Synchronous Machines
Complete Study Notes
1. Introduction
A synchronous machine is an AC machine whose rotor speed is exactly proportional to the supply
frequency. It operates either as a generator (alternator) — converting mechanical energy to electrical
energy — or as a motor — converting electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Synchronous speed formula:
Ns = 120f / P (rpm)
where f = supply frequency (Hz) and P = number of poles.
2. Construction
Stator (Armature)
• Laminated silicon-steel core to reduce eddy-current losses.
• Houses the 3-phase distributed armature winding.
• Connected to the AC supply (motor) or load (generator).
Rotor (Field) — Two Types
Feature Salient Pole Cylindrical (Round)
Speed Low (< 1500 rpm) High (1500–3000 rpm)
Application Hydro generators Steam/gas turbo generators
Shape Projecting poles Smooth cylindrical
Air gap Non-uniform Uniform
3. EMF Equation
The RMS value of the induced EMF per phase is:
E = 4.44 × Kw × f × φ × N
• Kw = Winding factor (= Kd × Kp); accounts for distribution and pitch
• f = Supply frequency (Hz)
• φ = Flux per pole (Wb)
• N = Number of turns per phase
4. Equivalent Circuit
Each phase of a synchronous machine is represented as an ideal voltage source Ef (excitation /
open-circuit EMF) in series with the synchronous impedance Zs:
Zs = Ra + j·Xs
where Ra = armature resistance and Xs = synchronous reactance (Xs >> Ra in practice, so Ra is often
neglected).
Phasor (KVL) equations:
Generator: Vt = Ef - Ia·Zs
Motor: Ef = Vt + Ia·Zs
5. Power and Torque
For a cylindrical-rotor machine (neglecting Ra), the electromagnetic power per phase transferred across
the air gap is:
P = (Vt × Ef / Xs) × sin(δ)
• δ = Torque angle (power angle) — angle between Vt and Ef phasors
• Maximum power (pull-out power) occurs at δ = 90°
• Beyond δ = 90° the machine loses synchronism
Electromagnetic torque: Te = P / ωs
where ωs = 2πNs/60 is the synchronous angular velocity.
6. Synchronous Generator (Alternator)
Voltage Regulation (VR)
VR = (Ef - Vt) / Vt × 100%
Effect of Load Power Factor
Load PF Ef vs Vt Voltage Regulation
Lagging Ef > Vt (large) Positive, high
Unity Ef > Vt (moderate) Positive, moderate
Leading Ef < Vt possible Negative possible
7. Synchronous Motor
• Runs at constant synchronous speed regardless of mechanical load.
• Not self-starting — needs damper (amortisseur) windings or an external starting method (pony
motor, VFD).
• Can operate as a synchronous condenser (no mechanical load) for reactive-power compensation.
Effect of Field Excitation on PF
Excitation Armature Current PF Reactive Power
Under-excited Lagging Absorbs (inductive)
Normally excited Unity Zero
Over-excited Leading Supplies (capacitive)
8. V-Curves
A V-curve is a plot of armature current (Ia) versus field current (If) at constant output power. The curve is
V-shaped with:
• Minimum Ia at unity power factor (bottom of V)
• Left branch → under-excited, lagging PF
• Right branch → over-excited, leading PF
• A family of V-curves exists for different load levels; higher load shifts the V upward.
9. Hunting and Damper Windings
Hunting is the oscillation of the rotor about the synchronous speed position, caused by sudden load
changes or supply disturbances.
Damper (Amortisseur) Windings are short-circuited copper/aluminium bars embedded in the pole faces.
When hunting occurs, induced currents in these bars produce a torque that opposes the oscillation,
restoring synchronism. They also assist starting of synchronous motors.
10. Two-Reaction Theory (Blondel's Theory)
Applied to salient-pole machines where the non-uniform air gap means the machine has different
reluctances along the two axes:
• Direct axis (d-axis): aligned with the rotor field pole axis — reactance Xd
• Quadrature axis (q-axis): 90° ahead of d-axis — reactance Xq
• Relationship: Xd > Xq (d-axis has lower reluctance)
Power equation (salient pole):
P = (Vt·Ef/Xd)·sin(δ) + Vt²·(Xd-Xq)/(2·Xd·Xq)·sin(2δ)
The second term is the reluctance torque — present even with zero field excitation.
11. Applications
Machine Type Typical Applications
Alternator (Generator) Thermal, hydro, nuclear & wind power plants; diesel gensets
Synchronous Motor Compressors, pumps, fans, cement mills, rolling mills
Synchronous Condenser Reactive-power compensation; voltage regulation in grids
Synchronous Machines — Study Notes | EE Reference