ATOM

atom is built with a combination of three distinct particles:

electrons, protons, and neutrons. Each atom has a center
nucleus which is the small, dense region consisting of protons
and neutrons at the center of an atom. Surrounding the nucleus
are a group of orbiting electrons. The proton carries a
positive charge and the electron carries a negative charge,
whereas the neutron carries no charge at all. Note that an
atom is electrically neutral since it has the same number of
protons as it does electrons, plus some number of neutrons. A
proton and a neutron are almost equal in size and are much
more massive than electron. Although they aren’t the same
size, the proton and the electron do carry equal amounts of
opposite charge 1.6022 * 10-19 C (coulombs). The number of
protons in the nucleus is which distinguishes One element from
another and is referred to as the atomic number.
 MOLECULE
a molecule (‫ )جزيء‬is a single particle it is electrically
neutral. It doesn't matter if the atoms are the same or are
different from each other.

A compound is a substance that is composed from two or more

different elements (e.g. Water H2O)
a compound is like a subcategory of a molecule. Molecule can
be of same or different atoms, whereas, compound can ONLY be
of different atoms.
so, single atoms are not molecules. like O (oxygen atom), but
O2 is an oxygen molecule
Whether something is a molecule or not depends on the type of
bond that is formed when its atoms join together. if the bond
is made by sharing electrons between the atoms (i.e. via
electrostatic (‫ )الكهرباء الساكنة‬attraction between the nuclei and
the shared electrons between them) it's called a
molecular/covalent bond. Molecules have molecular bonds. for
example, the nitrogen has five valence electrons, however, the
outer shell of a nitrogen atom requires eight electrons to be
filled, thus, nitrogen needs three more electrons, a hydrogen
has one electron in its only orbit, and needs one more
electron to fill its orbit. thus, a single nitrogen atom would
share an electron with every hydrogen atom and needs three
hydrogen atoms to fill its outer shell to achieve stability
for both hydrogen and nitrogen atoms.
Every combination of atoms is a molecule. A compound is a
molecule made of atoms from different elements. All compounds
are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds. Hydrogen
gas (H2) is a molecule, but not a compound because it is made
of only one element. Water (H2O) can be called a molecule or a
compound because it is made of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
atoms.
Homonuclear molecules, are molecules composed of only one type
of element.

Diatomic molecules contain two atoms that are chemically

bonded. If they are identical, as in, for example, the oxygen
molecule (O2), they compose a homonuclear diatomic molecule,
while if the atoms are different, as in the carbon monoxide
molecule (CO), they make up a heteronuclear diatomic molecule.
Molecules containing more than two atoms are termed polyatomic
molecules, e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Polymer
molecules may contain many thousands of component atoms.
 SO, WHAT DISTINGUISH
INSULATORS FROM CONDUCTORS?

When the atom is a good insulator, such as rubber, its outer

shell electrons are stuck hard in their shells. They aren’t
moving for anything. With a good conductor like copper, the
electrons in the outer shells of the
atoms will pop off at the slightest touch; in metal elements
these electrons bounce around from atom to atom so easily that
we refer to them as an electron sea, or you might hear them
referred to as free electrons. You should note that there are
still just as many positive charges as there are negative
charges. The difference now is not the number of charges; it
is the fact that they can move easily One effect of all these
loose electrons is the silvery-shiny appearance that metals
have. thus, silver is one of the best conductors there Getting
the positively charged atoms to move is much more difficult;
they are stuck in place in virtually all solid materials, but
the same thing applies to positive charges as well. There are
definitely cases where you can move positive charges around.
(In fact, it often happens when you feel a shock.) It’s just
that most of the types of materials, circuits, and so, on that
we deal with in electronics are about moving the small, easy-
to-move electron
 ION
If an atom or molecule is charged (not neutral that is +ve
charges ≠ -ve charges) , it is referred to as an ion (which is
an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss
or gain of one or more electrons. cation (‫)كاِتُيون آيون موجب الشحنة‬
for positively charged and anion (‫ )أنيون أيون سالب الشحنة‬for
negatively charged atom or molecule. If an atom, ion, or
molecule is at the lowest possible energy level, it and its
electrons are said to be in the ground state. If it is at a
higher energy level, it is said to be excited. An atom is most
stable if its outermost energy level contains as many
electrons as it can hold. For example, helium has two
electrons, both in the first energy level. This energy level
can hold only two electrons, so helium’s only energy level is
full. This makes helium a very stable element. In other words,
its atoms are unlikely to react with other atoms.
Ionization is due to sufficiently high electric field
exceeding the medium "usually air" dielectric breakdown
strength. This huge electric field causes the surrounding air
to become separated into positive ions and electrons -- the
air is ionized (ionization does not mean that there is more -
ve and/or +ve charges. it just means that -ve and +ve charges
are farther apart than they were in their original atomic
structure and when charges are separated voltage difference
occur and thus the system becomes a repository of electrical
energy just like a capacitor and due to ionization an
electrically conductive channel through a normally-insulating
medium would be created.
 ELECTRON

Electrons don’t carry electric energy. What happens is that

when you apply a voltage source across two wires one side
radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when they are
accelerated. Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed
free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they
were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed
electrons in metals and other solids are quasi (‫ )شبه‬electrons
—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin,
and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a
different mass. When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—
move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric
current, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise, a current
can be created by a changing magnetic field.

A negative energy electron, by absorbing energy, can go to a

positive energy state. This leaves behind a hole in the sea of
negative-energy electrons; the hole has a positive energy,
because it represents a missing negative energy. In fact, such
a hole has all the properties of an electron except that it
appears to have a positive charge (because it represents a
missing negative charge). This particle is the positron; thus,
a hole IS NOT a proton.
The electron has magnetic properties by virtue of its orbital
motion about the nucleus of its atom and its rotation (spin)
about its own axis, thus there is a magnetic field surrounding
a current-carrying conductor, which makes possible electric
motors and generators. Electron spin is also responsible for
the behavior of magnetic materials.
Quantities of "Electricity" (meaning charge) have weight
because charge is part of matter particles. A flow of charge
always requires a flow of carrier particles, so electric
current must always carry mass with it. Electric currents in a
wire are not a flow of energy, they're a flow of electrically
charged matter. Ion currents in an electroplating bath are a
flow of considerable amounts of matter: electric currents can
transport material and deposit matter onto electrodes.
However, in normal circuits we rarely notice the moving mass.
There are two reasons for this: the flow is circular, so an
electric current doesn't need to build up extra mass anywhere.
Secondly, the flow is very slow, so even if the current were
moving an enormous amount of mass, we'd never notice this.

in spherical shells representing different energy levels aka

electron shells. Each orbit has its specific energy level,
which is expressed as a negative value. This is because the
electrons on the orbit are "captured" by the nucleus via
electrostatic forces that impedes the freedom of the electron.
The orbits closer to the nucleus have lower energy levels
because they interact more with the nucleus, and vice versa.
The lower the energy level of an electron, the more stable the
electron is.
Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom have a
special significance. These electrons are called valence
electrons, and they determine many of the properties of an
atom.
Atoms will covalently bond ( ‫رابطة تساهمية حيث كل ذرة تساهم بعدد من‬
‫ )اإللكترونات‬until their outer energy level is full making them
more stable than they were as separate atoms.
Also known as an atomic orbital, the orbitals are the zones
within an atom where electrons are most likely to be found.
There are multiple orbitals in any given atom and each is
associated with a specific energy. In atoms, electrons are not
found outside orbitals. Electron waves travel inside the
wires, yet the energy they carry is in the invisible field
surrounding the wires. That is, electric energy it’s coupled
with electron waves and are not inside them.
 WHAT IS A CHEMICAL BOND?

