few had done before. Smith noticed the textural similarities and differences between
rocks in different locations, and more importantly, he showed that fossils could be used to correlate rocks of the same age. Smith is
credited with formulating a fundamental concept and basis for the development of the geologic time scale – the principle of faunal
succession. Smith found the same ordering of fossil species from place to place; Fossil A was always found below Fossil B, which
in turn was always found below Fossil C, and so on. By documenting these sequences of fossils, Smith was able to correlate rock
layers (strata) from place to place. He established that rock layers in two different places were the same age based upon the fact that
they include the same distinctive types of fossils.

Principle of original horizontality

The principle of original horizontality states that sediments are deposited by gravity in layers parallel to the Earth’s surface. This
applies also to volcanic igneous rocks that have been formed by lava flows, pyroclastic flows and ashfall deposits. Layers that
accumulate along the edges of basins may be slightly sloped in toward the basin. This principle is particularly useful when rock

14.6.6 [Link]
layers have been deformed by the forces of tectonic activity. Students must learn to “unfold the folds” or reconstruct faulted and
contorted layers that were originally horizontal to the Earth’s surface to understand their geologic history. Check out the contorted
folds in the sedimentary rock layers in the photo below. From the picture it is difficult to put all the rock layers back in their
originally horizontal position. A geologist would walk this area, and any adjacent areas of exposed rock layers, to make sketches,
take samples and pictures and use their imagination to attempt to conceptually “unravel” the deformed layers to understand the
complete story of what happened from the original deposition of sediments to get them to their current appearance.

Figure : Folds exposed in a roadcut along Highway 14 in Palmdale, California, adjacent to San Andreas fault. (With
permission by: Garry Hayes and Susan Hayes from: [Link]

Principle of lateral continuity

The principle of lateral continuity states that layers of sediment initially extend outward in all directions; in other words, they are
laterally continuous. As a result, rocks that are otherwise similar, but are now separated by a valley or other erosional feature (for
instance, Grand Canyon), can be assumed to be originally continuous.
Layers of sediment do not extend indefinitely or infinitely. Instead, limits are controlled by the amount and type of sediment
available, and the size and shape of the sedimentary basin. As sediment is transported to an area, thickest deposits are found closest
to the source, and gradually thin as the distance increases.
In the panoramic photo below, the originally laterally continuous layers of sedimentary rock have been cut into by the Colorado
River at Dead Horse Point State Park in southern Utah.

14.6.7 [Link]
 Figure : By Jean-Christophe BENOIST (Own work, CC BY 3.0, [Link]
curid=10152833)

Principle of cross-cutting relationships

The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that any geological feature that cuts across, or disrupts, another feature must be
younger than the feature that is disrupted. In the photo below, a fault disrupts the once continuous layers of sedimentary rock . The
dark red “marker bed” can be used to see the displacement that has occurred on either side of the fault. The fault “cross-cuts” the
layers of sedimentary rock. This indicates that the sedimentary layers pre-date the fault; the fault is the younger feature.

Figure : Normal fault offsetting layers in the Noonday Dolomite, Mosaic Canyon, Death Valley, California. (With permission
by: Garry Hayes and Susan Hayes from:
[Link]

14.6.8 [Link]
14.6.9 [Link]
 Figure : Above: A thin basaltic dike cross-cutting volcanic sediments of Paleogene age at Lagganulva, on the Isle of Mull,
Scotland. (By permission, John Faithful, University of Glasgow, Scotland.) Below: Feeder dike intruding tephra with basaltic lava
flow above, Iceland. (By: Marli Miller from [Link] For educational purposes.)
Another example of a cross cutting relationship includes an igneous intrusive feature known as a dike. In the picture to the left,
hot magma forced its way into a fracture, or weakness, in pre-existing rock of the crust. The hot magma also “baked” the pre-
existing rock through the process of contact metamorphism. These two clues from this exposure help us understand that the dike is
younger than the rock it cross-cuts.
A final possibility occurs when a new pattern, such as tectonic cleavage or folding overprints a pre-existing structure, such as
sedimentary bedding or metamorphic foliation. The pattern of folding cuts across (reconfigures) the old pattern. Here is an example
from Connecticut, showing both this “overprinting” variety of cross-cutting, as well as a traditional igneous dike:

14.6.10 [Link]
 Figure : What sequence of steps were needed to make this Connecticut outcrop? (Photograph by Gregory Simones;
reproduced with permission)

Figure : The sequence of steps needed to make the Connecticut outcrop. (Original photograph by Gregory Simones;
reproduced with permission)

Principle of inclusions
The principle of relative dating by inclusions states that any rock fragments that are included in another body of rock must be older
than the rock in which they are included. The photo below provides a good example. Both are igneous rock. The pink rock is
granite while the black rock is basalt. A xenolith of the granite is included in the mass of basalt rock. How did this happen? Basalt
intruded into the pre-existing pink granite. The injection of mafic magma caused a piece of the solid granite to break off, rotate a
bit, and then get locked in place as an “inclusion” within the basalt as the dark magma cooled.

14.6.11 [Link]
 Figure : Included fragment (xenolith) of granite within basalt near Georgeville, Nova Scotia. (CC BY-SA 3.0; By M.C.
Rygel)
Another interesting feature is apparent in this photo. The pink xenolith displays a much deeper, more rosey color which is also seen
along most of the contact between the granite and basalt. This deeper, rosier color is due to the baking of the granite by the basalt.
This is referred to as contact metamorphism and is also a relative dating principle. The rock that has been “baked” must have been
in place prior to the intrusion of the hot magma/lava which caused the baking. You can’t cook something that doesn’t yet exist.
The following gigapixel panorama is a fascinating example of an inclusion embedded into pyroclastic ash flow deposits. The photo
is from Kilbourne Hole in southeast New Mexico. The black basalt volcanic bomb was ejected during a volcanic eruption and
landed in a recent pyroclastic ash flow deposit that had yet to solidify. You can easily see how this volcanic bomb deformed the
layers of ash as it landed and became embedded. The lower ash layers obviously had to be there prior to the volcanic bomb landing
and embedding. Later ash layers buried the bomb.

14.6.12 [Link]
  
Kilbourne Hole  




  

The Grand Canyon example

The Grand Canyon of the Colorado river in the U.S. state of Arizona illustrates many of the stratigraphic principles discussed thus
far. The photo below shows layers of rock on top of one another in order, from the oldest at the bottom to the youngest at the top,
an illustration of the principle of superposition. The predominant white layer just below the canyon rim is the Kaibab Limestone.
This layer is laterally continuous with the upper white layers of strata in the far distance, even though the intervening canyon
separates them. The rock layers exhibit the principle of lateral continuity, as they are found on both sides of the Grand Canyon, ten
miles apart.

14.6.13 [Link]
Figure : Many people consider Grand Canyon National Park the world’s premiere geologic landscape and a “geologic
wonder”. The eroded cliffs reveal 1.7 billion years of fossils, volcanic activity, and geologic history. (United States Public Domain;
National Park Service from: [Link]

14.6.14 [Link]
 Figure : A schematic cross-section of the strata exposed in the Grand Canyon. (United States Public Domain; Callan Bentley
after National Park Service from: [Link]
The diagram (left) shows a cross-section of the rocks exposed on the walls of the Grand Canyon, illustrating the principle of cross-
cutting relationships, superposition, and original horizontality. In the lower parts of the Grand Canyon are the oldest sedimentary
formations, with igneous and metamorphic rocks at the very bottom. (For this reason, these crystalline rocks are sometimes called
“the basement.”) The principle of cross-cutting relationships shows the sequence of these events. The metamorphic schist (#1) is
the oldest rock formation and the cross-cutting granite intrusion (#3) is younger. As seen in the figure, the other layers on the walls
of the Grand Canyon are numbered with #18 being the youngest, of all of the rocks exposed in the canyon, #18 was the last to
form. This illustrates the principle of superposition. The Colorado River carves through the Colorado Plateau, exposing the
horizontal strata, that follows the principle of original horizontality. These rock strata have been barely disturbed from their original
deposition, except by a broad regional uplift.

Unconformities – Missing Time

An unconformity represents an interruption in the process of depositing sedimentary layers. Recognizing unconformities is
important for understanding time relationships in sedimentary sequences. We can use the rock exposed in the Grand Canyon to

14.6.15 [Link]
illustrate examples of all of the different types of unconformities. Locate these on the diagram of Grand Canyon stratigraphy above
as each is discussed.

Figure : The great angular unconformity in the Grand Canyon, Arizona. The tilted rocks at the bottom are part of the
Proterozoic Grand Canyon Supergroup (aged 825 to 1,250 Ma). The flat-lying rocks at the top are Paleozoic (540 to 250 Ma). The
boundary between the two represents a time gap of nearly 300 million years. (Credit: Doug Dolde / Doug Dolde at [Link] /
Public domain. Annotated by Callan Bentley.)
An example of one of the most iconic unconformities is shown in the lower center portion of the photo below from the Grand
Canyon. It is known as “The Great Unconformity.” Proterozoic rocks of the sedimentary sequence known as the Grand Canyon
Supergroup, have been tilted and then eroded to a flat surface prior to deposition of the younger Paleozoic rocks. The specific type
is an angular unconformity. The difference in time between the youngest of the Proterozoic rocks and the oldest of the Paleozoic
rocks is close to 300 million years. Tilting and erosion of the older rocks took place during this time, and if there was any
deposition going on in this area, the evidence of it is now gone.

14.6.16 [Link]
 Figure : The view is centered on Sumner Butte, at southeast terminus of Bright Angel Canyon, intersecting with Granite
Gorge. (The original uploader was Szumyk at Polish Wikipedia. – [Link]
Public Domain, [Link] Annotated by Callan Bentley.)
A nonconformity represents an erosional surface separating rocks of different types. The erosional surface will separate igneous
and/or metamorphic rock from overlying sedimentary rock such as in the photo below, from a different spot in the Grand Canyon.
In the photo, right, a nonconformity representing the erosional surface between 1.75 Ga Proterozoic age rock at the base of the
Grand Canyon and ~545 Ma Phanerozoic age rock. Over 1 billion years separate the basement rock from the first overlying layer.

Figure : Redwall, Temple Butte and Muav formations in the Grand Canyon. An erosional surface (disconformity) exists
between both the Muav Limestone and the Temple Butte formations as well as between the Temple Butte and the Redwall Limestone
formations. (United States Public Domain; National Park Service from:
[Link]

14.6.17 [Link]
A disconformity is a little harder to discern: it is not as obvious as the previous examples. Disconformities occur between parallel
sedimentary layers. Several exist in the horizontal layers of the Grand Canyon. One occurs between the Muav Limestone formation
which is approximately 515 Ma and the overlying Temple Butte and Redwall Limestone formations which are approximately 350
Ma and 335 Ma, respectively. This erosional surface, representing over 150 million years is well displayed in the photo at left.

 Example : Unconformity Examples

Let’s take a look at some additional examples of the different types of unconformities.
Disconformity:

 
Disconformity between Tensleep Fm  




  

Angular unconformity:

14.6.18 [Link]
  
Angular Unconformity, west of El Pas  




  

Nonconformity:

 
Torridonian Group, North-West Highla  

  

More unconformities:

14.6.19 [Link]
Figure : Angular unconformity, Telheiro Beach, Portugal, showing Triassic sandstone atop folded, eroded, Carboniferous
graywacke and shale. (Photo by Joao Duarte, 2019.)

Figure : Angular unconformity in Loughshinny, Ireland, showing flat-lying Pleistocene till overlying folded limestone
and shale. (Photo by Jason Loxton, 2018.)

Figure : Angular unconformity in Loughshinny, Ireland, showing flat-lying Pleistocene till overlying folded limestone
and shale of Carboniferous age. (Photo by Jason Loxton, 2018.)

