FLUID MACHINE NOTES

UNIT-I: Impact of Free Jets & Impulse Turbines

This unit primarily deals with the fundamental principles of how a fluid jet (like water coming out of a
nozzle) interacts with a solid surface and then moves on to a specific type of turbine that uses this
principle.

1. Impact of Free Jets:

This section explores what happens when a stream of fluid, unconfined by pipes or channels (a "free
jet"), strikes an object. The core idea here is the transfer of momentum, which results in a force
exerted by the jet on the object.

 Impulse – Momentum Principle:

o Explanation: This is a fundamental concept in physics, stating that the change in

momentum of an object is equal to the impulse applied to it. Impulse is the product
of force and the time1 duration over which it acts. In simpler terms, if you want to
change how something is moving (its momentum), you need to push or pull it for a
certain amount of time. The harder you push/pull, or the longer you push/pull, the
bigger the change in motion.

o In Jet Impact: When a jet of fluid hits a surface, its velocity (and thus its momentum)
changes. This change in momentum generates a force on the surface. Conversely, the
surface exerts an equal and opposite force on the fluid.

o Example: Imagine holding a garden hose and pointing it at a wall. You feel a
pushback from the hose (force on your hand) because the water jet is pushing on the
wall, changing its direction and losing some of its forward momentum. The wall
experiences a force from the water. If you were to point it at a small, light object,
that object would move due to the force of the water.

 Jet Impingement: This refers to the act of a jet striking a surface. The consequences of this
impingement depend on the shape and movement of the surface.

o On a Stationary Flat Plate (Normal to the Plate):

 Explanation: When a jet hits a flat plate perpendicularly (at a 90-degree

angle) and the plate doesn't move, the jet's velocity component in the
direction of the plate becomes zero after impact. All the momentum in that
direction is transferred to the plate. The fluid then spreads out along the
plate.

 Example: Imagine a water tap running directly onto a flat dinner plate held
horizontally beneath it. The water hits the plate, spreads outwards, and
exerts a downward force on the plate. If you were to measure this force, it
would be directly related to how much the water's downward momentum
changed.

o On a Stationary Flat Plate (Inclined to the Plate):

  Explanation: If the jet hits a flat plate at an angle, the analysis becomes a bit
more complex as the momentum transfer needs to be resolved into
components normal and tangential to the plate. Part of the fluid's
momentum will be directed along the plate, and part will be directed into it.

 Example: If you tilt that dinner plate and let the water from the tap hit it, the
water will still spread out, but a larger portion will flow off one side of the
plate compared to the other, indicating a different distribution of forces. The
plate will experience both a normal force and a tangential force.

o On a Hinged Plate (Inclined Plate):

 Explanation: When the plate is hinged, it can rotate. The force exerted by the
jet will cause the plate to swing until an equilibrium is reached (e.g., due to
gravity or a spring). This scenario is important for understanding how forces
can cause rotational motion.

 Example: Think of a small flap or door that can swing open. If a jet of water
hits it, the flap will swing open to a certain angle. The force from the jet
creates a "turning effect" or torque around the hinge.

o On a Moving Flat Plate (Normal to the Plate):

 Explanation: If the flat plate is moving in the direction of the jet, the relative
velocity between the jet and the plate changes. The force exerted by the jet
on the plate depends on this relative velocity. As the plate moves faster in
the same direction as the jet, the force diminishes because the change in
momentum of the fluid is less.

 Example: Imagine a conveyor belt moving in the direction of a water jet. If

the belt is stationary, the water hits it with full force. If the belt moves with
the water, the water just "sits" on it, and there's less impact force. This
concept is crucial for understanding how turbines extract energy.

o On a Moving Vane and a Series of Vanes:

 Explanation: Vanes are curved surfaces designed to change the direction of a

fluid jet efficiently.

 Single Moving Vane: When a jet hits a single moving vane, the vane
curves the fluid flow. The change in direction of the fluid (and thus
its momentum) is what generates a force on the vane, causing it to
move. The design of the vane is critical to maximize the momentum
transfer and thus the force.

 Series of Vanes: In real-world applications like turbines, multiple

vanes are arranged in a series (like blades on a wheel). As one vane
moves away after being hit, the next one comes into position. This
continuous process ensures a steady and efficient transfer of energy
from the fluid to the rotating wheel.

