CHAPTER 8

Group Influence
Simple Explanations | Definitions | Examples | Practice Exercises

PART 1: SOCIAL FACILITATION

What is Social Facilitation?

Social facilitation is the idea that simply having other people around can change how well we perform
tasks. Sometimes others help us do better — sometimes they make us do worse!

Co-actors Definition: People who are doing the same task alongside you at the
same time, but not competing with you.
Example: Students all quietly reading in a library — they are co-actors
of each other.

Social Facilitation Definition: The strengthening of dominant (easy/well-learned)

responses when other people are present. This means easy tasks get
easier, but hard tasks get harder when others watch.
Example: A swimmer who has practised for years swims faster in a
competition (easy for them = dominant response boosted). But a
beginner may freeze up in front of a crowd.

How was it discovered?

Norman Triplett (1898) noticed that bicycle racers were faster when racing together than when racing
alone against a clock. He later tested children winding fishing reels — they wound faster with co-actors
present.

But wait — sometimes others HURT performance!

Other studies found the opposite: in the presence of others, people learned mazes more slowly,
performed worse on complex multiplication, and took longer at difficult tasks. How can both be true?

Zajonc's Solution
Robert Zajonc (1965) solved the puzzle using one elegant principle:

Others Present → Effect on Performance

EASY / well-learned task Performance IMPROVES (dominant
response is correct)
DIFFICULT / new task Performance WORSENS (dominant
response is wrong)

WHY does the presence of others cause arousal? 3 Explanations:

1. Evaluation Definition: We become anxious because we worry others are

Apprehension judging/evaluating us. This concern about being evaluated is what
increases arousal.
Example: Runners on a jogging path ran faster when they passed
someone watching them (facing them) than when the person had their
back turned.

2. Driven by Definition: When others are around, we get distracted trying to watch
Distraction them AND focus on the task. This mental conflict causes arousal.
Example: You are working on a maths problem but keep glancing at
your friend in the room — this inner conflict stresses you and raises
your arousal level.

3. Mere Presence Definition: Zajonc believed that just having another living being
present (even a non-evaluating one) is naturally arousing — it is a
built-in biological response.
Example: Cockroaches run faster on simple mazes when other
cockroaches are watching — cockroaches do not evaluate each other!
So mere presence alone causes arousal.

Crowding
Being in a crowded place (many people close together) also increases arousal and has the same
effects as social facilitation — it boosts dominant responses. Crowding also intensifies feelings: friendly
people seem friendlier, unfriendly people seem worse.

PART 2: SOCIAL LOAFING

Social Loafing Definition: The tendency to exert LESS effort when working as part of
a group (pooling efforts toward a common goal) compared to when
working alone and being individually accountable.
 Example: In a tug-of-war, each person pulls less hard than they would
in a solo tug-of-war. The group relies on each other and everyone
secretly relaxes.

How was it discovered?

French engineer Max Ringelmann found that the collective effort of tug-of-war teams was only about
half the sum of individual efforts. Alan Ingham (1974) cleverly confirmed this by blindfolding people and
making them think others were pulling — when alone, they actually pulled 18% harder.

Why does Social Loafing happen?

Reason Explanation
Diffused Responsibility When everyone is responsible, no one feels fully responsible.
So individuals reduce their effort.
Reduced Evaluation In a group, your individual output cannot be seen, so you
Apprehension worry less about being judged. Less evaluation = less effort.
Free Riding People benefit from the group's reward without fully
contributing. If everyone gets the same grade on a group
project, some may slack off.

Free Riders Definition: People who benefit from the group's efforts while giving
little or nothing in return.
Example: Students in a group project who do no work but still get the
group's grade.

When does Social Loafing NOT happen?

• When the task is challenging, appealing, or involving
• When group members are friends or feel strong team spirit
• When individual performance can be identified and monitored
• When rewards are tied to the group's success

PART 3: DEINDIVIDUATION

Deindividuation Definition: A state in which people lose their sense of individual

identity and self-restraint in group situations. They stop thinking about
their own values and simply follow the group's energy or norms —
whether good or bad.
Example: Looters in a riot — normally law-abiding people smash
windows and steal things when swept up in the anonymous energy of
 a mob.

What causes Deindividuation?