As the attractions bring the atoms together, electrons from

each atom are attracted to the nucleus of both atoms, which
“share” the electrons. the sharing of electrons between atoms
is called a covalent bond, which holds the atoms together as a
molecule (‫ )جزيء‬which is an electrically neutral group of two
or more atoms bonded together. A covalent bond (‫)رابطة تساهمية‬
happens if the attractions are strong enough in both atoms and
if each atom has room for an electron in its outer energy
level. generally, metals Atoms tend lose enough electrons to
make them with the same number of ELECTRONS as an atom of the
preceding noble gas. resulting in making them cations
It is assumed that the potential energy is set to zero at
infinite distance from the atomic nucleus or molecule, thus
bound electron states have negative potential energy. To make
electrons orbiting the nucleus jump to higher orbits, or
“energy levels.” We have to give it energy When the electrons
return to their original orbits, they release photons of
light, or other EM radiation. as the electron drops from a
high energy level to a lower one,
light is emitted at specific wavelengths, or colors. this
explains the fireworks When the fireworks explode, electrons
gain energy and jump to higher energy levels. When they jump
back to their original energy levels, they release the energy
as light. The electron cannot exist between energy levels

There are two main types of chemical bonds that hold atoms
together: covalent/atomic and ionic/electrovalent bonds. Atoms
that share electrons in a chemical bond have covalent bonds.
An oxygen molecule (O2) is a good example of a molecule with a
covalent bond. Ionic bonds occur when electrons are donated
from one atom to another. Table salt (NaCl) is a common
example of a compound with an ionic bond. third type of bond.
Metallic bonds occur between metal atoms. We’re going to focus
on ionic and covalent bonds.

In a covalent bond, electrons from each atom are attracted or

“shared” by both atoms in order to form covalent bonds atoms
there must be strong enough attraction between atoms and there
must be room for electrons in the outer energy level of both
atoms. Covalent bonds can form between similar atoms (H-H), or
different atoms (H-Cl) and an atom can form more than one
covalent bond at the same time (H-O-H). The bonded atoms have
a lower total energy than that found in widely separated
atoms. Electrons in the bonds between identical atoms (H-H)
are shared uniformly, so the electrons spend equal amounts of
time around each atomic center. These covalent bonds are non-
polar. Electrons shared between unlike atoms are not shared
equally, one atom gets more of the common electrons and is
thus slightly negatively charged. The other atoms gets less
than a full share of the electrons and is thus slightly
positively charged.
 WHAT IS A COULOMB?
Electrical charge quantity is not usually measured in terms of
the charge on a single electron/proton, because this is an
extremely small charge. Instead, the standard unit of
electrical charge quantity is the coulomb, symbolized by C,
representing about 6.24 x 1018 electrons/protons. The
electron/proton charge, symbolized by e, is about 1.60 x 10-19
C. when you dump enough energy into an atom, you can get an
electron to pop off and move fancy free.
 Electrical energy
the electrical energy units are Joule or kwh. It’s the energy
released as heat in one second by a current of one ampere
through a resistance of one ohm. electrical energy flow is
called electric power. A Watt is just a flow of one Joule per
second.
1 J = 1 Watts * 1 Sec (1 kwh = 3.6*106 J = 3.6 MJ, this what
the electricity company charge us for). Energy transfers as
EMW “Electromagnetic Wave” that are carried by particles in
chunks known as quanta, which are made of discrete (‫)منفصلة‬
packets (‫ )حزمة‬of energies called photons and photons move at
the speed of light around the wire (photons have no mass nor
charge). EMW energy is the sum of the energies of the electric
fields (electrical potential energy in the form of a
capacitance) and magnetic fields (kinetic energy is stored in
the form of an inductance). Since EMW is made of photons,
photons display EMW behavior i.e. amplitude. At rest i.e.
static, charges are surrounded by electric/electrostatic field
of force due to the attraction between opposite charges
(protons and electrons). In motion i.e. changing electric
field constitutes a current, which establishes a changing
magnetic/electrodynamic field of force in addition to the
electric field. In acceleration, a third field component is
developed which results in energy propagation by
electromagnetic waves. Note that the EM fields do not move
THROUGH SPACE they simply grow and decline “up and down” in
the same region by the wiggling of electric charges. It is the
EMW energy i.e. photons that moves/radiate/propagate THROUGH
SPACE at the speed of light (speed of EMW inside a copper
conductor at 60 Hz, 3.2 m/s. Some sprinters can run more than
three times as fast). Electrons don’t carry energy they merely
oscillate, producing EMW which carry the electric energy.
Photon is the particle for electromagnetic energy, NOT the
electron. Electrons are not particles of EM energy; the
electrical energy is carried by the EM wave which is made of
photons. Although electric field is much greater than magnetic
field E = CB, where C is the speed of light (this means that
changing electric fields produce only SMALL magnetic fields),
still, the two contribute equally to the total energy, i.e.
half the energy is electrical and the other half is magnetic.
Electric current and EMW are two things moving in conductors.
The amount of energy the EMW carries is directly proportional
to its intensity/strength i.e. the amount of photons energy.
For instance, if you double the electric and magnetic fields
magnitudes/strengths, EMW energy will quadruple.
The electrical energy moves forward @ the speed of light
propagating as an EMW. The electrical energy generated at the
source once it reaches the load it will be completely absorbed
at the load and doesn't return back to the source (e.g. When
battery sends electric energy to a light bulb, the bulb then
changes the electrical energy into light and heat and CONSUMES
it and the energy does not flow back to the battery again).
How come for the same
frequency different
energies transmitted?
 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

you see not only the movement of charge constitutes magnetic

field, but changing electric fields also produce changing
magnetic fields, such as in the case of capacitors, When an AC
voltage is applied to a capacitor there will be a build-up of
charge on the plates of the capacitor. This in turn gives rise
to a voltage across the capacitor which will charge/discharge
continuously, causing a change of the electric field between
the capacitor plates which produce changing magnetic field
between the capacitor plates, the current flow through the
capacitor wires is termed a conduction current (which is the
normal current that exists in all ac circuits, so, a current
enters the left-hand plate and an equal current leaves the
right-hand plate) while that between the capacitor plates is
the so-called a displacement current it’s a virtual (
‫وهمي‬/‫ )تخيلي‬current arises from the DISPLACEMENT (‫ )إزاحة‬and not
MOVEMENT of charge, thus, displacement current involves no
translation (‫ )انتقال‬of electrons or holes but rather an
alternating polarization throughout the dielectric material
which is between the capacitor plates. ALTHOUGH NO CURRENT
EVER TRAVELS BETWEEN THE PLATES. The displacement current is
time-varying i.e. it’s an alternating current, it’s the rate
of change of electric field, it creates a magnetic field that
curls around it, when the capacitor is fully
charged/discharged there will be no displacement current. I
reiterate there is no physical flow of charge through the
dielectric insulating material (there is no conduction current
between the plates of the capacitor). Therefore, the term
current here, is not defined as a transport of charge, but
it's defined in terms of the magnetic fields it produces such
as in vacuum where no charges exist, yet, an electric field
produces a displacement of the negative charges with respect
to the positive ones producing changing magnetic field and
both constitute the EMW that is radiated/ propagated through
vacuum.