Figure : Carboniferous / Cretaceous angular unconformity at Ense-Bremen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. (Photo
by Henning Bergermann; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.20 [Link]
Figure : Tilted layers of Neogene-aged sandstone and shale overlain by Pleistocene gravels (with clam-bored boulder
bed just above the unconformity surface). Bonus: a layer of recent colluvium overlies the gravels! (Photo by Seth Finnegan;
reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Jurassic-aged Morrison Formation (shale and sandstone) folded and eroded, overlain by Quaternary sandstone
and conglomerate. (Photo by Elizabeth Bollen; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Unconformity between Neoproterozoic andesite (~570 Ma) and overlying Triassic sandstone (~210 Ma). (Photo
by Jack Matthews; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.21 [Link]
Figure : The Knox unconformity (a disconformity bounding the Sauk and Tippecanoe epeiric sequences) exposed on
Isle La Motte, Lake Champlain, Vermont. Providence Island Formation of the Beekmantown Group (tidal dolomite of the
Middle Ordovician) is overlain by lower Day Point Formation (also Middle Ordovician) from the Chazy Group, which is sandy
limestone and carbonate sandstone. Note the karstic dissolution of the lower unit at the unconformity surface. (Photograph by
Matthew Clapham; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : The “Great Unconformity” (really a nonconformity) north of Durango Colorado. 1.7 Ga Baker’s Bridge granite
overlain by late Devonian Ignacio quartzite. (Photograph by Cody Mason; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Nonconformity in Gallinas Canyon, New Mexico. (Photo by Howell Bosbyshell; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.22 [Link]
Figure : A paleo-hill of Jurassic sandstone, overlain by Paleocene volcanics mainly basalts. It was quarried for its rock
used to make the approach to a local lighthouse on the Isle of Mull. (Photo by James Westland; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Angular unconformity at El Chalten, Argentina. Jurassic volcanic strata overlie Paleozoic meta-sedimentary
strata. (Photo by Donna Anderson; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Dipping Paleocene interbedded sands and muds with overlying horizontal Eocene conglomerates. Bighorn
Basin, Wyoming. (Photo by Amanda Owen; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.23 [Link]
Figure : Probably one of the best examples of an unconformity in Southern England. An unconformity is a buried
erosional surface separating strata of different ages; it indicates that sediment deposition was not continuous. In this
unconformity at the very eastern end of the Mendips, younger strata of sedimentary Jurassic Inferior Oolite rest upon the
eroded surface of tilted older Carboniferous Vallis Limestone. (Reproduced via a CC-by license; Photo by Vieve Forward,
[Link]

Figure : At Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, there is an unconformity shows a 1.8 Ga saprolitized trondhjemite (granitoid)
nonconformably overlain by the Cambrian-age Mt. Simon Sandstone. (Photo by Scott Clark; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Pleistocene terrace deposits over Miocene Astoria Fm. The latter was deposited between episodes of Columbia
River flood basalts reaching the coast, which was the case with Otter Rock, the large headland in the mid-ground. (Photo by
Lockwood DeWitt; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.24 [Link]
Figure : This is an upside-down unconformity! The rock above is ophiolitic seafloor breccia (160 Ma). The sediments at
the bottom are Late Jurassic. Within the sediments there are also turbidites with inverted grading. The whole package has been
flipped by tectonics (we are in the reverse limb of a major fold here). (Photo by Samuele Papeschi; reproduced with
permission.)

Figure : A monocline overprinting an unconformity. Proterozoic basement rocks (purple, low in canyon) are overlain by
the Chinle Formation, with the Wingate Sandstone as the cliff-forming unit. Colorado National Monument. (Photo by Robert
Mahon; reproduced with permission.

Figure : Angular unconformity in the Grand Canyon. Lower tilted layers are Neoproterozoic strata of the Grand Canyon
supergroup (various sedimentary rock and some lava flows). The cliff-forming unit extending horizontally across the field of
view is Cambrian-aged Tapeats Sandstone. (Photo by Zoltán Sylvester; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.25 [Link]
Figure : Pleistocene terrace deposits over deltaic deposits of the Eocene Coaledo Fm, Shore Acres State Park, Oregon.
(Photo by Lockwood DeWitt; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Nonconformity in the Grand Canyon. Lower rock unit is Mesoproterozoic schist (gray) and granite (pink). The
cliff-forming unit extending horizontally across the top of the field of view is Cambrian-aged Tapeats Sandstone. (Photo by
Zoltán Sylvester; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Nonconformity in the Grand Canyon. Lower rock unit is Mesoproterozoic schist (gray) and granite (pink). The
cliff-forming unit extending horizontally across the top of the field of view is Cambrian-aged Tapeats Sandstone. (Photo by
Zoltán Sylvester; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.26 [Link]
Figure : At Gribun on the Isle of Mull is an angular unconformity. The underlying dipping rocks are Neoproterozoic
psammites (meta-sandstones). There are horizontal Triassic conglomerates above. Most of the boulders on the shore are the
conglomerate. Higher up, but not seen in this photo, there are also Paleocene basalts. (Photo by James Westland; reproduced
with permission.)

Figure : The classic Scottish angular unconformity between Dalradian metasedimentary slates/phyllites/metalimestones
and the overlying basal conglomerate of Late Devonian Old Red Sandstone. This exposure is on the Isle of Kerrera. Gylen
Castle ruin for scale. (Photo by Roderick Brown; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Basal Cambrian arenites (sandstones) on Ercall Granophyre (an igneous rock, like a granite). Ercall quarries,
Shropshire. (Photo by Jon Radley, University of Birmingham; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.27 [Link]
Figure : Angular unconformity near Cody, Wyoming. The lower unit is Triassic Chugwater Formation; the upper unit is
Quaternary terrace gravels. (Photo by Ben Edwards; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : A gorge in Shades State Park, Indiana shows the Mansfield Sandstone (Pennsylvanian) lying unconformly over
limestones and siltstones of the Mississippian aged Borden Group. Glacial waters cut into the sandstone, creating these gorges,
exposing the strata. (Photo by Troy Simpson; reproduced here with permission)

Figure : Gently dipping Triassic strata over vertical Carboniferous layers, Rainy Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada. (Photo by
Jon Noad; reproduced with permission.)

14.6.28 [Link]
Figure : 7,000-year-old Mazama Ash Bed overlying steeply dipping Carboniferous limestone. Exshaw, Alberta, Canada.
(Photo by Jon Noad; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : A nonconformity exposed at Deer Creek in the Grand Canyon. The waterfall emerges from the contact between
lower Mesoproterozoic basement rocks and overlying Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone. (Photo by Logan Wren Raming;
reproduced with permission.)

Figure : The Kentland Disturbance Geologic Area is a theorized impact site where Ordovician and Silurian carbonate
strata were forced to the surface by the impact. A quarry has existed here for a hundred years excavating rock aggregate and
exposing folded and tilted strata with localized faults and telltale shattercones. The upended strata were then scraped over by
Pleistocene glaciation, leaving a thin veneer of glacial deposits on top. (Photo by Troy Simpson; reproduced here with
permission.)

14.6.29 [Link]
 Figure : Chapman's Drive nonconformity, with Table Mountain Group sandstones (~450 Ma) overlying Peninsula
Granite (~630 Ma). Cape Town, South Africa. (Photo by Evelyn Mervine; reproduced with permission.)

Figure : Annex Hill State Park in Minnesota shows two unconformities: an angular unconformity between Archean
banded iron formation and overlaying Cretaceous shale, and a disconformity between the shale and overlying Pleistocene till.

Did I Get It? - Quiz

 Exercise

What kind of unconformity is shown here?

a. nonconformity
b. disconformity
c. angular unconformity

14.6.30 [Link]
Answer
b. disconformity

 Exercise

What kind of unconformity is shown here highlighted in yellow, separating black basalt over white chalk?

 
Mystery contact to interpret  




  

a. nonconformity
b. disconformity
c. angular unconformity

Answer
b. disconformity

 Exercise

What kind of unconformity is shown here?

14.6.31 [Link]
  
Sample unconformity for testing  




  

a. nonconformity
b. disconformity
c. angular unconformity

Answer
c. angular unconformity

 Exercise

What kind of unconformity is shown?

a. nonconformity
b. disconformity

14.6.32 [Link]
c. angular unconformity

Answer
a. nonconformity

 Exercise

What kind of unconformity is this?

 
Sample unconformity for quiz  




  

a. nonconformity
b. disconformity
c. angular unconformity

Answer
a. nonconformity

 Exercise

What kind of unconformity is shown here? How much time is missing?

14.6.33 [Link]
a. This is a nonconformity. About one million years are missing.
b. This is a disconformity. About 75 billion years are missing.
c. This is an angular unconformity. About half a billion years are missing.

Answer
c. This is an angular unconformity. About half a billion years are missing.

 Exercise

Interpret this outcrop.

 
Geological contact for students to ide  




  

a. It's a nonconformity. It implies that (1) a pluton of magma was intruded, (2) it cooled down and crystallized, (3) it was tilted
up and eroded at Earth's surface, (4) a deposit of sediment was laid down, (5) it was lithified, and (6) the whole package was
once again raised up to Earth's surface where we can see it (and where it is eroding anew).
b. It's a disconformity. It implies that (1) an initial deposit of sediment was laid down, (2) it was lithified, (3) it was eroded at
Earth's surface, (4) a second deposit of sediment was laid down, (5) it was lithified, and (6) the whole package was once again
raised up to Earth's surface where we can see it (and where it is eroding anew).

14.6.34 [Link]
 c. It's an angular unconformity. It implies that (1) an initial deposit of sediment was laid down, (2) it was lithified, (3) it was
tilted up by mountain-building and eroded at Earth's surface, (4) a second deposit of sediment was laid down, (5) it was
lithified, and (6) the whole package was once again raised up to Earth's surface where we can see it (and where it is eroding
anew).

Answer
c. It's an angular unconformity. It implies that (1) an initial deposit of sediment was laid down, (2) it was lithified, (3) it was
tilted up by mountain-building and eroded at Earth's surface, (4) a second deposit of sediment was laid down, (5) it was
lithified, and (6) the whole package was once again raised up to Earth's surface where we can see it (and where it is eroding
anew).

Applications of Relative Dating

 Example

Let’s take a look at an example from an exposure in Albersweiler, Germany. We usually can only capture several relative
dating relationships in one picture. These relationships become much more complex in wider view or larger scale.

14.6.35 [Link]
Figure : Geologists viewing an exposure in a quarry near Albersweiler, Germany. (Photo by: Paul R. Eizenhöfer,
Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen Germany. With permission from:
[Link]

14.6.36 [Link]
The quarry exposure displays three different rock types. From field investigation we observe the following: 1) three rock types:
a grey colored gneiss, a fine grained, black igneous rock, and dark red sandstone, 2) an erosional surface between the gneiss
and the overlying sandstone, 3) baking of the gneiss adjacent the the contact with the igneous rock. How can we determine the
order of events?

Solution
We can use several principles above help us solve this problem. First, the principle of superposition tells us that the older rocks
will be on the bottom and the younger at the top. Therefore, the gneiss is most likely older than the sandstone. The cross-
cutting and baked contacts tell us that the black, igneous rock is a dike (intrusion of magma). The erosional surface at the
contact between the gneiss and sandstone tells us that an unconformity exists. What type of unconformity exists between
metamorphic/igneous rock and sedimentary rock? This is specifically a nonconformity. From this evidence we can conclude
the following:
Oldest: gneiss, igneous dike, nonconformity, sandstone Youngest

 Example

The cartoon below shows an imaginary sequence of rocks and geological events labeled A-J. Using the principles of
superposition and cross-cutting relationships, can you reconstruct the geological history of this place based upon the
information you have available?

Figure : Relative dating relationships. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Original image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. Modified by Callan
Bentley.)

Solution
Let’s work through the imaginary example above.
First, we know from the principle of superposition that rock layer F is older than E, E is older than D, D is older than C, and C
is older than B, and B is older than J.
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, J Youngest
Second, we observe that rock body H (which is an igneous intrusion) cuts into rock layers B-F, but not J. It is therefore younger
than B-F and, with the data we have, we assume J as well (*), however H does not specifically cross-cut J. We can also observe
the contact metamorphism “baked rim” around H so we know that B-F had to be there in order to get baked by the intrusion of
H.
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, H, J* Youngest
Third, we observe that the fault A cuts across and displaces rock layers B-J. It is therefore younger than B-J. Because the fault
does not cut across H, we do not know if it is older or younger than that rock unit.
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, J*, (H or A) Youngest

14.6.37 [Link]
 Fourth, we see that G, another igneous intrusion, cuts across A-J; it is therefore younger than all of these (note that G is not
displaced by A, the fault).
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, J*, (H or A), G Youngest
Finally, we note an erosional surface, I, at the top of the sequence (and immediately below the corn field) that cuts both A and
G. I is therefore younger than both A and G.
Putting this all together, we can determine the relative ages of these rock layers and geological events:
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, J*, (H or A), G, I Youngest
Given the information available, we cannot resolve whether H is older than A (or, vice versa). This problem could be resolved,
however, if we were able to determine the age of the fossils and the also the age of the igneous intrusions. Read on!

