TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ch Topic Page

1 Units, Dimensions & Measurement 3

2 Kinematics 4

3 Newton's Laws of Motion 5

5
PHYSICS
Work, Energy & Power

Rotational Motion & Gravitation

6

6 Properties of Matter & Fluid Mechanics 8

7 Heat & Thermodynamics 9

8 A Comprehensive
Oscillations & Waves Study Guide 10

9 Electrostatics 11

10 Current Electricity 12

11 Magnetism & Electromagnetic Induction 13

12 Optics 14

13 Modern Physics – Atomic & Nuclear 15

14 Key Formulas & Constants 16

Mechanics · Waves · Electricity · Optics · Modern Physics

Kasturba DSEU Pritampura Campus

Department of General Studies | 2025–26

PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 1: Units, Dimensions & Measurement

Physics is a quantitative science — every measurement requires a unit and every quantity has
dimensions. The SI (International System) is the globally accepted standard.

Quantity SI Unit Symbol Dimension

Length Metre m [L]

Mass Kilogram kg [M]

Time Second s [T]

Electric current Ampere A [I]

Temperature Kelvin K [Θ]

Amount of substance Mole mol [N]

Luminous intensity Candela cd [J]

1.1 Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis verifies equations, converts units, and derives relationships. Every term in a valid
physics equation must have the same dimensions (principle of homogeneity).

• Force: [M L T■²]
• Energy: [M L² T■²]
• Pressure: [M L■¹ T■²]
• Power: [M L² T■³]
• Electric charge: [I T]
• Voltage: [M L² T■³ I■¹]

1.2 Significant Figures & Errors

• Absolute error: ∆a = |a_measured − a_true|
• Relative error: ∆a/a_mean
• Percentage error: (∆a/a_mean) × 100%
• For addition/subtraction: add absolute errors; for multiplication/division: add relative errors

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 2: Kinematics
Kinematics describes motion without considering its causes. Quantities include displacement, velocity,
acceleration, and time.

2.1 Equations of Motion (Uniform Acceleration)

v = u + at
s = ut + ½at²
v² = u² + 2as
s_n = u + a(2n − 1)/2 (displacement in nth second)
where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, s = displacement, t = time.

2.2 Projectile Motion

A projectile moves under gravity alone (no air resistance). Horizontal velocity remains constant; vertical
velocity changes at g = 9.8 m/s².

Range R = u² sin(2θ) / g
Maximum height H = u² sin²(θ) / 2g
Time of flight T = 2u sin(θ) / g
Maximum range occurs at θ = 45°. Complementary angles (e.g., 30° and 60°) give the same range.

2.3 Relative Motion

Velocity of A relative to B: v_AB = v_A − v_B. River-boat problems, rain-umbrella problems, and
collision analysis use relative motion.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 3: Newton's Laws of Motion

Law Statement Equation/Application

First (Inertia) A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless F_net

acted = 0 →by
upon a =external
0 force

Second The rate of change of momentum equals net applied

F =force
ma or F = dp/dt

Third F_AB = −F_BA

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

3.1 Friction
• Static friction: f_s ≤ µ_s N (prevents relative motion)
• Kinetic friction: f_k = µ_k N (during sliding; µ_k < µ_s)
• Rolling friction: much smaller than sliding friction — basis of wheel technology
• Angle of friction: tan φ = µ; Angle of repose = angle of friction for inclined planes

3.2 Linear Momentum & Impulse

Momentum: p = mv (kg m/s)
Impulse: J = F × ∆t = ∆p
Law of conservation of momentum: In the absence of external forces, total momentum of a system is
conserved. Applied in collisions, explosions, rocket propulsion.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 4: Work, Energy & Power

Work: W = F · d · cos θ (Joules, J)
Kinetic Energy: KE = ½mv²
Potential Energy (gravitational): PE = mgh
Elastic PE (spring): PE = ½kx²
Power: P = W/t = F·v (Watts, W)
Work-Energy Theorem: Net work done on a body = change in kinetic energy. W_net = ∆KE = ½mv² −
½mu²

4.1 Conservation of Energy

Total mechanical energy (KE + PE) is conserved in the absence of non-conservative forces (friction, air
resistance). In a simple pendulum: at equilibrium → max KE, zero PE; at extreme → max PE, zero KE.

4.2 Types of Collisions

Type Kinetic Energy Momentum Example

Elastic Conserved Conserved Billiard balls, gas molecules

Inelastic Not conserved Conserved Car crashes

Perfectly inelastic Maximum loss Conserved Mud ball, bullet into block

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 5: Rotational Motion & Gravitation

5.1 Rotational Kinematics
ω = ω■ + αt (angular velocity)
θ = ω■t + ½αt² (angular displacement)
τ = Iα (Torque = Moment of Inertia × angular acceleration)
L = Iω (Angular momentum)
Moment of inertia (I) depends on mass distribution. For a solid sphere: I = (2/5)mR². For a ring: I = mR².
For a disc: I = (1/2)mR². Parallel and perpendicular axis theorems relate these values.