Displacement current aka dielectric absorption, exists only

when there is a CHANGING electric regardless of the material
being conductor or insulator. There is a displacement current
along a copper conductor carrying an alternating current, but
the conduction current is much greater even at very high
frequencies and thus in such situation’s displacement current
is ignored making the conduction current and the electric
field in phase. In poor conductors and in insulating
materials, however, the displacement current is comparable to
(or greater than) the conduction current if the frequency is
high enough and is thus important mainly in high-frequency
engineering. In free space and in a perfect insulator only
displacement current is present, this is due to the fact that
changing electric field produces a changing magnetic field
which is the constitution of electromagnetic waves, even when
no charges are present and no physical current flows. Through
this mechanism, electromagnetic waves may propagate through
even a perfect vacuum. The displacement current increases with
increasing frequency.

Displacement current is used in AC coupling aka capacitive

coupling (Use of a capacitor to transfer energy from one
circuit to another) is the transfer of energy within an
electrical network or between distant networks by means of
displacement current induced (‫ )مستحدث‬by the electric field,
it’s a method of connecting two circuits that allows
displacement current to flow while preventing conductive
currents. This coupling can have an intentional “manmade” or
accidental “unintended” effect.
to describe the effect of physical displacement ( ‫إزاحة‬
‫جسيمية‬/‫ )حقيقية‬of electrical particles caused by elastic
deformation of magnetic vortices (‫)تشوه مرن للدوامة المغناطيسية‬, and
thus the term ‘‘displacement current’’, although no charge
carriers pass through the capacitor.
 ELECTRICAL CHARGE
the law of charge conservation: electric charge cannot be
created or destroyed. Electrons and protons are matter, not
energy. A flow of electrons is NOT a flow of energy, it is a
flow of matter and a flow of electric charge. Charge is not
energy.
And if charge is flowing along, you won't know anything about
the direction or the rate of the energy's flow. Coulombs are
not Joules, and knowing the amount charge does not tell you
the amount of energy present. A moving electron does not carry
electrical energy along with it as it goes, Charge is the
medium, and electrical energy is wave-energy.

Since an electron has charge, it has a surrounding electric

field, and if that electron is moving relative to an observer,
it will generate a magnetic field. EM fields produced from
other sources will affect the motion of an electron
Electrons and protons are particles of CHARGE
When you shuffle your feet on a carpet and then touch a brass
doorknob, you may get an electrical shock. If there are enough
extra electrons then the force with which those electrons push
each other away may be enough to make some of the electrons
jump across a gap between the person and the doorknob. The
length of the spark is a measure of voltage or "electrical
pressure." The number of electrons that move from one place to
another per unit of time measured as amperage or "rate of
electron flow."
Flows very slow, its flow is called current, flows through
loads i.e. they are not consumed by loads Composed of movable
charges from conductor atoms
they return back to the source, Generators do not 'generate'
any electrical charge i.e. electrons or protons. Instead the
electrons come from the wire. In copper wire, copper atoms
supply the flowing electrons. The electrons in a circuit were
already there before the battery was connected. Batteries and
generators merely pump them. all conductors are always full of
movable charge. That's what a conductor is, it's a material
which contains movable charge. A battery or generator is like
your heart: it moves blood, but it does not create blood.

Electric current is not a flow of energy; it's a flow of

charge. Charge and energy are two very
different things.
An electric current is a flowing motion of charged particles,
and the particles do not carry energy
along with them as they move. A current is defined as a flow
of charge by I=Q/T; amperes are
coulombs of charge flowing per unit time. The term "Electric
Current" means the same thing as
"charge flow." Electric current is a very slow flow of
charges, while energy flows fast. Also, during
AC alternating current the charges move slightly back and
forth while the energy moves rapidly
forward.

A charge at rest has an electric field surrounding it. when

you put a voltage source and two wires across it, the charge
will move so does the electric field move. the charge movement
constitutes (‫ )يكون‬a current that changes direction
continuously e.g. +ve charge moves up so does the current and
when the +ve charge moves down so does the current. this
changing current creates a changing magnetic field. These
fields move out away from the source i.e. the ACCELERATING
charge, so, electrons don’t carry the electric energy the
electron wiggle only and the electromagnetic wave that is made
of photons due to the changing electric and magnetic fields is
what carries the energy. Note that the charge accelerates due
to change in direction and speed as the charge move further
away from its equilibrium position (up towards the wave crest
(‫ )القمة‬or down towards the trough (‫)القاع‬, they slow down i.e.
changing velocity and changing acceleration. It’s this
accelerating charge that constitutes EM.
The changing electric field induces (‫يسبب‬/‫ينتج‬/‫ )يولد‬a changing
magnetic field and vice versa and the cycle repeats. Both
these fields occur in the absence of physical contact.

Action-at-a-distance forces are sometimes referred to as field

forces a phenomenon that. The space surrounding a charged
object is affected by the presence of the charge; an electric
field is established in that space. A charged object creates
an electric field - an alteration of the space or field in the
region that surrounds it. Electric field is a vector quantity
whose direction is defined as the direction that a positive
test charge would be pushed when placed in the field. Thus,
the electric field direction about a positive source charge is
always directed away from the positive source. And the
electric field direction about a negative source charge is
always directed toward the negative source.
ELECTROMOTIVE ENERGY
 ELECTROSTATIC AND EM FORCE

The main difference between electrostatic and EM force is that

electrostatic forces refer to the forces between charges which
are not moving relative to each other i.e. static electric
charges, whereas, EM force refers to electrostatic forces as
well as other forces between charges and magnetic fields where
they may be moving relative to each other.
Moving charges create magnetic fields, and therefore, moving
charges in magnetic fields experience force. If two charges
move in each other’s’ vicinity, then they can exert forces on
each other due to their magnetic properties. EM forces are a
superset which contains electrostatic forces in it. In
addition to electrostatic forces, EM forces also consist of
forces between STATIONARY magnets, forces exerted between
moving charges, and forces between charges and magnetic fields
when there is relative motion between them. Note that EM
forces specifically refer to EM interactions, which consist of
an exchange of photons between different objects. This
excludes any interaction that takes place between charged
particles as a result of any of the other fundamental forces.

You see surrounding any charge at rest there is an electric

field called electrostatic (‫ )الكهرباء الساكنة‬force/attraction due
to the forces/attractions between charges i.e. electrons and
protons which are NOT MOVING relative to each other thus the
name electro-STATIC field i.e. static electric charges and
it’s this field that contains the electrical energy. The more
 numbers of the -ve and +ve charges there are, the larger the
electric energy will be. Voltage generates an electrostatic
field (it is this field repelling or attracting other charges
that creates the voltage “pressure” in the conductor). This
energy is independent of the current as it’s always there even
when there are no moving charges i.e. current.