Dating Rocks Using Fossils

Although the recognition of fossils goes back hundreds of years, the systematic cataloguing and assignment of relative ages to
different organisms from the distant past—paleontology—only dates back to the earliest part of the 19th century. The oldest
undisputed fossils are from rocks dated around 3.5 Ga, and although fossils this old are tiny, typically poorly preserved and are not
useful for dating rocks, they can still provide important information about conditions at the time. The oldest well-understood fossils
are from rocks dating back to around 600 Ma, and the sedimentary record from that time forward is rich in fossil remains that
provide a detailed record of the history and evolution of life on Earth. However, as anyone who has gone hunting for fossils knows,
that does not mean that all sedimentary rocks have visible fossils, or that they are easy to find. Fossils alone cannot provide us with
numerical ages of rocks, but over the past century geologists have acquired enough isotopic dates from rocks associated with fossil-
bearing rocks (such as igneous dikes cutting through sedimentary layers, or volcanic layers between sedimentary layers) to be able
to put specific time limits on most fossils.
If we understand the sequence of evolution on Earth, we can apply knowledge to determining the relative ages of rocks. This is
William Smith’s principle of faunal succession, although of course it doesn’t just apply to “fauna” (animals); it also applies to
fossils of plants and other organisms.

Geologic Range
If we can identify a fossil to the species level, or at least to the genus level, and we know the time period when the organism lived,
we can assign a range of time to the rock. That range might be several million years because some organisms survived for a very
long time. If the rock we are studying has several types of fossils in it, and we can assign time ranges to several of them, we might
be able to narrow the time range for the age of the rock considerably.
Here’s an example. Some organisms survived for a very long time, and are not particularly useful for dating rocks. Sharks, for
example, have been around for over 400 million years. This is not a useful range: if you find a shark fossil in a sedimentary layer, it
only tells you, “This layer is 400 million years old, or younger.” However, the great white shark has a range of 16 million years, so
far, which is a much shorter amount of time. Organisms that lived for relatively short time periods are particularly useful for dating
rocks, especially if they were distributed over a wide geographic area, and so can be used to compare rocks from different regions.
These are known as index fossils. There is no specific limit on how short the time span has to be to qualify as an index fossil. Some
lived for millions of years, and others for much less than a million years.

14.6.38 [Link]
 Figure : Geologic Range Chart. The application of bracketing to constrain the age of a rock based on several fossils. In this
diagram, the colored bars represent the time range during which each of the four species (A, B, C, D) existed on Earth. Although
each species lived for several million years, we can narrow down the likely age of the rock to just 700,000 years during which all
four species coexisted. (CC BY 4.0; Steven Earle. From: [Link]
A geoscientist can also date rocks using the geologic ranges of an fossil assemblage from a single sedimentary layer. A fossil
assemblage (or faunal assemblage) is a group of organisms that all found fossilized together in that layer. This application involves
the bracketing of overlapping ranges to constrain the age of a rock based on several fossils. Consider the diagram left–four species
of fossils (A, B, C, D) were collected from one stratum. The geologic ranges of each species are plotted side by side in a geologic
range chart. Although each species lived for several million years, we can narrow down the likely age of the rock to just 700,000
years during which all four species coexisted. Comparison of these geologic ranges shows only a short time interval (from 7-7.7
Ma) when all four species overlap. Therefore, the age of the sedimentary layer from which these fossils were collected is
constrained to the interval when all four species coexist.

Biozones
Some well-studied groups of organisms qualify as biozone fossils (a stratigraphic interval that can be defined on the basis of a
specific fossil) because, although the genera and families lived over a long time, each species lived for a relatively short time and
can be easily distinguished from others on the basis of specific features. For example, ammonoids have a distinctive feature known
as the suture line—where the internal shell layers (septae) that separate the individual chambers meet the outer shell wall. These
suture lines are sufficiently variable to identify species. These can be used to estimate the age of the rocks in which they are found.
Generally, the more complex the suture pattern, the younger the fossil. Compare the sutures in the following fossil specimens. The
fossil ammonoid on the left is Triassic in age, specifically living in the range between 251-237 Ma. The fossil ammonoid on the
right is Cretaceous in age, specifically living in the range between 113-100 Ma. Select the play button to explore these fossils in
3D.

14.6.39 [Link]
 
Loading 3D model

Figure : Fossil specimen of the ceratite ammonoid Gymnotoceras beachi from the Triassic Toad Formation of British
Columbia (PRI 43629). Specimen is from the collections of the Paleontological Research Institution. Maximum diameter is
approximately 4.5 cm. (CC0 Public Domain; Model by Emily Hauf.)


Loading 3D model

Figure : Fossil specimen of the ammonoid cephalopod Cleoniceras besairiei from the Cretaceous period. Specimen is from
the collections of the Paleontological Research Institution, Ithaca, New York. Maximum diameter of specimen is approximately 12
cm. (CC0 Public Domain; Model by Emily Hauf.)

Foraminifera are small, carbonate-shelled marine organisms that originated during the Triassic and are still around today. They are
extremely useful biozone fossils. As shown in the figure below, numerous different foraminifera lived during the Cretaceous. Some
lasted for over 10 million years, but others for less than 1 million years. If the foraminifera in a rock can be identified to the species
level, we can get a good idea of its age. The following is an abbreviated geologic time scale displaying select index foraminifera
and age range from the Cretaceous and Paleogene time periods. The gigapixel photo that follows is of Cribratina texana, collected
at “Fossil Hill,” near the Chihuahua (Mexico) / Texas / New Mexico triple point border. Being that this is an index fossil, we can
accurately date the age of the rock that hosts the fossil as being between 112-93.5 Ma.

Figure : Select index foraminifera from the Cretaceous and Paleogene. (For educational purposes from the Geologic
Timescale Foundation, [Link] Modified by Shelley Jaye.)

14.6.40 [Link]
  
Cribratina  




  
Figure : Fossils of the benthic foraminiferid Cribratina, an index fossil for the Albian-Cenomanian age, collected at “Fossil
Hill,” north of the Cristo Rey laccolith at the Chihuahua (Mexico) / Texas / New Mexico triple border. (Robin Rohrback, Mid-
Atlantic Geo-Image Collection (M.A.G.I.C.).)
Watch this video to learn about the discovery of conodonts and their use as index fossils.

We're sorry, but there was an error playing this

video. Please try again later.

Numerical (or Absolute) Dating

Numerical (also known as absolute) dating deals with assigning actual dates (in years before the present) to geological events.
Contrast this with relative dating, which instead is concerned with determining the order of events in Earth’s past. The science of

14.6.41 [Link]
absolute age dating is known as geochronology and the fundamental method of geochronology is radiometric dating (also known as
isotopic dating).

Figure : Archbishop James Ussher (1581-1656) (public domain; WikiMedia Commons).

Scholars and naturalists, understandably, have long been interested in knowing the absolute age of the Earth, as well as other
important geological events. In 1650, Archbishop James Ussher (1581-1686) famously used the genealogy of the Old Testament of
the Bible (e.g., Genesis, Chapter 5), and the human lifespans recorded in it, to estimate the age of the Earth. He concluded that the
Earth was young in age, having formed in 4004 B.C., or about 6,000 years ago.
In the 1800’s, practitioners of the young science of geology applied the uniformitarian views of Hutton and Lyell (discussed earlier
in this chapter) to try to determine the age of the Earth. For example, some geologists observed how long it took for a given amount
of sediment (say, a centimeter of sand) to accumulate in a modern habitat, then applied this rate to the total known thickness of
sedimentary rocks. When they did this, they estimated that the Earth is many millions of years old.
We now know that this estimate is far, far too young. In part, this estimate is so low because these early geologists did not
recognize that unconformities, which represent missing units of time, often caused by erosion, are rampant in the rock record, as
well as the fact that some metamorphic rocks were once sedimentary, and thus left out of their calculations. Still, this estimate was
on the order of millions of years, rather than Ussher’s calculation of 6,000. Geologists were beginning to accept the views of
Hutton that the Earth is unimaginably ancient.
What key discovery, then, allowed geologists to begin assigning absolute age dates to rocks and ultimately discover the age of the
Earth? The answer is radioactivity.

Radiometric dating
Hypotheses of absolute ages of rocks (as well as the events that they represent) are determined from rates of radioactive decay of
some isotopes of elements that occur naturally in rocks.

ELEMENTS AND ISOTOPES

In chemistry, an element is a particular kind of atom that is defined by the number of protons that it has in its nucleus. The number
of protons equals the element’s atomic number. Have a look at the periodic table of the elements below. Carbon’s (C) atomic
number is 6 because it has six protons in its nucleus; gold’s (Au) atomic number is 79 because it has 79 protons in its nucleus.

14.6.42 [Link]
 Figure : The periodic table of the elements of the world, showing element names, oxidation states, electron negativities, first
ionization energies, and electron configurations. (CC0 1.0 Universal; Public domain from Wikimedia)
Even though individual elements always have the same number of protons, the number of neutrons in their nuclei sometimes
varies. These variations are called isotopes. Isotopes of individual elements are defined by their mass number, which is simply the
number of protons + the number of neutrons.
Consider, for example, the three different isotopes of Carbon:
Carbon-12 ( C): 6 protons, 6 neutrons
Carbon-13 ( C): 6 protons, 7 neutrons
Carbon-14 ( C): 6 protons, 8 neutrons

Figure : The three isotopes of carbon. (CC-ND 2.0; Tessa Koumoundouros from: [Link]
what-is-an-isotope-10688.)

14.6.43 [Link]
RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Figure : Decay chain of U-238 to stable Pb-206. (Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International License; Salt Lake Community College, An Introduction to Geology, from: [Link]
geologic-time/#721_Radioactive_Decay/.)
Most isotopes are stable, meaning that they do not change, or decay, over time; they could remain the same stable isotope for
eternity. Some isotopes, however, are unstable and undergo radical change through the process of radioactive decay. This involves
the unstable isotopes shedding energy in the form of radiation and subatomic particles, causing their numbers of protons and
neutrons to change. Once the number of protons change, the isotope is no longer the same element. The radioactive element will
decay to form a different, stable element. The atomic nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay is known at the parent and the
resulting stable element, the daughter product (or, decay product). Consider the example of the radioactive element
(Uranium-238) which will radioactively decay to (Lead-206). This is not a one step process as indicated in the diagram
below. We begin with in the upper left. As the decay process releases particles and energy, goes through a significant
transformation, morphing into many other similarly radioactive elements prior to ending up as a stable isotope of lead, . Some
steps take only fractions of a second, others may take thousands of years, however, relative to the pace of “geologic time,” this
process happens very quickly.