Group Size Definition: Larger groups make it easier for individuals to feel
anonymous. The bigger the mob, the harder it is to feel personally
responsible.
Example: Lynch mobs: in a large crowd or at night (darkness =
anonymity), people participate in extreme aggression they would never
commit alone.

Physical Definition: Wearing masks, hoods, or uniforms removes personal

Anonymity identity and lowers inhibitions.
Example: Zimbardo's study: women in white coats and hoods (like
KKK members) delivered twice as much electric shock as women
wearing visible name tags.

Arousing & Definition: Group shouting, chanting, clapping, or dancing hypes

Distracting people up, reduces self-consciousness, and lowers normal inhibitions.
Activities Example: At a concert, the shared chanting and energy of the crowd
can lead individuals to act in ways (screaming, fighting) they would
never do alone.

Diminished Self- Definition: When people lose focus on themselves and shift focus to
Awareness the group/situation, they become less self-regulated and more
responsive to the immediate environment.
Example: People who are drunk (alcohol reduces self-awareness) are
more likely to behave impulsively in groups — saying or doing things
they would not normally do.

Reducing Deindividuation
• Mirrors and cameras: being watched makes you more self-aware and less likely to misbehave
• Name tags: being identified restores individual identity
• Small groups: harder to feel anonymous in small settings
• Quiet, undistracted environments: less arousal, more self-control

PART 4: GROUP POLARIZATION

Group Definition: The tendency for group discussion to strengthen and

 Polarization exaggerate the initial opinions of group members. Groups do not
average out opinions — they push them to extremes.
Example: If a group of mildly prejudiced people discuss a racial issue
together, they become MORE prejudiced after discussion. Mildly
cautious groups become even more cautious.

The Risky Shift

James Stoner (1961) first noticed that groups often make riskier decisions than individuals. This
became known as the 'risky shift.' But it was later discovered that groups actually shift in the direction of
whatever the members already favoured — risky OR cautious. So the real phenomenon is group
polarization (strengthening of initial inclinations).

Why does Group Polarization happen? Two Explanations:

1. Informational Definition: During discussion, members hear new arguments that

Influence mostly favour the already-dominant view. This pool of pro-dominant
arguments strengthens everyone's conviction.
Example: If most people in a group already want to write the novel
(Helen scenario), the discussion produces more arguments in favour
of it — shifting everyone further toward that position.

2. Normative Definition: People want to be liked and accepted. When they discover
Influence (Social others hold the same view even more strongly, they shift their own
Comparison) position to match or exceed the group norm to 'fit in.'
Example: You think 5/10 odds is okay to take the risk. You discover
others think 3/10 is fine. To seem equally bold, you revise your
position to 3/10 or lower.

Pluralistic Definition: A false impression of what most others are thinking or

Ignorance feeling. People wrongly assume they are the only ones confused or
holding a minority view, when actually many others feel the same.
Example: In class, no one asks questions — each student thinks
everyone else understood the material. In reality, most are confused
but assume they are the only one.

Group Polarization in Real Life

• Schools: students in the same college become increasingly similar in attitudes over time
• Communities: liberal areas become more liberal; conservative areas more conservative
• Internet: online groups of like-minded people amplify extreme views
• Terrorism: isolated extremist groups polarize toward more violent positions through mutual
reinforcement
PART 5: GROUPTHINK

Groupthink Definition: A mode of thinking in which the desire for harmony and
agreement in a cohesive group overrides realistic evaluation of
alternatives. The group prioritizes unity over accuracy, and bad
decisions result.
Example: Kennedy's advisers all agreed to the Bay of Pigs invasion
plan despite obvious flaws — nobody wanted to be the dissenter who
upset group harmony.