 Example: Think of a simple paddle wheel. Each paddle is like a flat vane. If
you let water hit individual paddles, they move. Now imagine a whole wheel
 with many paddles; as water hits one, it rotates, and the next paddle comes
into play, making the wheel spin continuously. Turbine blades are highly
optimized curved vanes designed to extract maximum energy.

o Jet Striking Tangentially at the Tip of a Stationary Vane and Moving Vane(s):

 Explanation: "Tangentially" means the jet touches the curved surface (vane)
at its edge or tip, rather than hitting it head-on. This is a highly efficient way
to transfer momentum because the fluid can smoothly enter and exit the
vane, minimizing energy losses due to turbulence.

 Stationary Vane: Useful for guiding fluid flow, e.g., in a nozzle or

diffuser.

 Moving Vane(s): This is the core principle behind impulse turbines

(like the Pelton wheel). The jet strikes the curved buckets (a type of
vane) tangentially, and the buckets are designed to smoothly turn
the flow of water by almost 180 degrees, reversing its direction. This
maximum change in momentum creates the maximum force on the
buckets, causing the turbine to rotate.

 Example: Imagine a high-pressure water jet aimed at the edge of a curved

spoon. The water will be deflected, and the spoon will experience a force. In
a Pelton wheel, the "buckets" are specially designed to split the jet and turn
it almost completely around, transferring nearly all of its kinetic energy to
the wheel.

 Jet Propulsion of Ships:

o Explanation: This is an application of the impulse-momentum principle. Instead of

pushing an object (like a turbine blade) with a jet, a pump inside the ship draws in
water from the front and expels it at high velocity from the rear. By pushing the
water backward, the ship itself is propelled forward due to the equal and opposite
reaction force (Newton's Third Law).

o Example: Jet skis and some modern high-speed ferries use jet propulsion. Instead of
a propeller, they have an intake that sucks water in and a powerful pump that shoots
it out the back, providing thrust. The principle is the same as feeling the "kick" when
you fire a gun; the bullet goes forward, and the gun (and you) experience a backward
recoil.

 Problems: This indicates that you will be expected to solve numerical problems related to
calculating forces, power, and efficiency based on the principles discussed above.

2. Impulse Turbines:

Impulse turbines are a type of hydraulic turbine that primarily converts the kinetic energy of a high-
velocity jet of water into mechanical energy.

 Classification:
 o Impulse Turbines: These turbines operate when the entire pressure energy of the
water is converted into kinetic energy before it strikes the runner (the rotating part
with blades/buckets). The water jet hits the blades at atmospheric pressure.

o Reaction Turbines: (Covered in Unit-II, but mentioned here for contrast) These
turbines operate under both kinetic and pressure energy. The water enters the
runner under pressure, and the pressure energy is gradually converted into kinetic
energy as it flows through the runner, causing a reaction force.

o Water Wheels: These are historical and simpler forms of impulse turbines, like the
old overshot or undershot water wheels used in mills. They primarily use the weight
or impact of water to generate power.

 Component Parts:

o Nozzle: Converts the pressure energy of the water into kinetic energy, creating a
high-velocity jet.

o Spear (or Needle): A conically shaped rod that moves within the nozzle to control the
flow rate of water and thus the power output.

o Runner: The rotating part of the turbine, fitted with specially shaped buckets (or
vanes).

o Buckets (or Vanes): Curved surfaces on the runner designed to reverse the direction
of the water jet efficiently, transferring momentum to the runner. In a Pelton wheel,
these are typically double-hemispherical buckets with a splitter in the middle.

o Casing: Encloses the runner and protects it, also helps to collect and discharge the
water.

o Braking Jet: A small nozzle that directs a jet of water onto the back of the buckets to
quickly stop the turbine when the main jet is shut off.

 Construction: How these parts are assembled. For a Pelton wheel, the runner with its
buckets is mounted on a shaft, which is connected to a generator. The nozzle is positioned to
direct the high-velocity jet onto the buckets.