14.6.44 [Link]
How do we apply the radioactive decay of unstable isotopes to the dating of rock? We are not really dating the rock, we are dating a
mineral in the rock. Radioactive elements become part of the mineral chemistry during the crystallization process. The key to
understanding how this works is to realize that the physical chemistry of a growing mineral crystal can be ‘picky’ or it can be
‘sloppy.’ When ‘picky’ minerals are forming, their growing mineral crystal lattice can be very “exclusive” about what atoms it will
let into its crystal structure. It accepts a select few kinds of atoms, but turns away most every other kind. The opposite would be
sloppy – where all sorts of different atoms are permitted into the developing lattice. Sloppy minerals aren’t going to be useful for
geologic dating. We need picky minerals.
The ideal mineral for numerical dating accepts some atoms into its crystal that are radioactive parent isotopes. The parent will
decay at a known rate, diminishing in number over time but causing their daughter (decay) products to accumulate over time in a
one-for-one match. The ideal mineral loves bringing in the parent, but would never include the daughter in the developing crystal
structure – like a “no children allowed” rule!
In some cases, the radioactive element in question is an isotope of an element essential to the mineral’s growth; one of its “standard
ingredients” – for instance, getting incorporated into the ‘potassium spot’ in the potassium feldspar crystal ( ), where
most of the atoms in that position are stable (not radioactive) isotopes of the same element, or in this case. is the
radioactive parent. will decay to form as a stable daughter product. However, , due to its size, will never be found in
the original mineral. As radioactive decay of transpires over time, both elements remain trapped within the closed
system of the formed mineral.
In other cases, we’re focused on elemental impurities in the mineral crystal – atoms you won’t find in the mineral’s common
chemical formula. Specifically, picky minerals will (a) let certain radioactive atoms into their crystals, but (b) at the same time, they
actively exclude the stable daughter atoms that result when the radioactive parents break down. The parent isotope “fits” into the
crystal, by virtue of its valence state and its atomic size. Conversely, the daughter isotope doesn’t fit into the crystal, either because
of its valence state or because of its atomic size, or both. An example of this occurs in the mineral zircon ( ). Stable atoms of
Zr dominate in the crystal lattice however radioactive atoms can substitute for Zr. The daughter product of the decay of is
. Due to the atomic characteristics of Pb, there is no “happy place” for Pb in the crystal, so Pb atoms will never enter the
zircon crystal lattice while it is forming. As radioactive decay of occurs over time, both elements remain trapped
within the closed system of the formed mineral.
The parent-daughter decay pair found within the mineral crystal starts off with 0% daughter isotopes, and 100% radioactive parent
isotopes. Based on the previous discussion, we can be confident that any daughter isotopes we find in the mineral crystal got there
due to radioactive decay of a parent isotope some time after the crystal originally formed, and they were NOT there from the very
beginning. They form in place, due to the spontaneous breakdown of their radioactive parent isotopes, and they are “trapped” in a
mineral crystal in which they do not belong. A comprehensive count of all the parent isotopes and all the daughter isotopes in that
mineral system will sum to 100%.
Minerals that meet these criteria are very few and far between. The most applicable ones are listed below on the Half-life Decay
Constant Chart.

HALF-LIFE DECAY CONSTANT CHART

Table : Half-Life Decay Constant Chart.

14.6.45 [Link]
 Radioactive Useful age
Daughter Half-life decay Useful in Useful in
parent that is range in Useful in
Mineral isotope that constant of the Sedimentary Metamorphic
“allowed” in geologic Igneous rocks
results parent isotope rocks rocks
the crystal dating

4.5 billion More than 100

* **
years Ma

703.8 million More than 100

* **
Zircon (also years Ma
Monazite)
14 billion
years – longer More than 200
* **
than the age of Ma
the Universe!

Muscovite,
biotite,
1.25 billion More than
hornblende,
years 100,000 years
potassium
feldspar

48.8 billion
Muscovite,
years ~4 times
biotite, More than 100
older than the ?
potassium Ma
age of the
feldspar
Universe!

*as detrital grains within a sedimentary deposit: gives a maximum age for the deposit.
**as overgrowths on original grains – must be distinguished from the mineral’s “core” during the dating process or as reset ages, if
the rock has undergone very hot metamorphism (>800 C).
Did you notice how few minerals there are? Of the thousands of minerals known, only a handful are common enough in rocks and
‘picky’ enough in their chemistry to be useful for isotopic dating. Our toolbox has only about a dozen tools in it. We can’t
numerically date quartz. We can’t numerically date calcite. Same for olivine and pyroxene and most of the important rock forming
minerals.
Two pieces of information are needed to calculate how old a given mineral is: the ratio of parent to daughter isotopes, and the rate
of decay, or half-life, of the radioactive parent.
The ratio of parent to daughter atoms is measured by using a mass spectrometer which is a very sensitive, high precision
instrument that detects and separates atoms based on their mass.
The rate at which a particular parent isotope decays into its daughter product is constant. This rate is determined in a laboratory
setting. A half-life is the amount of time needed for half of the parent atoms in a sample to decay into daughter products.
This is illustrated in the chart below.

14.6.46 [Link]
 Figure : Radioactive Decay Curve diagram. Relationship between the amount of radioactive parent atoms in a sample
relative to the number of daughter atoms over the passage of time, measured in half-lives. (This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
At the start time (zero half-lives passed), the sample consists of 100% parent atoms (blue diamonds); there are no daughter
products (red squares) because no time has passed. After the passage of one half-life, 50% of the parent atoms have become
daughter products. After two half-lives, 75% of the original parent atoms have been transformed into daughter products (thus, only
25% of the original parent atoms remain). After three half-lives, only 12.5% of the original parent atoms remain. As more half-lives
pass, the number of parent atoms remaining approaches zero.
The ratio of parent atoms relative to daughter products in a sample will determine how many half-lives have passed since a mineral
grain first formed. Consider the example shown below.

Figure : An example of how the initial number of radioactive parent atoms (blue diamonds) in two mineral grains (gray
hexagons) changes over time (measured in half-lives) relative to the number of daughter products (red squares). (This work is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
The left-most box in the figure above represents an initial state, with parent atoms distributed throughout molten rock (magma). As
the magma cools, grains of different minerals begin to crystalize. Some of these minerals (represented above as gray hexagons)
incorporate the radioactive parent atoms (blue diamonds) into their crystalline structures; this marks the initiation of the “half-life
clock” (i.e., the start time, or time zero). After one half-life has passed, half (50%, or four) of the parent atoms in each mineral grain
have been transformed into their daughter products (red squares). After two half-lives have passed, 75% (six) of the original parent

14.6.47 [Link]
atoms in each grain have been transformed into daughter products. How many parent atoms would remain if three half-lives
passed?

CALCULATING RADIOMETRIC DATES

The next step in radiometric dating involves converting the number of half-lives that have passed into a numerical (i.e., absolute)
age. This is done by multiplying the number of half-lives that have passed by the half-life decay constant of the parent isotope
(see the table above for decay constants).
Let’s step through a simple problem to determine the age of the sample of granite below.
Granite contains the mineral potassium feldspar which can be dated using the radioactive decay pair of [2] We send our
sample of potassium feldspar off to the lab to be analyzed using the latest mass spectrometry methods to determine the ratio of
parent isotope of to daughter isotope of . Analysis reveals that 75% of our parent remains and 25% of our daughter is
present. We can use the half life chart (above) and the graph below to determine the age of the granite. The chart tells us that the
half life of is 1.25 billion years. We read the graph as follows:

Figure : Radioactive Decay Curve Half Life Plot – example problem.

We can use either the percentage of the parent or the daughter; we will end up with the same answer. Choosing the daughter
percentage of 25%, we find that along the left, vertical axis and then determine the intersection with the decay curve line for the
daughter product (A). We drop down vertically from that point to the horizontal axis of half lives (B). The intersection of line B
with the horizontal axis indicates that approximately 0.4 of one half life has passed since this sample originally formed. To
determine the age of the sample in years, we simply multiply the half life decay constant for (1.25 By) by the number of
half-lives passed (0.4):

To summarize, to determine the age of a sample you must:

1. Determine the percent of Parent/Daughter isotopes that exist within the sample.
2. Determine the number of half-lives that have passed by using the percent parent (or daughter) isotope and the Radioactive
Decay Curve diagram.

14.6.48 [Link]
3. Determine the age of the sample by multiplying the number of half-lives by the decay rate constant for the parent/daughter
isotope pair found on the Half-life Decay Constant chart.

A WORD ABOUT CARBON-14 ( ) DATING

Almost everyone has heard of Carbon-14 dating. does not appear on our Half-life Decay Constant chart above because it is not
a useful isotope for dating rocks. has a very short half-life, geologically speaking. Its half-life is 5,730 years; compare that with
the half-life data on the chart. After 5-6 half-lives (approximately 50,000 years), the amount of remaining is a sample becomes
negligible and not useful for mineral/rock dating purposes. Carbon commonly exists in rock in the form of organic carbon and
carbonate fossils. However the formation of lithified rock is in the order of millions of years therefore, any that originally
existed in the sample has long since decayed to virtually nothing. As a result, ’s main use is determining archeological dates of
wood, charcoal, seeds, pollen, pottery, paper, natural fabric and more recent bone and shell material.

MINERAL AGES VS. ROCK AGES

How does the mineral’s numerical date relate to the rock’s numerical date? What considerations must the historical geologist bear
in mind as they make the transfer from the one to the other? It depends on the rock, and it depends on the mineral.
The simplest case is with igneous rocks, wherein all the minerals form at the time molten rock (magma or lava) crystallizes into
solid rock. Bowen’s crystallization sequence aside, this is more or less “instantaneous” from the perspective of most Historical
Geology questions. So in igneous rocks, all the minerals are the same age as the rock. A zircon crystal (igneous mineral) date from
a granite (igneous rock), therefore, may be taken as representative of the age of the granite. Exceptions would include xenoliths
(pieces of older rock incorporated into igneous rocks) and xenocrysts (crystals from older rocks incorporated into igneous rocks).
In a clastic sedimentary rock, however, the situation is more complicated. Rocks like sandstone are made of sedimentary grains:
small pieces of other rocks. Those other rocks must be older, in order to slough off pieces of themselves; pieces that can later be
deposited with other small rock chunks and make a deposit of sand, sand that could then be lithified to make a sandstone. The
minerals that make up a clastic sedimentary rock don’t form in place: they originated elsewhere, some time before. So a zircon
crystal in a sedimentary rock does not represent a maximum age for the sedimentary deposit: its age is the age of the igneous rock
in which it formed, so the sedimentary deposit which contains a bit of rock weathered out of that original igneous rock must be
younger than it. If the zircon is 2 billion years old, then the sedimentary deposit containing it must be younger than 2 billion years
old. But it could be 1 billion years old, or 100 million, or 100 years old. It could be 20 minutes old, and still contain a 2-billion-
year-old zircon.

Figure : Quartz-pebble metaconglomerate (Jack Hills Quartzite), the rock type that contains the Earth’s oldest dated mineral
grains (detrital zircon). (CC BY 2.0; James St. John – Quartz-pebble metaconglomerate (Jack Hills Quartzite, Archean, 2.65 to 3.05
Ga; Jack Hills, Western Australia))
These are called “detrital zircons” to distinguish our understanding of how they got into the sedimentary rock – they are survivors
from older weathered-away igneous source rocks. They are part of the leftover scraps – the detritus, or waste – from the breakdown
of older rocks. Detrital zircon have been very useful in tracking down the Earth’s oldest rocks. At the beginning of this chapter, you
learned that the Earth is 4.56 billion years old. As it turns out, the oldest dated mineral–a grain of zircon from the Jack Hills of
Western Australia–is 4.404 billion years old. This zircon exists in metaconglomerate, a metamorphosed clastic sedimentary rock.
Discovery of the age of this zircon tells us that it was derived from even older igneous rock which gives us a tremendous clue as to
the composition of Earth’s early, Hadean age, crust.
In a chemical sedimentary rock, where crystals are forming at the time of deposition, it would be plausible that a mineral date could
be used to date the depositional age, but the problem is that none of the crystals in chemical sedimentary rocks are “picky” enough

14.6.49 [Link]
about their isotopic inclusions for the technique to work. Calcite doesn’t grab radioactive isotopes while excluding their daughter
isotopes, and neither does halite or gypsum. Tough luck: we just can’t date chemical sedimentary rocks using such a process. Next!
With metamorphic rocks, there’s another layer of complication still: the mineral age can be representative of the rock’s protolith, or
the date of its metamorphism. It all depends on what mineral we’re talking about, and what the protolith was. First, let’s consider a
metavolcanic rock – a metamorphic rock that started off as a volcanic (igneous) rock before it got metamorphosed. In this case, a
zircon represents the age of the protolith (the age of the initial eruption), while the elevated temperature and pressure of
metamorphism might encourage the growth of new metamorphic minerals. When a basalt is metamorphosed to make an
amphibolite for instance, it grows new amphibole crystals. These amphiboles could be dated (using the K/Ar technique) in order to
determine the age of metamorphism. Two minerals in one rock, each representative of a different process, happening at a distinct
time. The careful geologist should pay attention to which mineral they are dating, and what its implications are for the history of
that rock.
Next, consider a metasedimentary rock – a metamorphic rock with a sedimentary protolith. A metagraywacke is a metamorphosed
graywacke: its protolith was clay-rich sandstone. In this case, a detrital zircon might well be a maximum age constraint of the
original sedimentary deposit, as we just discussed a couple of paragraphs ago. Zircon has a very high closure temperature (link to
resetting discussion below), so if the metamorphism was low- to medium-grade, the zircon’s original igneous date could survive
heating. But the same level of metamorphism in the same metagraywacke could easily be sufficient that the clay all recrystallizes to
make muscovite mica, then we can use the mica to get the age of metamorphism. The zircon would have been there before
metamorphism, but the mica grew as a consequence of metamorphism. Muscovite can be dated using K/Ar dating, or its derivative
technique, Ar/Ar dating (link).
An example of this can be found in the Piedmont metamorphic rocks of Washington, DC. There, detrital zircons in metagraywackes
of the Sykesville Formation give U/Pb ages of ~1 Ga, but the same rocks also host metamorphic muscovites that grew at 460 Ma,
according to the K/Ar dating technique. The conclusion is that the muddy sand was deposited sometime after 1 Ga, but before 460
Ma, since it was metamorphosed then. The two dating techniques, on two different minerals, help “bracket” the age of the original
deposit of sediment.