MOVEMENT of the charges generates a magnetic field around the

conductor. Now if we put two wires across a Voltage generator
it would generate +ve charges in one wire and -ve charges on
the other and it’s this difference in potential that will
drive a conduction electric current. Note that Stationary
charges create electric fields, moving charges (constant
velocity) create magnetic fields, accelerating charges create
EMs.
In an AC system the +ve and -ve charges location change 120
times a second i.e. every half cycle

Energy travelling around an electric current are made up of

EMs which are changing electric and magnetic fields,
transporting energy through space (actually they are vector
fields as each point has an electric vector field and a
magnetic vector field, then, adding the magnitude of these
nearly touching points makes a shape of a sinusoidal electric
and magnetic waves). Electric field begins at +ve charges and
ends at -ve charges and it spreads in all directions. EMs
don’t require a medium to travel as they can travel through
vacuum e.g. sun light. EM is a transverse wave the particle
movement is perpendicular to the wave movement (e.g. if the
electric field moves up and down the EM moves left or right),
the three entities i.e. electric field, magnetic field and the
energy flow are all perpendicular to one another (they are
three dimensional e.g. one is in x-axis, the second is in y-
axis and the third is in z-axis). Although electric field is
much greater than magnetic field (E = CB, where C is the speed
of light), however, the two contributes equally to the total
energy, i.e. half the energy is electrical and the other half
is magnetic.
Also, the rate (‫ )مقدار‬at which energy passes a fixed point is
EH[W/m2]

Electric energy and electric current are two different things

flowing in wires at the same time. electric current is a very
slow circular flow of electric charges i.e. electric charges
flow through the load and all of them flow back out again
returning to the source, whereas the path of the energy is a
unidirectional i.e. from the source to the load and consumed
in the load. E.g. When battery sends electric energy to a
light bulb, the bulb then changes the electrical energy into
light and heat and consumes it and the energy does not flow
back to the battery again.

EM energy moves when there is a difference in voltage and a

flow of current. The changing electric field induces a
magnetic field (which also
changes), and this changing magnetic field induces an electric
field, and the cycle is repeated again.

Electric energy can even flow in a direction opposite to that

of the electric current. In AC circuits the energy flows
continuously forward while the charges are alternating back
and forth at high frequency. The charges wiggle, while the
energy flows forward; electric current is not energy flow.

Action-at-a-distance forces are sometimes referred to as field

forces a phenomenon that occurs in the absence of physical
contact. The space surrounding a charged object is affected by
the presence of the charge; an electric field is established
in that space. A charged object creates an electric field - an
alteration of the space or field in the region that surrounds
it. Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is
defined as the direction that a positive test charge would be
pushed when placed in the field. Thus, the electric field
direction about a positive source charge is always directed
away from the positive source. And the electric field
direction about a negative source charge is always directed
toward the negative source.

Energy is travelling around an electric current are made up of

EMs which are changing electric and magnetic fields,
transporting energy through space and don’t require a medium
to travel as they can travel through vacuum e.g. sun light. EM
is a transverse wave the particle movement is perpendicular to
the wave movement (e.g. if the electric field moves up and
down the EM moves left or right), the three entities i.e.
electric field, magnetic field and the energy flow are all
perpendicular to one another (they are three dimensional e.g.
one is in x-axis, the second is in y-axis and the third is in
z-axis). Although electric field is much greater than magnetic
field (E = CB, where C is the speed of light), however, the
two contributes equally to the total energy, i.e. half the
energy is electrical and the other half is magnetic.
Also, the rate (‫ )مقدار‬at which energy passes a fixed point is
EH[W/m2]

Electric energy and electric current are two different things

flowing in wires at the same time. electric current is a very
slow circular flow of electric charges i.e. electric charges
flow through the load and all of them flow back out again
returning to the source, whereas the path of the energy is a
unidirectional i.e. from the source to the load and consumed
in the load. E.g. When battery sends electric energy to a
light bulb, the bulb then changes the electrical energy into
light and heat and consumes it and the energy does not flow
back to the battery again.

At rest i.e. static, charges are surrounded by

electric/electrostatic field of force due to the attraction
between opposite charges. In motion they constitute a current,
which establishes a magnetic/electrodynamic field of force in
addition to the electric field. In acceleration, a third field
component is developed which results in energy propagation by
electromagnetic waves.

WILL THE FLOW OF CURRENT

CAUSE THE SOURCE TO RUN OUT
OF ELECTRONS?
So, Will the flow of current cause the source to run out of
electrons? To answer this, we have to dig deeper and know how
electrical systems work. In electrical systems there are two
categories: static electricity systems and circuit electricity
systems.
WHAT IS STATIC ELECTRICITY?
static electricity system involves the flow of electric
current as a result of a buildup of electric charge somewhere.
Such a system does not involve a closed electrical circuit,
examples include lightning and the sparks you get when you rub
your feet on a carpet and touch the door knob. Electrons
naturally repel each other. When a lot of electrons get piled
up in one place, they can push on each other so strongly that
some of the electrons get pushed right off of the object. They
end up getting pushed out through the air, the water, or
whatever surrounds the object. We call a collection of moving
electrons an electric current, therefore a buildup of charge
can drive a current. The electrons simply flow away from the
pile and ultimately end up attached to atoms in the
environment. In this way, we can have an electric current even
if we don't have a complete electrical circuit. In air, an
electrical current takes the form of dark discharge, corona
discharge, or sparks (depending on if the current is weak,
medium stre0ngth, or strong, respectively)
When the air is very dry, electric charges are more likely to
build up objects because they cannot travel easily through the
dry air. This makes a shock more likely when you touch another
object.
flow once there is a huge enough buildup of charges i.e.
sufficiently high electric field exceeding the medium "usually
air" dielectric breakdown strength causing the electrons to

HOW AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

MOVE?
What happens is that when a source is applied across a load
one side of the source gets a surplus of electrons, and on the
other side the atoms are missing said electrons, resulting in
a positive charge. This difference in charge between the two
wires across the source is what we call voltage i.e. potential
(‫)جهد‬. Note that it’s the location of these charges that
measure a voltage and not their movement. Movement of these
charges is what we call current.

Current is a very slow circular flow of electric charges In an

AC system, the charges move back and forth over a distance
shorter than a 10-7 m, so, the average position of the charges
doesn’t change. In other words, charges of electricity sit
inside the wires and vibrate. The current does not move
forward at all (if it did, that would be a direct current or
"DC. Similarly, in DC a very slow circular flow of electric
charges flow through the load and all of them flow back out
again returning to the source),
 PHOTON
Photons carry momentum (‫طاقة‬/‫ )قوة‬have no mass, and travel at
the speed of light. All light has both particle-like and wave-
like properties. How an instrument is designed to sense the
light influences which of these properties are observed. An
instrument that diffracts light into a spectrum for analysis
is an example of observing the wave-like property of light.
The particle-like nature of light is observed by detectors
used in digital cameras—individual photons liberate electrons
that are used for the detection and storage of the image data.
Energy travels around an electric current and don’t require a
medium to travel as they can travel through vacuum e.g. sun
light.

photon is the quantum (‫ )أصغر كّمية يمكن تقسيم الطاقة إليها‬of

electromagnetic radiation i.e. photon/s = quantum/quanta. The
term quantum is the smallest elemental unit of a quantity, or
the smallest discrete amount of something. Thus, one quantum
of electromagnetic energy is called a photon. The plural of
quantum is quanta.

Also, the higher the frequency the greater the photons energy
based on E = Hf, where E is the energy of each packet i.e.
photons energy in Joules, H is Planck’s constant which
represents the smallest amount of energy "‫ "أصغر مقدار للطاقة‬and f
is the photon frequency i.e. how fast the electric field and
magnetic field wiggle (‫)يهتز‬.

Because the energy levels of the oscillating atoms are

separated by Hf, the energy carried off by the electromagnetic
wave must be multiple of Hf.
If you shine light of high enough energy on to a metal,
electrons will be emitted from the metal. Light below a
certain threshold frequency, no matter how intense, will not
cause any electrons to be emitted. Light above the threshold
frequency, even if it's not very intense, will always cause
electrons to be emitted.
Electrons can gain energy by interacting with photons. If a
photon has an energy at least as big as the work function
(it’s the energy required to eject an electron from e.g. metal
surface), the photon energy can be transferred to the electron
and the electron will have enough energy to escape from the
metal. A photon with an energy less than the work function
will never be able to eject electrons.
An EMW can also be described in terms of its energy—in units
of measure called electron volts (eV). The electronvolt (eV)
is a unit of measure for the energy of an electron. One eV is
defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is
accelerated through an electric potential difference of one
volt in vacuum. It is a unit of energy, not of voltage i.e.
it's a smaller unit of the Joule. 1 eV = 1.6 X 10-19 J.