 Operation and Governing Mechanism of a Pelton Wheel:

o Operation: High-pressure water from a penstock (large pipe) is directed through a

nozzle, forming a high-velocity jet. This jet impinges tangentially on the splitter of the
Pelton buckets. The splitter divides the jet into two streams, which then flow along
the curved surfaces of the buckets and are deflected almost 180 degrees. This
change in momentum generates a large force on the buckets, causing the runner to
rotate. The rotational energy is then used to drive a generator.

o Governing Mechanism: This system controls the speed of the turbine and thus the
power output, especially important when the load on the generator changes.

 Spear Regulation: The primary method. A spear (or needle) moves axially
within the nozzle. Moving the spear forward reduces the nozzle opening,
decreasing the flow rate and thus the power. Moving it backward increases
flow and power.
  Deflector Plate (Jet Deflector): A secondary or emergency mechanism. A
plate moves into the path of the jet, deflecting it away from the buckets
without changing the flow rate through the nozzle. This is faster for sudden
load reductions but wastes water. Modern systems often combine both.

o Example (Pelton Wheel): Imagine a water fountain but instead of spraying water up,
it shoots a powerful jet horizontally. Now imagine a large wheel with many spoon-
like cups (buckets) around its rim. If you aim the powerful jet directly at the center of
one of these cups, the water will split and flow around the cup, pushing it very hard
and causing the wheel to spin rapidly. This is essentially how a Pelton wheel works,
designed for high heads (large vertical drops of water) and relatively low flow rates.

 Work Done, Effective Head, Available Head, and Efficiency of a Pelton Wheel:

o Available Head: The total vertical distance from the water surface in the reservoir to
the turbine's centerline (potential energy).

o Effective Head (Net Head): The actual head available at the turbine inlet after
accounting for all losses (friction, minor losses) in the penstock. Heff=Hgross−Hlosses
.

o Work Done: The mechanical energy transferred from the water to the turbine runner
per unit mass of water. This is derived from the impulse-momentum principle and
relates to the change in velocity of the water as it passes through the buckets.

o Efficiency: The ratio of the power output from the turbine (mechanical power) to the
power input from the water (hydraulic power).

 Hydraulic Efficiency: Ratio of the work done on the runner to the energy
supplied by the water.

 Mechanical Efficiency: Ratio of the power at the turbine shaft to the power
developed by the runner.

 Overall Efficiency: Product of hydraulic, mechanical, and volumetric

efficiencies. ηoverall=Pshaft/Pwater.

 Design Aspects: Considerations for optimizing the Pelton wheel's performance.

o Speed Ratio: Ratio of the peripheral velocity of the runner to the jet velocity. For
maximum efficiency in a Pelton wheel, the peripheral velocity of the buckets should
be approximately half the jet velocity.

o Flow Ratio: Related to the ratio of the jet diameter to the runner diameter.

o Jet Ratio: Ratio of the pitch diameter of the Pelton wheel to the diameter of the jet.

o Number of Jets: Depending on the power required and flow rate, a Pelton wheel can
have one or more nozzles (up to six) impinging on the same runner.

o Number of Buckets: Determined by empirical formulas to ensure continuous

impingement and smooth operation. Typically around 15+D/2d where D is pitch
diameter and d is jet diameter.
 o Working Proportions: Standardized ratios and dimensions for components to ensure
optimal performance and manufacturing feasibility.

 Performance Characteristics: Graphs and curves showing how the turbine's efficiency, power
output, and speed vary with changes in head, flow rate, and load. This helps in selecting the
right turbine for a given application.

 Governing of Impulse Turbines: (Reinforcement of the governing mechanism discussed

earlier). This system ensures that the turbine runs at a constant speed regardless of
variations in the electrical load connected to the generator.

 Problems: Calculation of power, efficiency, forces, and design parameters.

UNIT-II: Reaction Turbines

This unit focuses on a different class of hydraulic turbines where the water undergoes a change in
both pressure and kinetic energy as it flows through the runner.

1. Francis Turbines:

The Francis turbine is a common type of inward-flow reaction turbine, suitable for medium heads
and medium flow rates.