Figure : SHRIMP allowed in situ dating of discrete zones in zircon. This revealed for the first time the true complexities of
the geochronology of this mineral as well as its ability to record individual geological events. (With permission from the Research
School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University College of Science, [Link]
One additional wrinkle with metamorphic rocks is that sometimes you can get several dates out of a single mineral crystal. This
happens because an original crystal can add new layers when it gets metamorphosed. Again, we turn to zircon for an example: if a
granite pluton was to be metamorphosed and make a gneiss, then original (igneous) zircons in the rock might have the opportunity
to acquire new zirconium, silicon, and oxygen atoms through metamorphic recrystallization. These new atoms get arranged in the
zircon’s distinctive crystal structure, accumulating on the outside of the old crystal. If you were to date this whole zircon crystal,
you’re going to get a hybridized age – a mix of the original plutonic age and the age of the metamorphic overgrowth. That would
be a disaster!
Fortunately, there is a solution: SHRIMP to the rescue! SHRIMP is an acronym that stands for Sensitive High-Resolution Ion
MicroProbe. It’s a tool that allows the dating of different parts of a single zircon crystal. Although the crystal being examined may
be the size of a grain of sand, the SHRIMP uses a thin laser beam to distinguish between the layers on the edge (youngest) versus

14.6.50 [Link]
the layers in the middle (oldest). Incredibly, this allows us to extract multiple dates from a single mineral grain: one date for the
igneous crystallization, and another date for a later metamorphic event. There are even examples where 10 or more dates have been
extracted from a single grain of zircon!
Metamorphism can complicate accurately dating the age of a particular mineral. Increased pressure and temperature during
metamorphism plus the addition/liberation of fluids and gases can result in ions becoming mobile in the metamorphic environment.
We can return to a previous discussion on calculating radiometric dates to use as an example. Potassium feldspar is one of the most
common minerals in the crust; common in both igneous and metamorphic rocks. Potassium feldspar typically begins its existence
as a mineral formed during the crystallization of magma. It is a common constituent in the igneous rock, granite. The radioactive
isotope, , can be included in the crystalline structure of potassium feldspar. Upon crystallization, the radioactive decay of
begins producing . Granite can be very accurately dated using this decay pair ( ). However, most granite is exposed to
metamorphic conditions because it typically forms in a cooling magma chamber, deep within the crust, in a tectonic environment
that includes the compressive forces of plate collision. Granite, subjected to metamorphic conditions, does not change much in its
mineralogy however the increased pressure and temperature conditions will realign minerals and allow trapped fluids and gasses to
escape. The resulting metamorphic rock is a granitic gneiss. The realigned potassium feldspar minerals will remain in the granitic
gneiss (see photo below) and still contain the decaying . However, the daughter product, , formed in the original granite,
may have vacated the closed system during the metamorphic process thereby resetting the radiometric decay clock. Dating the
potassium feldspar in the granitic gneiss would yield the date of metamorphism, not the original date potassium feldspar
crystallization in the granite.

Figure : A comparison of granite and gneiss. The texture of the protolith granite is the same in every direction (equigranular)
but the gneiss has a pronounced foliation, which we infer to have developed from squeezing (compressional stress) in a direction
that was perpendicular to the resulting foliation.

Applications of all dating methods

Let’s return to our Relative Dating cartoon to see how we can apply all relative and numerical dating methods to further our
understanding of events in geological history. To summarize from our relative dating analysis above, here is what we know:
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, J*, (H or A), G, I Youngest. From the data given we could not tell the exact order in which fault A or igneous
intrusion H occurred. We also assume* that F through J were in place prior to the intrusion of H however we do not know that since
H does not cross-cut J.

14.6.51 [Link]
 Figure : Relative dating relationships. Original image by Jonathan R. Hendricks. (This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Modified by Callan Bentley.)
We observe that there are fossils in both limestone units F and J. Using the principle of faunal succession and the paleontological
tool of the fossil record we determine that a specific type of brachiopod fossil in layer F is from the genus Mucrospirifer. This
brachiopod is an index fossil for the Devonian period during the Paleozoic Era of geologic time. Layer J reveals a cephalopod
fossil from the genus Domatoceras. The geologic range for this fossil is the Pennsylvanian-Permian periods of the Paleozoic Era.
We can add the following to our sequence of events:
Oldest F (Devonian), E, D, C, B, J* (Pennsylvanian-Permian), (H or A), G, I Youngest
The igneous intrusions G and H can provide us with numerical dates using isotopic analysis and our learned radiometric dating
techniques. We will say that intrusion H is granite and intrusion G is basalt. The granite was analyzed using zircon crystals and the
isotopes which provided an age of 330 Ma +/- 5 Ma. The basalt was analyzed using of hornblende crystals
yielding an age of 220 Ma +/- 8 Ma. Using the geological time scale below, we discover that the igneous intrusion H occurred
during the Mississippian Period and G occurred during the Triassic Period. That provides us with some much needed timing from
which we can now determine the sequence of all events.
Oldest F (Devonian), E, D, C, B, H (Mississippian), J (Pennsylvanian-Permian), G (Triassic), I Youngest
From this information can we now determine when Fault A occurred? Yes, we can!
Since Fault A cross-cuts J, we know that J is older than A. However, the intrusive dike G cross-cuts everything so we know that A
is older than G. I is the erosional surface so it is the absolute youngest. So now, using all of our dating methods we can
emphatically put all of the events in order:
Oldest F, E, D, C, B, H, J, A, G, I Youngest
Unraveling geologic events is a puzzle. Geologists find new pieces to the puzzle of Earth every day and continue to add pages to
the book of our natural history. You can challenge yourself on a similar example in this case study: Extremadura.

14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
7.3: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology by Callan Bentley, Karen Layou, Russ Kohrs, Shelley Jaye, Matt Affolter, and Brian
Ricketts is licensed CC BY-NC 4.0. Original source: [Link]

14.6.52 [Link]
14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
The text provided below is remixed from 7.4: The Geological Time Scale in Bentley et al's Historical Geology textbook on
Libretexts.

The geological time scale is one of the crowning achievements of science, and geology in particular. It is a reference and
communication system for comparing rocks and fossils from throughout the world and is geology’s equivalent of the periodic table
of the elements.
The geological time scale is currently maintained by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), which is part of the
International Union of Geological Sciences. The time scale is continuously being updated as geoscientists learn more about the
timing and nature of past geological events. You can view the ICS time scale online.
The geological time scale provides a global summary of countless small-scale temporal correlations of rock layers made at local
and regional scales. It is based almost entirely upon careful observations of the distributions of fossils in time and space. The dates
were added much later following the advent of numerical dating techniques giving us the ability to bracket the ages of different
organisms in relation to numerical dates provided by associated igneous activity.

Figure : The geological time scale. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Edited. Original image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)

Time scale history

William Smith used the principle of faunal succession and correlation to great effect in his monumental solo project to create a
geological map of England and Wales, published in 1815. Inset into Smith’s great geological map is a small diagram showing a
schematic geological cross-section extending from the Thames estuary of eastern England all the way to the west coast of Wales.
Smith shows the sequence of rocks, from the oldest (Paleozoic age) rocks of Wales and western England, through the middle aged
(Mesozoic) rocks of central England, to the youngest (Cenozoic age) rocks of the area around London. Smith did not put any
numerical dates on these because he didn’t know them. But using the principle of superposition and faunal succession he knew that,
when tipped upright, this diagram represented a stratigraphic column, a sequence of rock in order from oldest, on the bottom, to
youngest, at the top. And because almost every period of the Phanerozoic is represented along that section through Wales and
England, it is a primitive geological time scale.

14.7.1 [Link]
 Figure : William Smith’s “Sketch of the succession of strata and their relative altitudes,” an inset on his geological map of
England and Wales (with era names added). (Modified from a version by Steven Earle here:
[Link]
The simple principles of superposition and faunal succession have provided geologists with the ability to reconstruct the geological
history of Earth by correlating rocks and fossils from different places. This is critically important because no single place on Earth
preserves a complete geological history, or even a small fraction of it. We only get a sense of the full story if we look everywhere,
using multiple locations to piece together the puzzle of snapshots of the Earth through time.
The geological time scale provides a global summary of countless small-scale correlations of rock layers made at local and regional
scales. It is based almost entirely upon careful observations of the distributions of fossils across time and space.
Another important principle of relative dating, the principle of faunal succession, which is the concept that fossils can occur in
predictable sequences because of the time intervals in which they exist. Fossils can act as “timestamps” that reveal the age of the
strata in which they are found.
Early on in this chapter we discussed the work of William Smith (1769 – 1839) as one of the founding fathers in our early
understanding of geologic time in the 1700s and early 1800s. Smith’s work in understanding early relative dating principles of
superposition and faunal succession set the stage for the definition and naming of the periods of geologic time. British geologists
initiated this task around 1820. Later, geologists from other European countries joined them. Many of the periods are named for
places where rock of that age are found in Europe. A full list of meanings for all of the geologic time periods is found below.

14.7.2 [Link]
 Figure : The history behind the naming of the various geological time periods. (Callan Bentley)

Learning the geological time scale

Because of its usefulness for communicating about events in Earth’s history, it is important that all students of geology,
paleontology, and evolutionary biology commit the geological time scale to memory. This is most easily done by first breaking the
time scale into its component parts: eons, eras, periods, and epochs.

Eons
The eon is the broadest category of geological time. Earth’s history is characterized by four eons; in order from oldest to youngest,
these are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. Collectively, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic are sometimes
informally referred to as the “Precambrian.” (The Cambrian period defines the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon; so, all rocks older
than the Cambrian are Precambrian in age.)
We live during the Phanerozoic, which means “visible life.” This is the interval of geological time characterized by abundant,
complex fossilized remains. Being the youngest eon of time, it is also very well represented by rock at Earth’s surface (because of

14.7.3 [Link]
the Principle of Superposition). Because of these two factors, most paleontologists and geologists study fossils and rocks from the
Phanerozoic eon.
Do not let the time scale at the top of this page give you a false impression, however, about the temporal duration of the
Phanerozoic eon relative to the three older Precambrian eons. Note in the figure below the absolute ages of the boundaries
separating each eon of time.

Figure : Left: the four eons of geological time. Right: the “Precambrian” eons (Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic) represent
88% of geological time. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0
International License.; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks, [Link]
time-scale/.)
You have already learned that the Earth is 4.56 billion years old. The Phanerozoic eon began 541 million years ago (or, 0.541
billion years ago). Thus, the Phanerozoic eon represents a paltry 12% of Earth’s history! Instead, most of Earth’s history is
represented by the three Precambrian eons. These older eons tell the story of Earth’s beginning, life’s origin, and the rise of
complex life.
The Hadean and Archean are difficult eons to study, however, because they are exposed in very limited places on Earth’s surface.
(Since they are the oldest eons, rocks that are Hadean and Archean in age are often buried far below younger rocks at Earth’s
surface.) Proterozoic rocks–which span nearly 2 billion years (42% of Earth’s history)–are much more accessible, but, until
recently, have received significantly less attention from paleontologists than rocks from the younger, fossil-rich Phanerozoic eon.
That is slowly beginning to change, however, as more clues about the origins of complex life begin to be revealed from
Proterozoic-aged rocks.