WAVELENGTH
The limiting factor here is the wavelength.
The equation that relates wavelength and frequency for
electromagnetic waves is: λf=c where λ is the wavelength, f is
the frequency and c is the speed of light. So, at 60 Hz the
wavelength 5000 km. knowing that the current accompanied by
EMW will reverse direction every half a cycle i.e. for +ve
half cycle the current accompanied by EMW will go from top
wire to the load and for the -ve half cycle the current
accompanied by EMW will go from the lower wire to the load.
This means that the wave can travel up to 2500 km before
reversing direction. So, transmission line length can’t exceed
2500 km at 60 Hz or 3000 km at 50 Hz AC.
 ELECTRIC FIELD

 Is produced by charged objects, the electric field around

a charged body is represented by imaginary lines, called
electric lines of force. The electric field at any
location is the electrical force exerted on the charges at
that location. Electric lines of force originate/begin on
positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).
 E = F/q
F Coulomb force (unit in newton), also called
electrostatic/electric force or Coulomb interaction (it's
the attraction/repulsion forces between two or more
charged bodies because of their electric charges.
E the electric field its units are newtons per coulomb
(N/C), is a vector quantity with a magnitude directly
proportional to the strength of the electric force F and
its direction is similar to the direction of a small +ve
test charge inside the electric field. If q is +ve it will
move in the same direction as the electric field from
higher potential i.e. excess +ve charges to lower
potential i.e. deficient +ve charges; if q is -ve, it will
move in the opposite direction of the field. In a uniform
electric field, the field lines are straight, parallel and
uniformly spaced.
 Free charges can be either positive or negative and are
negative in conductors because conductors generally have
one valance electron in their outer shells which is freely
 interchanged between atoms, producing a random movement of
free electrons called an electron atmosphere (‫)غالف‬. Such
electrons are responsible for the electrical conductivity.
At rest, charges have around them an
electric/electrostatic field of force of small value due
to the mechanical attractions between the +ve charges i.e.
protons and the -ve charges i.e. electrons.
 For conductors, if you apply a potential/voltage
difference between two wires and NOT closing the circuit
or if the conductor is put into a static electric field
producing on one wire excess and on the other deficiency
of electrons by transferring electrons, making the system
a repository (‫ )مستودع‬of electrical potential energy
resembling capacitors (capacitance is the ability to store
charges). The amount of force exerted on the charges is
+qE on each hole and -qE on each electron. Note that the
forces applied on the charges are opposite to the charge’s
signs (i.e. +ve force on +ve charge and -ve force on -ve
charge) causing higher repulsion forces that make the
charges “want” to get as far from each other as possible
and thus charges will move to the surface and spread out
uniformly. These forces cause the charges in the
conductor, to be highly excited and move to the side of
opposite sign of the external field (i.e. +ve charges will
group in the external EF -ve side and vice versa), setting
up an internal electric field in the opposite direction to
the applied external electric field and of equal
magnitude. Thus, the two fields would cancel each other
INSIDE the conductor and the net electric field INSIDE the
conductor will therefore, be ZERO, thus in
static/equilibrium aka state steady aka electrostatic
equilibrium. Also, there will be a force of mechanical
attraction between the two wires ends due to the opposite
signs of the charges group on each wire electric field.
At static equilibrium condition there are no NET moving
charges, note THERE ARE FREE MOVING CHARGES. But they move
and collide with positive ions again and again and after
 each collision, their direction of motion changes,
however, when we consider all the free electrons, their
motions are random and averages to ZERO. In other words,
there is no NET flow of charges in a particular direction.
Consequently, no current is established in the conductor,
keep in mind at static condition, the Electric field lines
are always perpendicular to the surface of the wire (If a
line of force is at an angle other than 90°, it will have
a tangential component. This tangential component would
cause movement of charge. By definition, electrostatic
charge is motionless and hence tangential component cannot
exist) and thus there will only be potential difference
between the wire and the medium surrounding it. However,
the surface is in equipotential state with itself i.e. the
same potential at every point along the wire surface.
But, when we close the circuit, the electric field at
every point of the wire will be both perpendicular/normal
and parallel/tangential (parallel to the wire surface)
resulting in potential difference along the wire between
the nearby points in addition to the perpendicular
potential difference between the wire and the surrounding
medium usually air. This electric field exerts a force on
the free electrons to start accelerating towards the
positive terminal and thus there will be a NET flow of
free charges i.e. there will be a flow of electric
current.
 For insulators ideally have no free charges, however, in
real life when placed in an electric field they become
internally polarized there will be rotation of molecules
in liquids and gases and distortion "stretching" of the
electron cloud around the atoms in solids. So, the
molecules tend to line up so that their negative sides are
facing the positive side of the applied voltage. The
molecules therefore set up a secondary electric field that
opposes the direction of the applied electric field,
resulting in a net electric field inside the dielectric
material that is reduced in value. as the applied voltage
 is raised the electric field exerts opposite mechanical
forces on the charges and the atoms become highly
strained. The small displacement of the atomic electric
charges constitutes a polarization current. for excessive
electric field strength, conduction can take place,
resulting in insulation breakdown.
 Electric field lines never cross/intersect, since that
would indicate that the field points in two different
directions at the same location (if two or more different
sources contribute electric fields pointing in different
directions at the same location, the TOTAL/NET electric
field would be the one to consider which is the vector sum
of the individual fields, and thus would always point in
single direction at the same location. Always consider the
TOTAL/NET electric field at each point on the surface
under consideration.
 Although the free charges are continuously accelerated by
the electric field, collisions prevent their velocity from
becoming large. The result is that electric field provides
a small constant velocity “slower than a turtle” which is
superimposed (‫مجمعة من‬/‫ )مركبة‬on the random motion of the
electrons. This constant velocity is called the DRIFT
VELOCITY (though the drift velocity of free electrons is
very small, but, since the number of free electrons in a
conductor is very large, even small drift velocity of free
electrons gives rise to sufficient current. Bear in mind
that the free electrons everywhere in the wire begin
drifting almost at once in DC and in AC they merely wiggle
(‫يهتز‬/‫ )يتذبذب‬in place back and forth).
 Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that
charge predominates. Therefore, the lines are radial (‫تمر‬
‫ بمركز الشحنة‬line that passes through the center of a
sphere.) and spherically symmetric (‫ )متماثلة كرويا‬the field
depends on the distance r from the particle but not the
direction since at any equal distance from the center, the
electric field is equal regardless of the direction.
 Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern
looks like that of a single point charge of value. Thus,
the lines are radially outward, unless Q = 0.
 there are two kinds of electric field: the electrostatic
field produced by electric charge and the induced (‫)مستحدث‬
electric field produced by a changing magnetic field:
o Since charge-based electric fields diverge away from
points of positive charge and converge toward points
of negative charge, such fields cannot circulate back
on themselves by looking at the field lines for the
electric dipole shown in Fig#2. Imagine moving along a
closed path that follows one of the electric field
lines diverging from the positive charge, such as the
dashed line shown in the figure. To close the loop and
return to the positive charge, you’ll have to move
‘‘upstream’’ against the electric field for a portion
of the path. For that segment, the electric field
along the path is negative, and the contribution from
this part of the path subtracts from the positive
value of the electric field along the path for the
portion of the path in which electric field and the
path are in the same direction. Once you’ve gone all
the way around the loop, the integration of the
electric field along the path yields exactly zero.
Thus, the field of the electric dipole, like all
electrostatic fields, has no curl.
 fig#2
o Electric fields induced by changing magnetic fields
are very different, as you can see in Figure Fig#3.
Wherever a changing magnetic field exists, a
circulating electric field is induced. Unlike charge-
based electric fields, induced fields have no
origination or termination points – they are
continuous and circulate back on themselves.
Integrating ~E d~l around any boundary path for the
surface through which ~B is changing produces a
nonzero result, which means that induced electric
fields have curl. The faster ~B changes, the larger
the magnitude of the curl of the induced electric