Conditions that breed Groupthink

• High cohesiveness (very close-knit group)
• Isolation from outside information or opinions
• Directive (bossy) leadership — leader already signals preferred decision
• High stress with low hope of finding a better alternative

8 Symptoms of Groupthink

# Symptom Simple Explanation

1 Illusion of Invulnerability Group feels it cannot fail; excessive optimism and risk-
taking
2 Unquestioned Belief in Members assume they are morally right and stop
Group's Morality questioning ethical issues
3 Rationalization Group explains away warnings instead of reconsidering
decisions
4 Stereotyped View of Enemies are seen as too evil to negotiate with, or too weak
Opponents to be a threat
5 Conformity Pressure Anyone who disagrees is pressured, ridiculed, or silenced
6 Self-Censorship Members hold back doubts and criticisms to avoid conflict
7 Illusion of Unanimity Silence is mistaken for agreement; everyone seems to
agree
8 Self-Appointed Mindguards Some members protect the leader from information that
challenges the decision

How to PREVENT Groupthink

• Leader stays impartial and does not push a preferred answer
• Assign a 'devil's advocate' — someone whose job is to argue against the plan
• Subdivide the group and then reunite to share different conclusions
• Welcome critiques from outside experts
• Hold a 'second-chance' meeting before finalizing decisions
Real-Life Examples of Groupthink
• Pearl Harbor (1941): US commanders ignored clear warnings of Japanese attack
• Bay of Pigs (1961): Kennedy's team invaded Cuba despite obvious flaws in the plan
• Vietnam War: Johnson's advisers escalated the war ignoring growing evidence it was failing

PART 6: MINORITY INFLUENCE

Minority Influence Definition: The process by which a small group (or even one person)
influences the larger group to change their views. (Note: 'minority' here
means minority opinion, not ethnic minority.)
Example: Rosa Parks, a single African American woman, refused to
give up her bus seat — a minority act that sparked the entire Civil
Rights Movement.

What makes a minority persuasive?

Consistency Definition: A minority that sticks firmly to its position is far more
persuasive than one that wavers. Consistency signals confidence and
conviction.
Example: Moscovici's experiment: a minority of two that consistently
called green slides 'blue' got the majority to occasionally agree. When
the minority sometimes said blue and sometimes green, almost no one
agreed.

Self-Confidence Definition: Displaying certainty in your view signals that the majority
should reconsider — it makes people wonder if you know something
they do not.
Example: A juror in 12 Angry Men confidently holds out against 11
others — his certainty makes others re-examine their assumptions.

Defection Definition: When members begin to leave the majority and join the
minority position, it signals that the minority might be right after all.
Example: When colleagues start agreeing with the lone dissenter in a
meeting, others begin to reconsider their own position.

Minority vs. Majority Influence

Feature Majority Influence Minority Influence
Speed Fast — people comply quickly Slow — takes persistence
Feature Majority Influence Minority Influence
Type of Change Compliance (surface agreement) Genuine attitude change
(internalization)
Depth of thinking Superficial / unthinking agreement Deeper processing and creativity
Example Conformity to peer pressure Galileo changing scientific
understanding

PART 7: LEADERSHIP

Leadership Definition: The process by which certain group members motivate and
guide the group toward its goals.
Example: Roald Amundsen leading the Norwegian team to the South
Pole — he organized, motivated, and directed his team to succeed
where others failed.

Task Leadership Definition: Leadership focused on organizing work, setting standards,

and keeping the group focused on goals. Usually directive in style.
Example: A project manager who assigns tasks, sets deadlines, and
monitors progress — goal-oriented, less focused on feelings.

Social Leadership Definition: Leadership focused on building teamwork, resolving

conflicts, and supporting group members emotionally. Usually
democratic in style.
Example: A team captain who listens to everyone's concerns,
mediates arguments, and makes sure everyone feels valued and
included.

Transformational Definition: Leadership that inspires followers through a compelling

Leadership vision, personal charisma, and high standards — motivating the group
to go beyond self-interest for a greater cause.
Example: Martin Luther King Jr. — his dream, conviction, and
charisma inspired millions to join the Civil Rights Movement despite
enormous personal risk.
PRACTICE: FILL IN THE BLANKS (50 Questions)

Instructions: Fill in each blank with the correct term or concept from Chapter 8.