Eras
Eons of geological time are subdivided into eras, which are the second-longest units of geological time. The Phanerozoic eon is
divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

14.7.4 [Link]
 Figure : The three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
Most of our knowledge of the fossil record comes from the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The Paleozoic (“old life”) era is
characterized by trilobites, the first four-limbed vertebrates, and the origin of land plants. The Mesozoic (“middle life”) era
represents the “age of dinosaurs,” though also is noteworthy for the first appearances of mammals and flowering plants. Finally, the
Cenozoic (“new life”) era is sometimes called the “age of mammals” and is the era during which we live today.
As temporal points of reference, it is worth memorizing the ages of the boundaries that separate the three eras of the Phanerozoic
eon. Long before geologists knew these absolute age dates, they realized that the boundaries represent important events in the
history of life: mass extinctions. For example, many fossils that are commonly found in the youngest Paleozoic rocks are not found
in overlying Mesozoic rocks. Similarly, dinosaur fossils found in the youngest Mesozoic rocks are never again found in the
overlying Cenozoic rocks. Paleontologists and geologists used these mass extinction events to define these (and other) boundaries
within the Phanerozoic portion of the geological time scale. It is therefore no coincidence that some of the major boundaries
coincide with mass extinction events!
The older Archean and Proterozoic eons are similarly divided into several eras. For example, the youngest era of the Proterozoic
eon is called the Neoproterozoic. For the sake of simplicity, these older eras are not included on the time scale shown at the top of
this page; they do, however, exist!

Periods
Just as eons are subdivided into eras, eras are subdivided into units of time called periods. The most well known of all geological
periods is the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era (the movie Jurassic Park, of course, has something to do with that).
The Paleozoic era is divided into six periods. From oldest to youngest, these are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Permian. Note that in the United States, the Carboniferous is divided into two separate periods: the
Mississippian and the Pennsylvanian.

14.7.5 [Link]
 Figure : The seven periods of the Paleozoic era. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
The Mesozoic era is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.

Figure : The three periods of the Mesozoic era. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
Finally, the Cenozoic era is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary.

Figure : The three periods of the Cenozoic era. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)

Epochs and Ages

Periods of geological time are subdivided into epochs. In turn, epochs are divided into even narrower units of time called ages. For
the sake of simplicity, only the epochs of the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods are shown on the time scale at the top of
this page. It is important to note, however, that all of the periods of the Phanerozoic era are subdivided into the epochs and ages.

14.7.6 [Link]
The Paleogene period is divided into–from oldest to youngest–the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene epochs. The Neogene is
divided into the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. Finally, the Quaternary is divided into the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Some
geologists now think that–since humans are having such a notable impact on the Earth and its life–a new, youngest epoch should be
added to the Quaternary: the Anthropocene. There is still considerable discussion in the geological community about whether this
epoch should be added, as well as debate about what characteristics should define its beginning.

Figure : Epochs of the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed
under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)

Interacting with The Geological Time Scale

Spend some time getting to know the major events in the history of the Earth through this interactive Earth Viewer. Select “Info”
and “Tutorial” to understand the full range of capabilities of this interactive to look at Earth throughout geologic time. The
interactive opens on the Phanerozoic Eon; you can select “Ancient Earth” to view the globe and events of the Proterozoic Eon. The
geologic time scale appears at the left with a silver slider that you can grab and peruse through time past. Select “View” to see
overlays available for the globe and the time scale. The layer selected in the static image below is “Mass Extinctions.” Note how
these correspond with the end of Eras and Periods during the Phanerozoic Eon (small yellow triangles). This view is focused on
North America at the end of the Mesozoic Era which culminates with the mass extinction event of the dinosaurs.

Figure : Static image of the Earth Viewer from Howard Hughes Medical Institute Biointeractive. (From:
[Link] Use for educational purposes.)

14.7.7 [Link]
Now that you have learned about the hierarchical components of the geological time scale–eons, eras, periods, and epochs–consider
again how all of these parts fit together. Note that some boundaries (those that follow horizontal lines on the time scale) are
equivalent in age. For example, the Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary is equivalent to the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (both have
an age of 66 Ma). Similarly, the Paleogene-Neogene boundary is equivalent to the Oligocene-Miocene boundary.
It is much easier to memorize the time scale by first breaking it down into its component parts. Many geology students have
developed clever mnemonic devices to help remember all of the names in the time scale and a quick Google search will provide
many examples (which are often rather salty!) that you may find helpful as you memorize the time scale.

Figure : The geological time scale. (Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License; Edited. Original image by Jonathan R. Hendricks.)
The geological time scale is a result of hundreds of years of investigation and remains very much a work in progress. Observe the
geological time scale below, which is from a college-level geology textbook published in 1885 by geologist and conservationist
Joseph LeConte (1823-1901) from the University of California, Berkeley. Many similarities exist with that presented above.
Differences primarily exist with the oldest Eons. Our understanding of the occurrence, ordering and evolution of the species
through time was remarkable even though the study of geology and paleontology was little more than a century old.

14.7.8 [Link]
 Figure : Geological time scale from Le Conte (1885). (public domain)

14.7: Review of the geologic time scale is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
7.4: The Geological Time Scale by Callan Bentley, Karen Layou, Russ Kohrs, Shelley Jaye, Matt Affolter, and Brian Ricketts is licensed CC
BY-NC 4.0. Original source: [Link]

14.7.9 [Link]
14.7.10 [Link]
14.8: Book Content Mapped to ASBOG's Domain C - Sedimentology, Stratigraphy
and Paleontology
The information provided below maps the content of this book, and selected other open access resources, to ASBOG's Domain C -
Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Paleontology.

C-1. Stratigraphic principles

C-1.1 Naming conventions
Ex: beds, units, members, formations, contacts, etc.
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
12.3: Biostratigraphy
North American Stratigraphic Code

C-1.2 Rules
Ex: Superposition, original horizontality, cross-cutting relationships
14.5: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology

C-1.3 Unconformities
Ex: Nonconformities, disconformities, paraconformities, angular unconformities
12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of contacts
14.5: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology

C-1.4 Using and interpreting stratigraphic columns, cross sections, fence diagrams
These are concepts that we typically cover in labs. Rather than writing a comprehensive explanation or "how to" section for each,
we provide concise summaries and links to several examples below. The West Virginia Geologic Handbook provides a fuller
explanation and examples of each of these ways of portraying geologic information.

Stratigraphic columns
A stratigraphic column (or measured section) is a one-dimensional vertical diagram used to represent the layers of rock at a specific
location. It shows things like lithology, grain size, sedimentary structures, fossils, thickness, and other physical characteristics of
the layers using colors, symbols, fill patterns, and varying the width of units.. These columns are built to obey Superposition and
have the oldest unit at the bottom and the youngest unit at the top. Given all of that, they can have interpretive annotations that
show depositional environments, stratigraphic terminology, and age. These location-specific diagrams can be combined the make
geologic cross sections and fence diagrams.
USGS Stratigraphic Columns — Measured Sections (California)
Stratigraphic column of Bryce Canyon
Stratigraphic column of North Dakota
Carbon isotopic record of a platform-to-basin transect through the Permian Reef Complex (Guadalupian) in the Delaware Basin
of Texas and New Mexico

Geologic cross sections

A geologic cross section is a two-dimensional diagram that shows the relationship between rock layers as observed in two or more
stratigraphic columns (from outcrop, subsurface, etc.). They can be used to show lateral facies changes, pinch outs,
unconformities, and other spatial/temporal changes. They represent a midpoint between the simplicity of one-dimensional
stratigraphic columns and the three-dimensional complexity of fence diagrams, they are one of the most common tools used to
show the geometry of structurally deformed areas.

14.8.1 [Link]
 Geologic Cross Section D–D’ Through the Appalachian Basin from the Findlay Arch, Sandusky County, Ohio, to the Valley and
Ridge Province, Hardy County, West Virginia
Cambro-Ordovician through Cretaceous units across North Dakota
Geologic Cross Sections A-A', B-B' and C-C' for Mapped Sedimentary Facies on the Lucama and Kenly East 7.5-minute
Quadrangles, North Carolina

Fence Diagrams
Fence diagrams are three dimensional geological diagrams made by linking together a series of two-dimensional geologic cross
sections in such a way that they resemble a fence that shows how rocks correlate in multiple directions. They are constructed using
series of stratigraphic columns (from outcrop, subsurface, etc.) that are strategically correlated to illustrate lateral facies changes,
pinch outs, unconformities, and other spatial/temporal changes. They are commonly used to show the migration of depositional
environments through time and changes in lateral continuity of units.
Stratigraphic fence diagram of the Chinle & Moenkopi Formations (Triassic)
Stratigraphic fence diagrams spanning Cambrian–Permian strata
Fence diagram of “Clinton” sands and related stratigraphic units (Ohio)
3D perspective fence diagram of the Mahomet Bedrock Valley fill
Ordovician Stratigraphy of the Trenton Group
USGS MF 169, Plate 1
Oregon DOGAMI — Southern Tyee Basin Fence Diagram
Geology, structure, and uranium deposits of the Gallup 1 degree x 2 degrees quadrangle, New Mexico and Arizona
And there are some complicated ones at The Hidden Territory: USGS’s 1950’s to 1970’s Isometric Geological Diagrams

C-1.5 Geochronology
Ex: Geologic timescale, geochronologic methods
14.5: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology

C-1.6 Correlation
Ex: geomagnetic polarity reversals, rock types, index fossils

C-2. Sedimentary structures

C-2.1 Primary
Ex: Cross-bedding, ripples, flute and tool marks
4.1: Stratification
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, and/or Fluctuating Flows

C-2.2 Secondary
Ex: concretions, stylolites, Liesegang banding
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
8.2: Diagenetic Structures

C-2.2 Biogenic
Ex: burrows, trails, stromatolites
9.6: Trace Fossils

14.8.2 [Link]
C-3. Diagenesis
C-3.1 Post depositional changes
Ex: compaction, recrystallization, dissolution, replacement, cementation, lithification, reduction-oxidation reactions
8.1: Diagenetic Processes
8.2: Diagenetic Structures

C-4. Facies analysis

C-4.1 Fabric
Ex: porosity, permeability, packing, isotropic vs. anisotropic
3: Describing Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

C-4.2 Facies changes

Ex: movements of shorelines, shallowing or deepening upwards successions
11.1: Transgressions and Regressions

C-4.3 Facies-depositional environment relationships

11.1: Transgressions and Regressions

C-4.4 Relative sea level change

Ex: transgression, regression
11.2: Sea Level Terminology

C-5. Depositional environments

C-5.1 Clastic environments

C-5.1.1 Textural indicators

Ex: grain size, shape, angularity
3.4: Maturity
3.5: Color

C-5.1.2 Non-Marine
Ex: glacial, eolian, alluvial, fluvial, lacustrine
10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.2: Deserts
10.6: Glacial Environments

C-5.1.3 Transitional
Ex: deltaic, tidal, beach, lagoon, barrier island
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments

C-5.1.4 Marine
Ex: shelf, slope, rise, abyssal plain
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments

14.8.3 [Link]
C-5.2 Carbonate environments

C-5.2.1 Platform and bank

10.5: Carbonate Environments

C-5.2.2 Ramp
10.5: Carbonate Environments

C-5.2.3 Pelagic
10.5: Carbonate Environments

C-5.3 Evaporite environments

7.1: Evaporites

C-6. Fossil record and evolution

C-6.1 Connections to structure of geologic time scale
14.5: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
14.6: Review of the geologic time scale

C-6.2 Index fossils

12.3: Biostratigraphy
14.5: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology

C-6.3 Biostratigraphy
12.3: Biostratigraphy

C-7. Basin analysis

C-7.1 Sequence stratigraphy
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy

C-7.2 Seismic stratigraphy

12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy

C-7.3 Depositional systems

We are not sure what they mean by this, but presumably this content is covered in one of the following sections:
10: Depositional Environments
13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Thermal Sag
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or Flexure
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting

C-7.4 Global cycles

Ex: Milankovitch cycles of eccentricity, obliquity, precession
9.15: Sea Level Changes Caused By Glaciation Cycles
9.16: The Astronomical Connection- Milankovitch Theory
Tutorial: Milankovitch Cycles

C-7.5 Facies architecture

13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Thermal Sag
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or Flexure
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting

14.8.4 [Link]
C-7.6 Provenance
5.1: Sandstones
There is a great summary at Provenance and Plate Tectonics on the Geological Digressions webpage

This page titled 14.8: Book Content Mapped to ASBOG's Domain C - Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Paleontology is shared under a CC BY-SA
license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Michael Rygel and Page Quinton.