fig#3
field
 Electric force can be repulsive or attractive, unlike the
gravitational force which is attractive only. Note that
gravitational force for atomic level can be ignored, the
gravitational force is the dominant force at great
distances since electric force diminishes rapidly with
distances and/or for large bodies since large bodies have
very low acceleration (for large bodies the gravitational
force = mg, where g = 9.8 m/s2 and since the mass is large
would lead to large gravitational force, but if the mass
is very small gravitational force can be ignored as shown
below)
 If you threw an electron on earth it will experience a
uniform gravitational field with an acceleration magnitude
of 9.8 m/s2 pointing down, with the gravitational force GF
= mg. know knowing one electron m = 9.1 × 10-31 Kg, GF =
9.1 × 10-31 × 9.8 = 90 × 10-31 N.
If you throw the same electron into a uniform electric
field (same magnitude and direction everywhere), and
ignore gravitational force, the potential electric force
the charge q experience is PF = qE, where E is the
electric field. For the same charge assume E = 1 N/C
PF = 1.6 × 10-19 × 1 = 1.6 × 10-19 N,
Obviously, PF ≫ GF by a factor of 1010, so
KF “kinetic force” = PF + GF ≈ PF.
 It’s conservative (‫باقية‬/‫ )مصانة‬i.e. the choice of any path
between two points gives the same value of the line
integral (gives the amount of energy that the electric
field does on a particle as it moves along a curve the
simple integral aka definite integral states that for
different values of x there is f(x)=y, but, line integral
there are two variables x and y and for every value of x
and y there is a function f(x,y) in the z-axis i.e. it's a
three dimensional), in other words the work done by the
 electric field force in moving a particle from one point
to another point depends only on the initial and final
points and not on the path followed which means that the
line/path integral of electric field along a closed path
(i.e. a path that begins and ends at the same point) is
zero.
When charges accelerate through an electric field the
total amount of energy is conserved, i.e. what they gain
in kinetic/movement energy (‫( )الطاقة الحركية‬in Joule) is
equal in magnitude to the loss of electric potential
energy.
 The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is
tangent to the field lines.
 for a surface perpendicular to the electric field, the
number of field lines is proportional to the EF magnitude
(the larger the magnitude the greater number of lines i.e.
denser).
 null-point or balance point This is a point at which EF =
0., so no current is flowing at this point.

ELECTRIC
FIELD
VECTOR E
IS TANGENT
TO THE
FIELD
electric potential (‫ )فرق الجهد‬i.e. voltage (in volts) is the
electric potential energy (in Joule) ( ‫طاقة القوة الكهربائية طاقة يكتسبها‬
‫ )جسم بسبب وقوعه تحت تأثير مجال كهربائي إذا كان له شحنة كهربائية‬per unit
charge (in Coulomb).

joule = volt × coulomb J = V*C

A coulomb C is the measure of charges particles strength (it's
the rate that electron charges are transported by a constant
current flow rate of one ampere in one second).
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Let’s examine why.
The power density of an electromagnetic field at a distance,
r, from the source is,
Field power density = Pd = C1/r2 + C2/r3 + C3/r4 + ...
Now, imagine a sphere with radius r centered at the source.
The total power passing through the surface of the sphere can
be calculated by multiplying the power density by the surface
area of the sphere,
Total power leaving sphere =
(4πr2) * Pd = 4π * (C1 + C2/r + C3/r3 + ...)
Examining this formula, you can see that the first term is
purely a constant i.e. (4πC1). For this term, no matter what
size you make the sphere (since the radius is not included
here), the same amount of power is flowing through it. This
result is just a mathematical way of showing that power is
carried away from the source. Therefore, the first term is due
solely to the radiated field. Another thing to notice is that
as r gets very large all the other terms will become
negligible, leaving only the radiated term. For this reason,
the radiated field is often called the far field (since only
the radiated field component is considered and since r is very
large other terms can be ignored). Conversely, at very close
distances (small values of r), the nonconstant terms will
become much larger and the constant radiating term will become
negligible. These nonconstant terms taken together represent
the power in the reactive field, and since it dominates at
close distances it is called the near field. Therefore, for AC
systems the field considered is the near field.

1 e - 9.1 x 10-31 Kg
X electrons - 1 Kg

ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
Charging a body by induction requires no contact with the body
inducing the charge. This is in contrast to charging a body by
conduction which does require contact between the two bodies.
For instance, if a positively-charged body A is brought close
to an uncharged body B. body B will be affected by the
electric field of A, he charges of B separate. Negative
charges of B are attracted to A, and equally positive charges
of B, are repelled to the farther end of B. The negative and
positive charges of B are known as induced (‫ )مستحدثة‬charges.
The negative charge of B is called ‘bound’ charge because it
must remain on B so long as positive charge of A remains
there. However, the positive charge on the farther end of B is
called free charge. B is now polarized; this polarization of
charge is called electrostatic induction.
If now B is connected to the ground (earthed by a wire), The
positive charge flows to earth leaving negative charge behind.
On removing the ground wire, the -ve charge at the near end of
B remains held there due to the attractive force of external
+ve charge A. When A is removed the -ve charge spreads
uniformly on B. Thus, B becomes -ve charged. Finally, if B is
grounded after removing A, B's -ve charge will also go to
earth, leaving B uncharged.
It is found that:
(i) +ve charge induces -ve charge and vice-versa.
(ii) each of the induced charges is equal to the inducing
charge. That is if the inducing charge is 10 +ve charges,
then, it would induce 10 -ve and 10 +ve charges.
Note for the previous example, if A was negatively charged,
the same would result on B, but, with reverse sign. So, it
doesn’t matter if A is +ve or -ve.
Instead of placing a constant charge on B, you could connect
an oscillating charge i.e. AC voltage is at a frequency of
60Hz; the polarization induced in B will alternate at a
frequency of 60Hz. The alternating polarization will also
cause current to flow in the wire that connects B to the
ground. What you have created is simply a
capacitor! Any metal conductors that are separated by an
insulator form a capacitor.
There are two kinds
of electromagnetic
induction charged by
induction
HOW DOES CHANGING ELECTRIC
FIELD INDUCE CHANGING
MAGNETIC FIELD
 POLARIZATION
Displacement of positive and negative bound charges in a body
by applying an electric field.
It’s the change of the electrical state of an INSULATING
material under the influence of an electric field, such that
each small element becomes an electric dipole ( ‫)ثنائي قطب كهربائي‬
or doublet.

Electric dipole is formed by separating two equal and opposite

charges a small distance, as the charges are separated by some
distance, there will be resultant electric field pointing from
the -ve charge to the +ve charge.