Q Statement Answer
#
1 Norman Triplett (1898) found that bicycle racers went faster together / with others
when racing ________ than when racing against a clock alone.
2 The strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of social facilitation
others is called ________.
3 ________ are co-participants working individually on a non- Co-actors
competitive activity.
4 Robert ________ proposed that the presence of others causes Zajonc
arousal, which strengthens dominant responses.
5 On easy tasks, the presence of others ________ performance. improves / boosts
6 On difficult tasks, the presence of others ________ performance. worsens / hurts
7 The concern for how others are evaluating us is called ________ evaluation
apprehension.
8 According to the 'driven by distraction' explanation, conflict arousal
between paying attention to others and the task causes
________.
9 Zajonc argued that even without evaluation apprehension, the mere
________ presence of others is arousing.
10 Being in a large, tightly packed crowd is called ________ and crowding
has effects similar to social facilitation.
11 Social ________ is the tendency to exert less effort when loafing
working in a group toward a common goal.
12 Ringelmann found that the collective effort of a tug-of-war team half
was about ________ the sum of individual efforts.
13 In social loafing situations, responsibility for the group's output is diffused / spread
________ across all members.
14 People who benefit from a group but give little in return are free
called ________ riders.
15 In social loafing experiments, individuals are evaluated collectively / not
________, reducing their effort. individually
16 Social loafing is less likely when the task is challenging, appealing
________, or involving.
17 Making individual performance ________ is one way to reduce identifiable
social loafing.
18 Soviet collective farms showed high levels of social ________ loafing
because individual output was not monitored.
Q Statement Answer
#
19 Groups also reduce effort when members feel a strong sense of cohesion / friendship
________ with each other.
20 Social facilitation occurs when individuals can be ________ individually
evaluated; social loafing occurs when they cannot.
21 The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations deindividuation
is called ________.
22 A larger group size makes individuals feel more ________, anonymous
increasing deindividuation.
23 Philip Zimbardo dressed participants in ________ to create hoods and white coats /
physical anonymity and found they gave more electric shocks. KKK-like uniforms
24 Acting in front of a ________ (like a mirror) increases self- mirror
awareness and reduces deindividuation.
25 Group shouting, chanting, and dancing are examples of arousing
________ and distracting activities that promote deindividuation.
26 Research shows that deindividuated people are more ________ responsive
to the immediate situation than to their own values.
27 Group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting polarization
tendencies is called group ________.
28 James Stoner first discovered the ________ shift — groups risky
making riskier decisions than individuals.
29 After group discussion, initial inclinations become ________ strengthened / amplified
(strengthened/weakened).
30 Hearing new pro-dominant arguments during discussion is called informational
________ influence.
31 Shifting one's opinion to match the group norm out of desire to fit normative
in is called ________ influence.
32 According to ________ theory, we evaluate our views by social comparison
comparing them with others.
33 A false impression of what most others are thinking is called pluralistic
________ ignorance.
34 Group polarization can occur online, as people self-select into like-minded
communities of ________ others.
35 Researchers found that discussing racial attitudes in groups of increased / widened
similar students ________ the gap between high- and low-
prejudice groups.
36 Groupthink was named and studied by social psychologist Irving Janis
________.
37 Groupthink is most likely in groups that are highly ________ and cohesive
isolated from opposing views.
38 A ________ leader signals which decision they prefer, directive
contributing to groupthink.
Q Statement Answer
#
39 The symptom of groupthink where members withhold their self-censorship
personal doubts is called ________.
40 The apparent consensus created because no one voices unanimity
disagreement is called illusion of ________.
41 Members who shield the leader from contradictory information mindguards
are called ________.
42 Assigning a '________ advocate' is one recommended way to devil's
prevent groupthink.
43 The process by which certain group members motivate and leadership
guide the group is called ________.
44 Leadership focused on organizing work and setting standards is task
called ________ leadership.
45 Leadership focused on building teamwork and mediating social
conflicts is called ________ leadership.
46 Leadership that inspires through vision and charisma is called transformational
________ leadership.
47 A ________ that sticks consistently to its position is more minority
persuasive than one that wavers.
48 The minority influence effect of some members leaving the defection
majority to join the minority is called ________.
49 Compared to majority influence, minority influence tends to deeper
produce ________ (deeper/shallower) thinking.
50 The 'minority slowness effect' refers to the tendency for people more slowly / less quickly
with minority views to speak ________ than those with majority
views.
PRACTICE: TRUE or FALSE (50 Questions)

Instructions: Mark each statement as True or False. Answers are shown in the last column.