 Component Parts:

o Spiral Casing (Scroll Case): A spiral-shaped casing that surrounds the runner. It guides
the water from the penstock to the guide vanes and ensures uniform velocity
distribution all around the runner.

o Guide Vanes (or Wicket Gates): Adjustable vanes located between the spiral casing
and the runner. They control the flow rate of water entering the runner and direct it
at the optimal angle to maximize efficiency.

o Runner: The rotating part with specially shaped blades (vanes) that are curved in
three dimensions. The water enters the runner radially (inward) and exits axially
(downward).

o Draft Tube: A diverging tube connected to the outlet of the runner. It recovers a
significant portion of the kinetic energy at the runner outlet by converting it back
into pressure energy, thus increasing the effective head and overall efficiency. It also
allows the turbine to be placed above the tailwater level without losing head.

o Shaft: Connects the runner to the generator.

 Construction and Operation of a Francis Turbine:

o Construction: The spiral casing surrounds the guide vanes, which in turn surround
the runner. The runner is mounted on a vertical or horizontal shaft. The draft tube is
attached to the bottom of the runner.

o Operation: High-pressure water enters the spiral casing, which uniformly distributes
it to the guide vanes. The adjustable guide vanes direct the water onto the runner
blades at the correct angle. As the water flows through the runner, it simultaneously
 experiences a change in pressure (pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy)
and a change in velocity (kinetic energy is converted to mechanical energy). The
reaction force created by this change in momentum and pressure difference drives
the runner. The water then exits the runner into the draft tube, where its remaining
kinetic energy is partially recovered before being discharged to the tailrace.

o Example: Imagine a large snail shell. Water enters the wide part of the shell, then
spirals inwards towards the center. In the center, there's a set of adjustable blades
that guide the water onto a rotating wheel (the runner). As the water pushes past
these blades, it makes the wheel spin. Then, the water flows downwards through a
widening pipe. This is the essence of a Francis turbine, commonly used in
hydroelectric power plants like those at dams.

 Governing Mechanism:

o Primarily controlled by adjusting the angle of the guide vanes (wicket gates). This
changes the flow rate of water through the runner, thereby controlling the power
output and maintaining a constant speed under varying loads. Servomotors,
controlled by a governor, operate these guide vanes.

 Work Done by the Turbine Runner: Similar to the Pelton wheel, but the analysis involves
considering changes in both pressure and kinetic energy, often using Euler's Turbine
Equation.

 Working Proportions and Design Parameters:

o Specific Speed: A crucial parameter that characterizes a turbine's operating

conditions (head, flow rate, power). It helps in selecting the appropriate type of
turbine for a given site. Francis turbines have medium specific speeds.

o Runner Diameter, Blade Angles, Number of Blades: Optimized through design to

ensure efficient flow and energy transfer.

o Degree of Reaction: A parameter indicating the proportion of total head change that
occurs in the runner due to pressure drop. For Francis turbines, the degree of
reaction is typically between 0.5 and 0.8.

 Slow, Medium and Fast Runners:

o This refers to the specific speed of the Francis turbine.

 Slow Runners (Low Specific Speed): Used for relatively higher heads and
lower flow rates. They have fewer, thicker blades.

 Medium Runners (Medium Specific Speed): The most common type, suitable
for medium heads and flow rates.

 Fast Runners (High Specific Speed): Used for lower heads and higher flow
rates. They have more, thinner blades.

 Degree of Reaction:
 o Explanation: The degree of reaction defines how much of the total energy
conversion (from fluid energy to mechanical energy) takes place in the runner itself
due to pressure drop, as opposed to the guide vanes or nozzle.

o In Francis Turbine: A significant portion of the head is converted to kinetic energy in

the guide vanes, but a substantial pressure drop (and thus further energy
conversion) also occurs within the runner. The degree of reaction for Francis turbines
is typically positive and substantial.

 Inward/Outward Flow Reaction Turbines:

o Inward Flow: Water enters the runner from the outer circumference and flows
inwards towards the center, then exits axially (as in a Francis turbine). This is
generally preferred due to better hydraulic stability and control.

o Outward Flow: Water enters from the center and flows outwards radially. Less
common in modern designs due to stability issues.

 Performance Characteristics: Similar to impulse turbines, these are graphical representations

showing how efficiency, power, and speed change with operating conditions, crucial for
optimizing power plant operation.

 Problems: Calculations involving work done, efficiencies, design parameters, and specific
speed.

2. Propeller and Kaplan Turbines:

These are high-specific-speed reaction turbines, ideal for low heads and very high flow rates.