5.2 Universal Gravitation

F = G·m1·m2 / r² (G = 6.674 × 10■¹¹ N m² kg■²)
g = GM_E / R_E² ≈ 9.8 m/s² (surface of Earth)
Orbital velocity: v = √(GM/r)
Escape velocity: v_esc = √(2GM/R) = √(2gR) ≈ 11.2 km/s (Earth)
Kepler's Laws: (1) Planets move in ellipses with Sun at one focus. (2) Equal areas swept in equal times.
(3) T² ∝ r³.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 6: Properties of Matter & Fluid Mechanics

6.1 Elasticity
Stress = Force / Area (N/m² = Pa)
Strain = ∆L / L (dimensionless)
Young's Modulus Y = Stress / Strain (for longitudinal deformation)
Hooke's Law: Stress ∝ Strain (within elastic limit). Beyond the elastic limit lies the plastic region, then
fracture point. Bulk modulus governs volume compression; shear modulus governs shape change.

6.2 Fluid Mechanics

Pressure: P = F/A; Hydrostatic pressure: P = ρgh
Archimedes' Principle: Buoyant force = weight of fluid displaced
Bernoulli's Equation: P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant
Bernoulli's principle explains lift on aircraft wings, atomisers, and the Venturi meter. Viscosity measures
a fluid's resistance to flow — water (1 mPa·s), blood (3–4 mPa·s), honey (2,000–10,000 mPa·s).

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 7: Heat & Thermodynamics

Heat: Q = mc∆T (m=mass, c=specific heat, ∆T=temperature change)
Latent heat: Q = mL (during phase change; no temperature change)
Modes of heat transfer: Conduction (solids; Fourier's law), Convection (fluids; natural/forced), Radiation
(electromagnetic waves; Stefan-Boltzmann law: P = σεAT■).

7.1 Gas Laws & Thermodynamic Processes

Process Condition Work Done Q ∆U

Isothermal T = const W = nRT ln(V2/V1) Q=W 0

Adiabatic Q=0 W = −∆U 0 W = nCv ∆T

Isobaric P = const W = P∆V Q = nCp ∆T nCv ∆T

Isochoric V = const 0 Q = nCv ∆T Q

7.2 Carnot Efficiency

η_Carnot = 1 − T_cold / T_hot (maximum possible efficiency)
No real engine can exceed Carnot efficiency. Refrigerators and heat pumps are reverse heat engines.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 8: Oscillations & Waves

8.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Equation: x = A cos(ωt + φ)
ω = 2πf = 2π/T (angular frequency)
Velocity: v = ω√(A² − x²); at x=0: v_max = ωA
Acceleration: a = −ω²x; at x=±A: a_max = ω²A
Simple pendulum: T = 2π√(L/g) (for small angles)
Spring-mass: T = 2π√(m/k)

8.2 Wave Properties

Wave speed: v = fλ
Wave equation: y = A sin(kx − ωt) where k = 2π/λ

Wave Property Symbol Unit Description

Amplitude A m Maximum displacement from equilibrium

Frequency f Hz Oscillations per second

Wavelength λ m Distance between consecutive crests

Period T s Time for one complete oscillation

Wave speed v m/s v = fλ; for sound in air ≈ 343 m/s at 20°C

Sound waves are longitudinal; light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves. Doppler Effect: f_obs
= f_source × (v ± v_obs)/(v ■ v_source). Used in radar, sonar, medical ultrasound.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 9: Electrostatics
Coulomb's Law: F = kq1q2/r² (k = 9×10■ N m² C■²)
Electric field: E = F/q = kQ/r² (N/C or V/m)
Electric potential: V = kQ/r (Volts)
Capacitance: C = Q/V (Farads)
Energy stored in capacitor: U = ½CV² = Q²/2C

9.1 Gauss's Law

■ E · dA = Q_enc / ε■ (ε■ = 8.85 × 10■¹² C² N■¹ m■²)
Gauss's Law allows calculation of electric field for symmetric charge distributions: infinite line, infinite
plane, spherical shell. Inside a conductor E = 0 (electrostatic shielding).