Q Statement Answer
#
1 Norman Triplett was a psychologist interested in bicycle racing who first studied TRUE
social facilitation.
2 Social facilitation means that the presence of others always improves FALSE
performance on every task.
3 Co-actors are people who compete directly against each other in the same task. FALSE
4 According to Zajonc, the presence of others causes arousal, which strengthens TRUE
dominant responses.
5 On a well-learned, easy task, having others around tends to improve TRUE
performance.
6 On a new, difficult task, the presence of others tends to improve performance. FALSE
7 Evaluation apprehension refers to our concern about how others are judging us. TRUE
8 The 'driven by distraction' explanation says that watching others causes a TRUE
conflict that creates arousal.
9 Zajonc believed that even non-evaluating, non-distracting mere presence can be TRUE
arousing.
10 Cockroaches were used in experiments that supported the mere presence TRUE
explanation of social facilitation.
11 Crowding always decreases arousal because people feel safe in numbers. FALSE
12 Social loafing is the tendency to work harder when individual efforts are pooled FALSE
toward a common goal.
13 The Ringelmann effect showed that group effort in tug-of-war was equal to the FALSE
sum of all individual efforts.
14 Ingham's experiment eliminated the coordination loss explanation by having TRUE
individuals believe others were also pulling when they actually were not.
15 Free riders are people who contribute more than their fair share to a group. FALSE
16 Social loafing is more likely to occur when individual contributions to the group FALSE
are identifiable.
17 Social loafing has been observed across many cultures, including collectivist TRUE
ones.
18 When people loaf in a group, they are always aware that they are doing so. FALSE
19 Group members exert more effort when they feel their task is challenging, TRUE
involving, or appealing.
20 Social facilitation and social loafing involve opposite effects of evaluation on TRUE
performance.
Q Statement Answer
#
21 Deindividuation involves an increased sense of personal identity and self- FALSE
restraint in groups.
22 A larger group size increases the likelihood of deindividuation. TRUE
23 Physical anonymity (wearing masks or hoods) reduces inhibitions and increases TRUE
deindividuation.
24 Being made self-aware (e.g., standing in front of a mirror) tends to increase FALSE
deindividuation.
25 Arousing and distracting activities like chanting can promote deindividuation. TRUE
26 Deindividuated people always behave in negative/antisocial ways. FALSE
27 Diener's Halloween study found that children in groups who were anonymous TRUE
stole more candy than identified children.
28 Wearing nurses' uniforms in Zimbardo's follow-up experiment made women FALSE
more aggressive when they were identified.
29 Group polarization means that after group discussion, members' initial opinions TRUE
become more extreme.
30 The 'risky shift' was the original discovery that eventually led to the concept of TRUE
group polarization.
31 Group polarization always pushes groups toward more risky positions. FALSE
32 Informational influence in group polarization works by pooling arguments that TRUE
mostly favour the initial dominant view.
33 Normative influence in group polarization involves shifting opinions to match or TRUE
exceed the group norm for social acceptance.
34 Pluralistic ignorance is when everyone correctly understands what others are FALSE
thinking.
35 Group polarization can contribute to the radicalisation of terrorist organisations. TRUE
36 Groupthink is most likely in groups with low cohesiveness and open leadership. FALSE
37 Groupthink leads to more thorough evaluation of alternatives and better FALSE
decision-making.
38 The Bay of Pigs invasion is a classic real-world example of groupthink. TRUE
39 Self-censorship in groupthink means that individual members openly challenge FALSE
the group's decisions.
40 The 'illusion of unanimity' in groupthink means the group mistakenly believes TRUE
everyone agrees.
41 Assigning a devil's advocate is one effective strategy for preventing groupthink. TRUE
42 Group problem-solving always produces worse outcomes than individual FALSE
problem-solving.
43 Minorities are more likely than majorities to produce genuine attitude change TRUE
(internalization) in others.
44 For minority influence to be effective, the minority must be consistent in its TRUE
Q Statement Answer
#
position.
45 A minority that wavers between two positions is just as persuasive as one that FALSE
stays consistent.
46 Minority influence tends to stimulate deeper and more creative processing of TRUE
arguments.
47 The 'minority slowness effect' means minorities tend to voice their views less TRUE
quickly than majority members.
48 Task leadership focuses on building team morale and resolving emotional FALSE
conflicts.
49 Transformational leadership is characterised by vision, charisma, and inspiring TRUE
others to commit to a greater goal.
50 Social leaders generally have a directive, authoritarian style that discourages FALSE
input from members.

End of Chapter 8 Study Guide