14.8.5 [Link]
Index
A B bioturbation
abyssal plain back reef 4.1: Stratification
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 10.5: Carbonate Environments
Clasts
accessory mineral backshore 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
5.1: Sandstones 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
9.6: Trace Fossils
accommodation banded iron formation
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
11.2: Sea Level Terminology 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy bar 10.5: Carbonate Environments
accretionary wedges 10.1: Alluvial Systems biozones
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or barite 12.3: Biostratigraphy
Flexure
7.1: Evaporites bistratification
aggradation
barnacle 9.6: Trace Fossils
10.1: Alluvial Systems
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) bivalve
aggradational 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 9.3: Describing Fossils
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy barrier island 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
Agrichnia 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 9.6: Trace Fossils
9.6: Trace Fossils basin blastoid
algae 10.5: Carbonate Environments 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section basin analysis blocky
10.5: Carbonate Environments 5.3: Mudrocks
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
allochem Flexure body fossil
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification basins 9.1: Types of Fossils
alluvial fan 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or borax
10.1: Alluvial Systems Thermal Sag 7.1: Evaporites
ammonoid bauxite Bouma sequence
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) 5.3: Mudrocks 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 8.2: Diagenetic Structures 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
anastomosed Bay of Fundy boundstone
10.1: Alluvial Systems 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
angular unconformity beach brachiopod
12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
contacts bed 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
angularity 4.1: Stratification brackish
3.2: Particle Morphology 12.2: Lithostratigraphy 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
anhydrite bedform braided river
7.1: Evaporites 4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents 10.1: Alluvial Systems
antidune bedload breccia
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents 2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport 1: Introduction
aragonite 10.1: Alluvial Systems 3.1: Grain Size
6.1: Composition belemnite 5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
aragonite sea 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
Clasts
6.1: Composition bentonite 10.1: Alluvial Systems
Archaeolithoporella 5.3: Mudrocks 10.5: Carbonate Environments
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section Bernoulli’s Principle brine
Arenicolites 2.2: Fluid Mechanics 7.1: Evaporites
9.6: Trace Fossils bicarbonate bryozoan
arenite 6.2: Carbonate Precipitation 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
3.1: Grain Size biochemical 9.5: Microfossils
5.1: Sandstones 3.3: Composition 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
arkose bioerosion
5.1: Sandstones 9.6: Trace Fossils
C
arthropod biostratigraphy calcisphere
9.3: Describing Fossils 12.3: Biostratigraphy 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology 10.5: Carbonate Environments
9.5: Microfossils Biotite calcite
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 6.1: Composition
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
asphalt 6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
1: Introduction 7.1: Evaporites
8.1: Diagenetic Processes
Asteriacites 14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
9.6: Trace Fossils
calcite sea
avulsion 6.1: Composition
10.1: Alluvial Systems
calcium carbonate clay crustal dynamics
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation 2.1: Weathering 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or
caliche 3.1: Grain Size Thermal Sag
3.4: Maturity 13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
5.3: Mudrocks crustal thinning
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
Carbon Dioxide claystone
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation Cruziana
3.1: Grain Size
carbonate 5.3: Mudrocks
9.6: Trace Fossils
3.3: Composition coal Cubichnia
6.1: Composition 9.6: Trace Fossils
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
8.1: Diagenetic Processes cutbank
10.5: Carbonate Environments
9.1: Types of Fossils 10.1: Alluvial Systems
carbonate compensation depth (CCD) coated grain
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification D
carbonic acid Cochlichnus data collection
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
9.6: Trace Fossils 14.5: Geologic Sketches
carbonization color Death Valley
9.2: Types of Preservation
5.1: Sandstones 7.1: Evaporites
carnallite 5.3: Mudrocks
Death Valley National Park
7.1: Evaporites compaction 10.2: Deserts
cast 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
debris flow
9.2: Types of Preservation composition 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
Castlegate Sandstone 3.3: Composition 5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
10.1: Alluvial Systems 14.2: Rock Identification Charts Clasts
Catskill Formation compression 10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.1: Alluvial Systems 13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting deflation lag
cement concretion 10.2: Deserts
5.1: Sandstones 8.2: Diagenetic Structures delta
8.1: Diagenetic Processes conglomerate 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
cephalopod 1: Introduction delta front
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) 3.1: Grain Size 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section delta plain
channel 10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures dendrite
10.1: Alluvial Systems
Conichnus
9.6: Trace Fossils 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
chatter marks 9.1: Types of Fossils
10.6: Glacial Environments
conispiral
9.3: Describing Fossils
density
chemical 2.2: Fluid Mechanics
conodont
3.3: Composition desert
chert 9.5: Microfossils
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 7.1: Evaporites
5.1: Sandstones 10.2: Deserts
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks contact
desert pavement
8.2: Diagenetic Structures 4.1: Stratification
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 12.2: Lithostratigraphy 10.2: Deserts
chert (bedded) continental drift desert rose
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
chert (nodular) continental rise desiccation crack
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
chickenwire structure continental slope diagenesis
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
Chlorite coprolite
diagenetic structure
5.3: Mudrocks 9.1: Types of Fossils
9.6: Trace Fossils 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
Chondrites
coral diamictite
9.6: Trace Fossils
9.3: Describing Fossils 5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
chroma Clasts
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
3.5: Color 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 10.1: Alluvial Systems
clast 10.5: Carbonate Environments 10.6: Glacial Environments
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias Cosmorhaphe diamictites
clastic 9.6: Trace Fossils 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
3.3: Composition crevasse splay diapir
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks 10.1: Alluvial Systems 7.1: Evaporites
crinoid diatom
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
9.5: Microfossils 9.5: Microfossils
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section Diplichnites
9.6: Trace Fossils
Diplocraterion exfoliation formation
9.6: Trace Fossils 2.1: Weathering 12.2: Lithostratigraphy
disconformity extension fossil
12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of 13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
contacts extraformational clast 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
dissolution 5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
9: Fossils
9.1: Types of Fossils
2.1: Weathering 5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
9.2: Types of Preservation
8.1: Diagenetic Processes Clasts
9.3: Describing Fossils
dissolved load 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport F 10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.5: Carbonate Environments
dolomite fault
6.1: Composition 12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of
fossil fuels
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation contacts 1: Introduction
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
7.1: Evaporites fault zones
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting
fossils
10.5: Carbonate Environments
12.3: Biostratigraphy
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables faunal succession 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
dolomitization 12.3: Biostratigraphy
fracture
6.2: Carbonate Precipitation 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
feldspar 2.1: Weathering
dolostone framework grain
2.1: Weathering
6.1: Composition
3.4: Maturity 3.4: Maturity
Domichnia 5.1: Sandstones 5.1: Sandstones
9.6: Trace Fossils 14.1: Mineral Identification Tables frost wedging
downlap fenestrae 2.1: Weathering
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy 10.5: Carbonate Environments frosted grain
dropstones fieldwork 3.2: Particle Morphology
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized 14.5: Geologic Sketches Froude number
Clasts fissility 2.2: Fluid Mechanics
10.6: Glacial Environments
5.3: Mudrocks Fugichnia
dune
flame structure 9.6: Trace Fossils
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
10.2: Deserts
Dunham classification scheme flaser bedding G
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, gastropod
and/or Fluctuating Flows
dwelling trace 9.3: Describing Fossils
floodplain 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
9.6: Trace Fossils
10.1: Alluvial Systems 9.5: Microfossils
flow 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
E geochemical fossil
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
Earth history 9.1: Types of Fossils
fluid flow
14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
geode
earthquakes 2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics flute cast geologic observations
echinoderm 4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures 14.5: Geologic Sketches
9.3: Describing Fossils fluvial geological mapping
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
10.1: Alluvial Systems 14.5: Geologic Sketches
9.5: Microfossils
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section Fodichnia geological time scale
epicontinental sea 9.6: Trace Fossils 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments Folk classification scheme geopetal structure
Equillibrichnia 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
foraminifera 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
9.6: Trace Fossils
geophone
erosion 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
9.5: Microfossils 12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
erosional truncation
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section glacier
10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.6: Glacial Environments
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy forearc basins glacioeustasy
ethology 13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
11.2: Sea Level Terminology
9.6: Trace Fossils Flexure
eustasy foreland basins glauconite
5.1: Sandstones
11.2: Sea Level Terminology 13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
5.3: Mudrocks
eustatic sea level Flexure
glendonite
11.2: Sea Level Terminology foreset
10.6: Glacial Environments
evaporite 4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
glide
7.1: Evaporites foreshoal
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
10.2: Deserts 10.5: Carbonate Environments
Glossifungites
evolution foreshore
9.6: Trace Fossils
12.3: Biostratigraphy 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
gradational historical geology kieserite
4.1: Stratification 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale 7.1: Evaporites
graded bedding Hjulstrom diagram
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements 2.2: Fluid Mechanics L
4.1: Stratification hue lagoon
10.2: Deserts
3.5: Color 10.5: Carbonate Environments
grading hummock lagoons
3.1: Grain Size
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory, 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
grain flow and/or Fluctuating Flows laminae
10.2: Deserts humus 4.1: Stratification
grain flows 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks laminar flow
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements hydrolysis 2.2: Fluid Mechanics
grain size 2.1: Weathering lateral continuity
14.2: Rock Identification Charts
14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
grain size chart I laterite
14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale ichnofacies 5.3: Mudrocks
grains 9.6: Trace Fossils 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification identification chart lee
grainstone 14.2: Rock Identification Charts 4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification igneous rocks lenticular bedding
gravel 14.2: Rock Identification Charts 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
1: Introduction ikaite and/or Fluctuating Flows
3.1: Grain Size levee
10.6: Glacial Environments
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized illite 10.1: Alluvial Systems
Clasts 5.3: Mudrocks liesegang rings
10.1: Alluvial Systems
imbrication 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments lignite
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
gravity mass movement
impression 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
9.2: Types of Preservation limestone
greywacke
5.1: Sandstones
inclined heterolithic stratification 1: Introduction
6.1: Composition
10.1: Alluvial Systems
groove cast 6.2: Carbonate Precipitation
included fragments 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
group 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
insect
10.5: Carbonate Environments
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
gypsum liquefaction
interbedded
1: Introduction 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
7.1: Evaporites 4.1: Stratification
liquefied flow
8.2: Diagenetic Structures interference color
10.2: Deserts 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
5.1: Sandstones
lithic
intertidal
H 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
5.1: Sandstones
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
hackly 10.5: Carbonate Environments
lithosphere
5.3: Mudrocks intraclast
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics
halite 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
lithostratigraphy
1: Introduction intraformational clast
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
2.1: Weathering 5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias 12.3: Biostratigraphy
7.1: Evaporites 5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized 12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
10.2: Deserts Clasts
Helminthoida load cast
inverse grading
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
9.6: Trace Fossils 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
Helminthopsis 4.1: Stratification
Lockeia
9.6: Trace Fossils
9.6: Trace Fossils
hematite J loess
joint 10.6: Glacial Environments
2.1: Weathering
5.1: Sandstones 2.1: Weathering
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks M
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
K Macaronichnus
heterolithic 9.6: Trace Fossils
10.1: Alluvial Systems
kaolinite
1: Introduction
maceral
heterolithic bedding 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
5.3: Mudrocks
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
and/or Fluctuating Flows Kavir Desert magnetite
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 7.1: Evaporites 5.1: Sandstones
10.5: Carbonate Environments kerogen mantle convection
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks 13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics
marble mudstone Ophiomorpha
2.1: Weathering 3.1: Grain Size 9.6: Trace Fossils
matrix 5.3: Mudrocks original horizontality
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
3.4: Maturity 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
mudstone (lime)
5.1: Sandstones orthocone
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
9.3: Describing Fossils
maturity 10.5: Carbonate Environments
ostracod
3.4: Maturity Munsell Color System
9.5: Microfossils
5.1: Sandstones 3.5: Color
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
maximum flooding surface Muscovite 10.5: Carbonate Environments
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy 14.1: Mineral Identification Tables outsized clast
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
meandering river N Clasts
10.1: Alluvial Systems Najavo Sandstone 10.6: Glacial Environments
Mediterranean Sea 10.2: Deserts oxidation
7.1: Evaporites Namib Sand Sea 2.1: Weathering
member 10.2: Deserts oyster
12.2: Lithostratigraphy natural gas 9.3: Describing Fossils
Mermia 1: Introduction
9.6: Trace Fossils 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks P
Messinian Salinity Crisis nautiloid packing
7.1: Evaporites 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) 3.2: Particle Morphology
metamorphic rocks 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section packstone
14.2: Rock Identification Charts neap tide 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
mica 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments Paleodictyon
3.4: Maturity Nereites 9.6: Trace Fossils
5.1: Sandstones 9.6: Trace Fossils paleontology
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables nitre 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
micrite 7.1: Evaporites paleosol
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification nodule 4.1: Stratification
microscope 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks 10.1: Alluvial Systems
5.1: Sandstones 8.2: Diagenetic Structures palimpsest
mineralogy nonconformity 9.6: Trace Fossils
14.2: Rock Identification Charts 12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of parasequence
Mississippi River contacts
10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.1: Alluvial Systems normal faults 12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
Mizzia 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or parasequence set
Thermal Sag
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
mold particle diameters
9.2: Types of Preservation
O 14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale
mollusk obstacle scour Pascichnia
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) 9.6: Trace Fossils
morphology ocean floor peat
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
mottle (mottling) octahedral sheet pedogenesis
5.3: Mudrocks
8.2: Diagenetic Structures 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
mud offshore transition 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 10.1: Alluvial Systems
3.1: Grain Size
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments oil pelagic
mud crack 1: Introduction 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks pellet
10.5: Carbonate Environments oligomict 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
mud drape 5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias peloid
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments Olivellites 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
mudflow 9.6: Trace Fossils 10.5: Carbonate Environments
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements oncoid pericontinental sea
mudrock 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
1: Introduction
10.5: Carbonate Environments peritidal
3.1: Grain Size onlap 10.5: Carbonate Environments
3.5: Color 12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy permineralization
5.3: Mudrocks ooid 9.2: Types of Preservation
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
Clasts 5.1: Sandstones petrographic microscope
8.1: Diagenetic Processes 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
5.1: Sandstones
10.1: Alluvial Systems 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section petroleum system
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 10.5: Carbonate Environments 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
phi unit pyrite reverse grading
3.1: Grain Size 2.1: Weathering 4.1: Stratification
phi units 9.2: Types of Preservation Rhizocorrallium
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables
14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale 9.6: Trace Fossils
Phycosiphon rift basins
Q
9.6: Trace Fossils 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or
pisoid quarry Thermal Sag
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
1: Introduction ripple
10.5: Carbonate Environments quartz 4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
pitch 3.4: Maturity 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
5.1: Sandstones and/or Fluctuating Flows
1: Introduction
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks 10.2: Deserts
pitting 14.1: Mineral Identification Tables river
3.2: Particle Morphology
10.1: Alluvial Systems
plane bed R rockfall
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents radiolarian 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
planispiral 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks Rosselia
9.3: Describing Fossils 9.5: Microfossils
9.6: Trace Fossils
Planolites 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
rounding
9.6: Trace Fossils radiometric dating
3.2: Particle Morphology
plate boundaries 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
3.4: Maturity
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics raindrop impression Rusophycus
plates 4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
9.6: Trace Fossils
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics rainshadow rutile
platform 10.2: Deserts
5.1: Sandstones
7.1: Evaporites ramp
10.5: Carbonate Environments 10.5: Carbonate Environments
S
playa recrystallization sabkah
7.1: Evaporites 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
7.1: Evaporites
10.2: Deserts 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
pleochroism 9.2: Types of Preservation salt weathering
5.1: Sandstones reef 2.1: Weathering