9.2 Capacitors in Circuits

Series: 1/C_eq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... (same charge, different voltage)
Parallel: C_eq = C1 + C2 + ... (same voltage, additive charge)
Dielectrics increase capacitance by factor κ (dielectric constant). C = κε■A/d for a parallel plate
capacitor.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 10: Current Electricity

Ohm's Law: V = IR (Voltage = Current × Resistance)
Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R (Watts)
Resistivity: R = ρL/A (ρ in Ω·m)
Kirchhoff's Current Law: ΣI_in = ΣI_out at any node
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law: ΣV = 0 around any closed loop

10.1 Resistors in Circuits

Series: R_eq = R1 + R2 + R3 (same current)
Parallel: 1/R_eq = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 (same voltage)

10.2 EMF & Internal Resistance

Terminal voltage: V = E − Ir (E=EMF, r=internal resistance)
Wheatstone Bridge: balanced when R1/R2 = R3/R4 (null deflection in galvanometer). Used for precise
resistance measurement. Meter bridge and potentiometer are practical applications.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 11: Magnetism & Electromagnetic Induction

Force on moving charge: F = qv × B (Lorentz force; F = qvB sinθ)
Force on current-carrying conductor: F = BIL sinθ
Biot-Savart Law: dB = µ■I dl × r■ / (4πr²)
Ampere's Law: ■ B · dl = µ■I_enc

11.1 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Induced EMF: ε = −dΦ/dt (Φ = magnetic flux = B·A·cosθ)
Lenz's Law: Induced current opposes the change in flux

11.2 Transformers & AC Circuits

Transformer: Vs/Vp = Ns/Np = Ip/Is
Impedance: Z = √(R² + (XL − XC)²) (XL = ωL, XC = 1/ωC)
Resonance frequency: f■ = 1/(2π√(LC))
Alternating current (AC) has advantages over DC for long-distance transmission — transformers can
step up voltage (reducing current and I²R losses). India uses 230V, 50Hz AC supply.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 12: Optics

12.1 Reflection & Refraction
Law of reflection: θ_i = θ_r
Snell's Law: n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
Total Internal Reflection: sinθ_c = n2/n1 (when n1 > n2)
Mirror formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u (sign convention: distances from pole)
Lens formula: 1/f = 1/v − 1/u
Magnification: m = v/u = h_i/h_o
Lens maker's equation: 1/f = (n−1)[1/R1 − 1/R2]

12.2 Wave Optics

Young's Double Slit Experiment: demonstrates interference of light. Constructive interference at path
difference = nλ; destructive at (2n+1)λ/2. Fringe width β = λD/d.

Diffraction occurs when waves bend around obstacles. Single slit: minimum at a sinθ = nλ. Rayleigh's
criterion for resolving power: θ = 1.22λ/D.

Polarisation: transverse waves can be polarised. Malus's Law: I = I■ cos²θ (transmitted intensity
through analyser). Light through polaroid sunglasses reduces glare.

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 13: Modern Physics – Atomic & Nuclear

13.1 Photoelectric Effect (Einstein, 1905)
E_photon = hf = hc/λ (h = 6.626 × 10■³■ J·s)
KE_max = hf − φ (φ = work function of metal)
The photoelectric effect confirmed quantum nature of light and earned Einstein the Nobel Prize.
Threshold frequency: f■ = φ/h. No photoelectrons emitted below f■ regardless of intensity.

13.2 Bohr's Atomic Model

Energy of nth orbit: E_n = −13.6/n² eV (for hydrogen)
Radius of nth orbit: r_n = 0.529 n² Å (Bohr radius a■ = 0.529 Å)
λ photon: 1/λ = R_H (1/n1² − 1/n2²) R_H = 1.097 × 10■ m■¹

13.3 Nuclear Physics

Mass-energy equivalence: E = mc² (c = 3 × 10■ m/s)
Radioactive decay: N = N■ e^(−λt) Half-life: t½ = 0.693/λ

Particle Symbol Charge Mass (u) Penetration

Alpha α (■■He) 2+ 4.001 Low (paper)

Beta β (e■) −1 0.00055 Medium (Al sheet)

Gamma γ 0 0 High (lead/concrete)

Neutron n 0 1.009 Very high (water/paraffin)

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PHYSICS – Comprehensive Guide Kasturba DSEU | 2025–26

Chapter 14: Key Physical Constants & Formulas

Constant Symbol Value

Speed of light c 3.00 × 10■ m/s

Gravitational constant G 6.674 × 10■¹¹ N m² kg■²

Planck's constant h 6.626 × 10■³■ J·s

Boltzmann constant k 1.381 × 10■²³ J/K

Avogadro's number N_A 6.022 × 10²³ mol■¹

Electron charge e 1.602 × 10■¹■ C

Electron mass m_e 9.109 × 10■³¹ kg

Proton mass m_p 1.673 × 10■²■ kg

Permittivity of free space ε■ 8.854 × 10■¹² C² N■¹ m■²

Permeability of free space µ■ 4π × 10■■ T m A■¹

Faraday's constant F 96,485 C mol■¹

Gas constant R 8.314 J mol■¹ K■¹

Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67 × 10■■ W m■² K■■

Standard gravity g 9.80665 m/s²

1 eV in Joules eV 1.602 × 10■¹■ J

1 atomic mass unit u 1.661 × 10■²■ kg

"If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency and
vibration." — Nikola Tesla

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