 Propeller Turbines:

o Component Parts: Similar to Francis, but the runner blades are fixed. The runner
looks like a ship's propeller.

o Construction and Operation: Water enters the scroll case, passes through guide
vanes, and then flows axially through the fixed-bladed propeller runner. The change
in momentum and pressure causes the runner to rotate.

o Example: Imagine a large fan or propeller in a pipe. Water flows through it, causing
the blades to spin. Propeller turbines are simpler than Kaplan but less adaptable to
varying loads.

 Kaplan Turbines:

o Component Parts: Similar to propeller turbines, but the distinguishing feature is the
adjustable blades on the runner.

o Construction and Operation: Like the propeller turbine, but the major advantage of
the Kaplan turbine is its adjustable runner blades. These blades can be pivoted (like
aircraft propeller blades) to change their angle of attack. This adjustability, combined
with adjustable guide vanes, allows the Kaplan turbine to maintain high efficiency
over a very wide range of flow rates and loads. This is called "double regulation."

o Example: Think of an airplane propeller where the pitch of the blades can be
changed. This allows the engine to operate efficiently at different speeds and
 conditions. Similarly, the Kaplan turbine adjusts its blades to optimize performance
as the river flow or electricity demand changes. Kaplan turbines are commonly seen
in run-of-river hydroelectric projects where the head is low but the flow is abundant
and variable.

 Differences between the Francis and Kaplan Turbines:

o Head and Flow Rate: Francis for medium head/medium flow; Kaplan for low
head/high flow.

o Specific Speed: Francis has medium specific speed; Kaplan has high specific speed.

o Runner Type: Francis has fixed, three-dimensional curved blades (inward radial flow);
Kaplan has adjustable, propeller-like blades (axial flow).

o Efficiency Variation: Kaplan maintains high efficiency over a wider range of operating
conditions due to double regulation (adjustable guide vanes and runner blades),
whereas Francis turbine efficiency drops more significantly when operating away
from the design point.

o Cost: Kaplan turbines are generally more expensive due to the complex blade
adjustment mechanism.

 Draft Tube - Its Function and Different Forms:

o Function: Crucial for reaction turbines.

 Recover Kinetic Energy: Converts the kinetic energy of the water leaving the
runner back into pressure energy, thus increasing the effective head
available to the turbine.

 Allow Turbine Placement Above Tailwater: By creating a negative pressure

(suction) at the runner exit, the draft tube allows the turbine to be installed
above the tailwater level (which is often necessary for maintenance or to
utilize existing structures) without losing the head corresponding to the
elevation difference.

o Different Forms:

 Conical (Diverging) Draft Tube: Simplest form, straight conical pipe.

 Elbow Type Draft Tube: More common for vertical shaft turbines, as it allows
the water to be discharged horizontally into the tailrace. Can be circular or
rectangular.

 Moody Spreading Type (Bellmouth Draft Tube): Used for large capacities,
helps in spreading the flow more efficiently and reducing energy losses.

 The design of the draft tube is critical for minimizing energy losses and
maximizing overall turbine efficiency.

 Performance Characteristics: As with other turbines, these graphs illustrate the efficiency,
power, and speed performance under varying conditions, particularly highlighting the
Kaplan's superior performance over a range of flows.
 Governing of Reaction Turbine:

o For Francis, it's primarily by adjusting guide vanes.

o For Kaplan, it's by adjusting both guide vanes and runner blade angles
simultaneously (double regulation), which is controlled by a sophisticated governor
system to maintain constant speed.

 Introduction to New Types of Turbines:

o Deriaz (Diagonal) Turbine: A hybrid between Francis and Kaplan. It has adjustable
blades like a Kaplan, but the flow is diagonally (mix of radial and axial) through the
runner. Suitable for medium heads and variable flow conditions where a Kaplan
might be too expensive or a Francis not efficient enough.

o Bulb Turbine: A type of Kaplan turbine where the generator is enclosed in a

watertight "bulb" casing directly within the water passage. This makes the unit very
compact and efficient for very low heads and high flows, often used in tidal power
plants or low-head river installations.

o Tubular Turbines: Similar to Bulb turbines but often with the generator outside the
main water passage, driven by a shaft that passes through a sealed wall. They offer
advantages in simplicity and cost for low-head applications.

 Problems: Calculations for efficiency, specific speed, draft tube performance, and selection of
turbine types for specific site conditions.