When charges are displaced from their average positions the

molecule/atom will look like it’s a dipole +ve charge on one
side of the molecule and a -ve charge on the other within
individual molecules producing an induced electric field (‫مجال‬
‫ )كهربائي مستحدث‬on the surface of the molecule, making it
dipole, although because of the conservation of electric
charge i.e. the total electric charge of an isolated system
remains constant regardless of changes within the system
itself, this means that polarization does not increase/add
electric charge, it merely redistributes the charges non-
uniformly in the atom and the net charge is still ZERO.

There are two types of electric dipoles induced (‫ )مستحدث‬and

permanent. Induced electric dipole occurs only in the presence
of an external applied electric field, where the centers
diverge (‫ )تباعد‬slightly, +ve charged elements are displaced in
the direction of the field (near the external -ve charges),
and -ve charged elements are displaced opposite to the
direction of the field (near the external +ve charges), when
the external field is removed, the atom loses its dipolarity
such as nonpolar dielectrics. Permanent electric dipole aka an
electret such as in polar dielectrics.

Note that in the absence of an external electric field polar

molecules possess PERMANENT tiny molecular electric dipoles,
however, these tiny molecular electric dipoles ADD UP TO ZERO
NET ELECTRIC DIPOLE, since they’re randomly arranged due to
thermal agitation/motion/effect (the continuous random
collisions of atoms disrupting their alignment so they are
aligned in continuous changing directions and thus averaging
to zero ‫)إثارة حرارية‬.
A subcategory of polar dielectrics is ferroelectric
dielectrics, the term is used in analogy ( ‫ب‬ ‫تشبيه‬/‫ )كتمثيل ب‬to
ferromagnetism, though, most ferroelectric materials do not
contain iron. Materials that are both ferroelectric and
ferromagnetic are known as multiferroics.
Ferroelectric dielectrics on the hand have a NET internal
electric field that is NOT EQUAL TO ZERO without applying an
external electric field, known as local field though it’s
continuously fluctuating, however, time-averaged values are
used and is not averaged to ZERO. Ferroelectric dielectrics
exhibit (‫ )يظهر‬spontaneous (‫ )ذاتي‬electric dipole line up
called domains as shown in the fig. and have permanent
electric dipoles which are oriented in the same direction due
to exchange coupling in which the electron spins/move of one
atom interact with those of neighboring atoms resulting in
alignment of the dipoles of the atoms, regardless of the
randomizing tendency of atomic collisions due to thermal
agitation. This persistent alignment is what gives
ferroelectric materials their permanent electric dipoles.
Electric polarization arises from the electrical response of
individual molecules of dielectric material that is subjected
to an electric field and may be classified in microscopic
level to four types, electronic (atomic), ionic, orientation,
and space-charge or interfacial polarization.
a. Electronic induced polarization (atomic polarization)
occurs in atoms since the electrons are very light, they
respond rapidly to the applied electric field by
displacing the negative electron “clouds” further from the
positive nuclei, this polarization occurs for all
materials and hence any other mechanism would be an
addition and is nearly independent of temperature and
frequency up to about 1014 Hz.
b. Ionic polarization occurs in ionic substances whose
molecules are formed of atoms that have excess charges of
opposite polarities. In an external field the electric
field displaces cations and anions in opposite directions
compared to their neutral positions, it’s frequency
dependent.
c. Molecular aka orientation aka dipolar polarization
arises due to the presence of POLAR molecule i.e.
permanent electric dipoles. In absence of external
electric field, dipoles are randomly oriented due to
thermal randomization. Applying electric field aligns
these dipoles, causing net (large) dipole moment (Total
Polarization = electronic + ionic + orientation). At low
temperatures, the ability of the dipoles to orient
themselves in an external field ceases, thus they behave
like nonpolar dielectric. Orientation polarization at
approximately 1010 Hz is an important resonance.
Ferroelectrics are nonconducting dielectrics, that have
internal electric field without applying an external
electric field, known as local field and is continuously
fluctuating, however, time-averaged values are used. they
exhibit (‫ )يظهر‬spontaneous (‫ )ذاتي‬electric dipole line up
called domains and have permanent electric dipoles which
are oriented in the same direction due to exchange
coupling in which the electron spins/move of one atom
interact with those of neighboring atoms resulting in
alignment of the dipole moments of the atoms, regardless
of the randomizing tendency of atomic collisions due to
thermal agitation. This persistent alignment is what gives
ferroelectric materials their permanent electric dipoles.
When an external electric field is applied to a
ferroelectric material, the domains are aligned in the
direction of the field and reversing the external field
reverses the predominant (‫ )بشكل مسيطر‬orientation (‫)إتجاه‬
of the ferroelectric domains. Though, the switching to a
new direction lags (‫ )يتأخر‬somewhat behind the change in
the external electric field. This lag of electric
polarization behind the applied electric field is
ferroelectric hysteresis, they are known to exhibit non-
linear polarization with applied field.
Because the molecules are continuously colliding with each
other as a result of their random thermal motion, this
alignment is not complete i.e. only a portion of the
molecules are oriented with the applied external electric
field, but increases as the applied electric field
increases or as the temperature decreases thus the
jostling (‫)تدافع‬, is decreased. So, the alignment effect
of the field is in competition with the thermal
disordering effect of the ambient ( ‫الوسط الخارجي‬/‫)المحيط‬
temperature, simply put the resulting orientational
polarization which is the dominant polarization is
inversely proportional to absolute temperature. The
electrical response of polar molecules depends in part on
their partial alignment in an electric field, the
alignment being opposed by thermal agitation forces. This
orientation polarization is strongly temperature-
dependent, in contrast to the induced polarization of
nonpolar molecules.
Relative permittivity (‫ )السماحية النسبية‬aka dielectric
constant (‫ )ثابت العازل الكهربائي‬indicates the degree to which
the medium can resist the flow of electric charge, in other
words, the larger the relative permittivity the more
electrical energy can be stored. For polar molecules the
largest relative permittivity i.e. largest polarization,
occurs in the phase transition region from ferroelectric
(where there is nonzero net dipole moment) to pyroelectric
(where the dipoles are oriented randomly and a zero net dipole
moment, the material acts like a normal dielectric with no
hysteresis, because the heat agitates the dipoles sufficiently
to overcome the forces that spontaneously align them) and then
it reduces on both sides i.e. for temperatures above and below
Currie temperature the relative permittivity reduces as the
temperature moves farther from the Currie temperature as shown
in the fig. The Curie temperature (the temperature at which
the spontaneous polarization disappears in a ferroelectric
solid) of different types of ferroelectric crystals range from
a few degrees absolute to a few hundred degrees absolute. The
dielectric constant increases in the paraelectric phase.