pointbar 10.5: Carbonate Environments saltation

10.1: Alluvial Systems reef crest 2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport

polarizing 10.5: Carbonate Environments sand

5.1: Sandstones reef front 1: Introduction
10.1: Alluvial Systems
polarizing filter 10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
5.1: Sandstones reflector sand volcano
pollen 12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
9.5: Microfossils regression sandstone
polyhalite 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
1: Introduction
11.1: Transgressions and Regressions
7.1: Evaporites 3.1: Grain Size
11.2: Sea Level Terminology
polymict 12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
5.1: Sandstones
5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias relative age Clasts
polymorph 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology 8.1: Diagenetic Processes
6.1: Composition relative dating 10.1: Alluvial Systems
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
porosity 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
3.1: Grain Size relative sea level sapropel
5.1: Sandstones
11.2: Sea Level Terminology
8.2: Diagenetic Structures 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
Praedichnia relief scour
5.1: Sandstones 4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
9.6: Trace Fossils
renewable energy Scoyenia
primary current lineation
1: Introduction
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents 9.6: Trace Fossils
prodelta Repichnia scratched clast
9.6: Trace Fossils 10.6: Glacial Environments
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
replacement sea level
progradational
8.1: Diagenetic Processes
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy 11.1: Transgressions and Regressions
8.2: Diagenetic Structures 11.2: Sea Level Terminology
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
9.2: Types of Preservation
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
pseudofossil reservoir
9.1: Types of Fossils
seal
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
pseudospar retrogradational
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
secondary porosity
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
sediment supply skeletal fragment stratification
11.1: Transgressions and Regressions 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification 4.1: Stratification
11.2: Sea Level Terminology sketching stratigraphy
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
14.5: Geologic Sketches 12.3: Biostratigraphy
sedimentary basin
skewness stream flow
13: Sedimentary Basins
3.1: Grain Size 10.1: Alluvial Systems
sedimentary rocks Skolithos stress relief
14.2: Rock Identification Charts
9.6: Trace Fossils 2.1: Weathering
sedimentary structure
slickenside striated clast
4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents
8.2: Diagenetic Structures 10.6: Glacial Environments
sedimentation slide striations
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements 10.6: Glacial Environments
sedimentology slope stromatolite
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
10.5: Carbonate Environments 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
Flexure
seismic reflection slump 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
10.5: Carbonate Environments
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
smectite stromatoporoid
seismic refraction 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
5.3: Mudrocks
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy 10.5: Carbonate Environments
septarian nodule soft sediment deformation structural geology
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
8.2: Diagenetic Structures 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or
sequence soil Thermal Sag
2.1: Weathering 13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
solubility Flexure
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
sequence boundary 6.2: Carbonate Precipitation stylolite
solution 8.2: Diagenetic Structures
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy 2.1: Weathering
subcritical flow
sequence stratigraphy sorting 2.2: Fluid Mechanics
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy 3.1: Grain Size
subduction zones
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy 3.4: Maturity 13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
shale spar Flexure
3.1: Grain Size 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
subsidence
5.3: Mudrocks 11.2: Sea Level Terminology
spheroidal weathering
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or
10.5: Carbonate Environments 2.1: Weathering Thermal Sag
sharp Spirorhaphe subtidal
4.1: Stratification 9.6: Trace Fossils 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
shelf sponge 10.5: Carbonate Environments
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks supercritical flow
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
shelf crest 9.5: Microfossils
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
10.5: Carbonate Environments 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
supergroup
shoal 10.5: Carbonate Environments 12.2: Lithostratigraphy
10.5: Carbonate Environments spore superposition
shoreface 9.5: Microfossils 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
spring tide 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
support
siderite standard sieve sizes 5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias
5.1: Sandstones 14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale
supratidal
5.2: Conglomerates and Breccias starfish 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
6.1: Composition 10.5: Carbonate Environments
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables surface area
silcrete starved ripple
2.1: Weathering
4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks
and/or Fluctuating Flows
suspended load
silica 2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport
Steno's Principles
7.2: Siliceous Sedimentary Rocks 10.1: Alluvial Systems
12.2: Lithostratigraphy
8.1: Diagenetic Processes
14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
swale
9.2: Types of Preservation
Stokes’ law 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
siliciclastic and/or Fluctuating Flows
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
3.3: Composition
2.4: Gravity Mass Movements
swelling clay
silt 5.3: Mudrocks
storm
3.1: Grain Size
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
sylvite
5.3: Mudrocks
7.1: Evaporites
siltstone storm wave base
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments symmetry
3.1: Grain Size
stoss 9.3: Describing Fossils
5.3: Mudrocks
9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
10.5: Carbonate Environments 4.2: Structures Formed by Unidirectional Currents 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section
systems tract till uniformitarianism
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy 5.4: Diamictites, Pebbly Sandstones, and Outsized 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology
Clasts uranium
10.6: Glacial Environments
T 1: Introduction
tool mark
Taenidium urchin
4.4: Erosional and Post-Depositional Structures
9.6: Trace Fossils 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates)
toplap
tar sand
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks V
trace fossil
tectonics value
8.2: Diagenetic Structures
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics 3.5: Color
9.1: Types of Fossils
13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or 9.6: Trace Fossils valve
Thermal Sag
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 9.3: Describing Fossils
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or
Flexure transgression varve
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 10.6: Glacial Environments
tectonism 11.1: Transgressions and Regressions ventifact
11.2: Sea Level Terminology
11.2: Sea Level Terminology 10.2: Deserts
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
teepee structure transgressive surface 10.6: Glacial Environments
10.5: Carbonate Environments viscosity
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy
Teredolites trap 2.2: Fluid Mechanics
9.6: Trace Fossils 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks
volcanism
ternary diagram trilobite 13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting
5.1: Sandstones
9.3: Describing Fossils
tetrahedral sheet 9.4: Major Fossil-Forming Groups (Invertebrates) W
5.3: Mudrocks 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section wacke
Tetrapod trackway trona 3.1: Grain Size
9.6: Trace Fossils 7.1: Evaporites 5.1: Sandstones
texture Trypanites wackestone
5.3: Mudrocks 9.6: Trace Fossils 6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification
14.2: Rock Identification Charts Tubiphytes Walther's Law
Thallasinoides 9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 11.1: Transgressions and Regressions
9.6: Trace Fossils turbidite water depth
thermohaline 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements 11.2: Sea Level Terminology
11.2: Sea Level Terminology turbidity current wave
thin section 2.4: Gravity Mass Movements 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
5.1: Sandstones 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments and/or Fluctuating Flows
6.3: Carbonate Components and Classification turbulent flow wave base
9.7: Fossils in Thin Section 10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
2.2: Fluid Mechanics
thrust faults 2.3: Fluid-Flow Transport 10.4: Clastic Marine Environments
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or twinning wave ripple
Flexure 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
5.1: Sandstones
tidal bore and/or Fluctuating Flows
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments U wavy bedding
tidal flat unconformity 4.3: Structures Formed by Bidirectional, Oscillatory,
and/or Fluctuating Flows
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of
tidal rhythmite weathering
contacts
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments 12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy 2.1: Weathering
tide 12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy
10.3: Clastic Marginal Marine Environments
unconventional petroleum system Z
10.4: Clastic Marine Environments 7.3: Organic-Rich Sedimentary Rocks zircon
Undichnia 5.1: Sandstones
9.6: Trace Fossils Zoophycos
9.6: Trace Fossils
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 12.1: Review of unconformities and other types of 14.3: Wentworth Grain Size Scale - CC BY-SA 4.0
contacts - CC BY-SA 4.0 14.4: Sieve and Grain Size Terminology - CC BY-SA
12.2: Lithostratigraphy - CC BY-SA 4.0 4.0
12.3: Biostratigraphy - CC BY-SA 4.0 14.5: Geologic Sketches - CC BY-SA 4.0
12.4: Sequence Stratigraphy - CC BY-SA 4.0 14.6: Foundational Concepts of Historical Geology -
12.5: Seismic Stratigraphy - CC BY-SA 4.0 Undeclared
13: Sedimentary Basins - CC BY-SA 4.0 14.7: Review of the geologic time scale - Undeclared
13.1: Review of Plate Tectonics - CC BY-SA 4.0 14.8: Book Content Mapped to ASBOG's Domain C -
13.2: Basins Formed by Crustal Extension and/or Sedimentology, Stratigraphy and Paleontology - CC
Thermal Sag - CC BY-SA 4.0 BY-SA 4.0
13.3: Basins Caused by Crustal Loading and/or 14.9: Well Log Interpretation - Undeclared
Flexure - CC BY-SA 4.0 14.10: Sedimentary Structures Lab Samples - CC BY-
13.4: Basins Caused by Strike-Slip Faulting - CC BY- SA 4.0
SA 4.0 Back Matter - Undeclared
14: Appendices - CC BY-SA 4.0 Index - Undeclared
14.1: Mineral Identification Tables - CC BY-SA 4.0 Glossary - Undeclared
14.2: Rock Identification Charts - CC BY-SA 4.0 Detailed Licensing - Undeclared

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