The existence of macroscopic discontinuities at internal

structure defects, or the inclusion of impurities causing
conducting regions, give rise to an energy loss in the
dielectric storage capacity.
In most neutral atoms or molecules, the center of positive
charge coincides (‫قريب جدًا‬/‫ )يتواجد بنفس المكان‬with the center of
negative charge. In the presence of an electric field,
however, these centers diverge (‫ )تباعد‬slightly, +ve charged
elements are displaced in the direction of the field (near the
external -ve charges), and -ve charged elements are displaced
opposite to the direction of the field (near the external +ve
charges), this is known as electric polarization of the
material. When charges are displaced from their average
positions the molecule/atom will look like it’s a dipole +ve
charge on one side of the molecule and a -ve charge on the
other within individual molecules producing an induced
electric field (‫ )مجال كهربائي مستحدث‬on the surface of the
molecule, making it dipole, although because of the
conservation of electric charge i.e. the total electric charge
of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes
within the system itself, this means that polarization does
not increase/add electric charge, it merely redistributes the
charges non-uniformly in the atom and the net charge is still
ZERO. Note, during Electric polarization ( ‫هي خاصية جزيء أو ذرة‬
‫النزياح الشحنة السالبة والشحنة الموجبة عن بعضهما البعض فيصبح الجزيء أو الذرة ذو‬
‫)قطبين‬, the charges inside the dielectric material are still
neutral, only the charges on the surface of the material are
polarized i.e. displaced this is due to the fact that
dielectric material outer shell CHARGES ARE BOUND (charge
that’s displaced by the electric field but does not move
freely through the material). If the polarization is uniform,
bound charge appears only on the surface of the material. But
if the polarization varies from point to point within the
dielectric, there are accumulations of charge within the
material, the positive plate attracts the negative ends of the
dipoles and the negative plate attracts the positive ends of
the dipoles. These forces exert a torque on the molecules
making up the dielectric, reorienting them so that on average
the negative pole is more inclined toward the positive plate
and the positive pole is more aligned toward the negative
plate. The positive and negative charges in the middle still
cancel each other, thus the interior of the body appears
uncharged (it can be seen by noting that in the interior of
the body, positive charge at the top of any one of the
electric dipoles is canceled on average by the negative charge
of the dipole just above it, in other words the last dipole
has +ve an -ve poles, only one of these two charges is
attracted to the dipole below it, if the dipole below it +ve
attracted to the -ve of the last dipole, then, there will be
+ve and on the other side of the surface there will be -ve),
whereas the surface of the body carry a net of negative charge
next to the positive plate and a net accumulation of positive
charge next to the negative plate.
such as between capacitor plates and dielectric. At the
highest frequencies, only the electronic polarization will
`keep up' with the applied field, other polarizations will get
disturbed. Note that the dielectric constant decreases with
increasing frequency.

the dielectric constant of a material depends upon the

polarizability of the molecules. the polarizability of non-
polar molecules arises first from electronic polarization, in
which the application of an electric field causes a
displacement of the electrons to the nucleus. second, it can
be caused by atomic polarization, which involves the
application of an electric field, causing a displacement of
the atomic nuclei relative to one another. in the case of
polar molecules, a third factor is also involved, namely
orientation polarization (in which the application of an
electric field causes an orientation of dipoles).

polar dielectrics have permittivity greater than non-polar

dielectrics due to the additional orientation polarization.
the orientation polarization decreases with increase in
temperature. therefore, the permittivity of polar dielectrics
falls more rapidly than that of the non-polar dielectrics with
increase in temperature.
 CAPACITOR
Electrolytic capacitors are generally less reliable than other
types, a tradeoff (‫مبادلة‬/‫ )مقايضة‬made to secure very high
capacitance in a small package. They tend to fail if stored
without a voltage across their terminals. The electrolytic
paste may dry in time, causing a loss of capacitance.
Experienced electronic technicians consider electrolytic
capacitor failures as a likely cause of an equipment fault
that is not otherwise immediately obvious.

In practical circuits, all capacitors have some leakage

conductance. If the frequency goes to zero, that is, if the
source is dc, a tiny current will flow because no dielectric
is a perfect electrical insulator. Some capacitors have almost
no leakage conductance, but none are completely free of it.

When an AC voltage is applied to a capacitor there will be a

build-up of charge on the plates of the capacitor. This in
turn gives rise to a voltage across the capacitor which will
charge/discharge continuously, causing a change of the
electric field between the capacitor plates which produce
changing magnetic field between the capacitor plates, the
current flow through the capacitor wires is termed a
conduction current (which is the normal current that exists in
all ac circuits, so, a current enters the left-hand plate and
an equal current leaves the right-hand plate) while that
between the capacitor plates is the so-called a displacement
current it’s a virtual (‫وهمي‬/‫ )تخيلي‬current arises from the
DISPLACEMENT (‫ )إزاحة‬and not MOVEMENT of charge, thus,
displacement current involves no translation (‫ )انتقال‬of
electrons or holes but rather an alternating polarization
throughout the dielectric material which is between the
capacitor plates. ALTHOUGH NO CURRENT EVER TRAVELS BETWEEN THE
PLATES. The displacement current is time-varying i.e. it’s an
alternating current, it’s the rate of change of electric
field, it creates a magnetic field that curls around it, when
the capacitor is fully charged/discharged there will be no
displacement current. I reiterate there is no physical flow of
charge through the dielectric insulating material (there is no
conduction current between the plates of the capacitor).
Therefore, the term current here, is not defined as a
transport of charge, but it's defined in terms of the magnetic
fields it produces such as in vacuum where no charges exist,
yet, an electric field produces a displacement of the negative
charges with respect to the positive ones producing changing
magnetic field and both constitute the EMW that is radiated/
propagated through vacuum.
The amounts of energy a capacitor can store depends on its
dielectric strength or breakdown (‫ )إنهيار‬strength, it’s the
maximum electric field a dielectric material can sustain (be
subjected to) without electrically breaking down i.e.
discharging. In very high electric fields electrons get
extremely excited and move to conduction band and due to their
very high energies they can free other electrons too resulting
in an avalanche process (‫ )إنهمار كمية ضخمة من اإللكترونات‬aka
electrical discharge.
In air-dielectric and vacuum-dielectric capacitors, dielectric
breakdown (‫ )إنهيار العزل الكهربائي‬is a temporary affair; it does not
cause permanent damage. The device operates normally when the
voltage is reduced, so the arcing stops. However, in
capacitors with solid dielectric, dielectric breakdown can
burn or crack the dielectric, causing the component to conduct
current even when the voltage is reduced below the arcing
threshold. In such instances, the component is ruined.
dielectric breakdown/strength (pertains to the attraction
force/strength between electric charges, any insulating
material, when subjected to a sufficiently large electric
field, experiences a partial ionization that permits
conduction through it). So, the higher the dielectric
breakdown i.e. higher attraction force/strength between
electric charges, the higher potential difference the
capacitor can sustain before breakdown and so stores greater
amounts of charge and energy.

In practical circuits, all capacitors exhibit some leakage

conductance. If the frequency goes to zero—the source produces
DC—a tiny current will inevitably flow because no real-world
dielectric material constitutes a perfect electrical insulator
(not even a vacuum). Some capacitors have almost no leakage
conductance, but none are completely free of it. Conversely,
all electrical conductors have a little capacitive reactance,
simply because they occupy physical space. Therefore, we’ll
never see a mathematically pure conductor of AC, either. The
impedances Z = 3 - j 0 and Z = 0 - j 4 both represent
theoretical idealizations.

Capacitance and leakage conductance depend in part on the

external dimensions of the conductors and their distances from
one another and from other conducting bodies, and in part on
the dielectric properties of the materials employed for
insulating purposes capacitor leakage, a direct current
flowing through the dielectric of a capacitor. In a good non-
electrolytic capacitor, this current is normally less than 1
microampere. In an electrolytic capacitor, it can be up to
several milliamperes, depending on the capacitance and the
applied voltage.
If a substance is more electronegative it means it has more
electrons and it pulls the electrons of a lower
electronegative substance closer to it.

Dielectric Constant increases with Increased dipole Mass

property Nonpolar Polar dielectrics

dielectrics
permanent electric dipole No tiny molecular
moment (with no external electric dipole
electric field) moments,
however

a relative

the responses of a material to electromagnetic fields are determined essentially by three

constitutive parameters, namely permittivity, permeability µ, and conductivity σ. These
parameters also determine the spatial extent to which the electromagnetic field can penetrate into
the material at a given frequency and how microwave energy propagates through a material.