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DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LAFIA
LAFIA

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LECTURE NOTES
(BOT 203)

 Characteristics of gymnosperms
 Morphology of stem of gymnosperms
 Morphology of roots of gymnosperms
 Morphology of leaves of gymnosperms
 Morphology of flowers of gymnosperms
 Reproduction in gymnosperms
 Classification and distribution of gymnosperms

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Gymnosperms are a diverse group of seed-producing plants that are distinct from
angiosperms (flowering plants). The term "gymnosperm" means "naked seed," which
refers to the exposed nature of their seeds, not enclosed within a fruit.
Characteristics of gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are, those seed plants in which the seeds remain exposed over the surface of Page | 2
the megasporophylls because the latter are not folded to form pistils.
1. Gymnosperms are a small group of seed plants which are represented by only 900
living species.
2. Gymnosperms are more ancient than the angiosperms. They formed dominant
vegetation on earth some 200 million years back in mesozoic era. Today they are
dominant only in cold areas, where instead of rain; snow is the source of water. At
other places they have been replaced by angiosperms. In warmer areas only a
handful of gymnosperms can be observed, e.g., Cycas (like C. circinalis in South
India), Araucaria (native of South America, New Zealand and East Australia, like A.
heterophylla.
3. All gymnosperms are perennial and woody, forming either bushes or trees. Some of
these are very large and live for thousands of years, e.g., Sequoia sempervirens
(tallest gymnosperm of 111.6 m) Zamia pygmia is smallest (26 cm).
4. Flowers are absent. Two types of sporophylls, microsporophyll’s and
megasporophylls are usually aggregated to form distinct cones or strobili, pollen
cones (male cones) and seed cones (female cones) respectively.
5. Seeds do not occur inside a fruit. They are naked.
6. A distinction of ovary, style and stigma is absent.
7. Ovules are orthotropous and sessile. Each ovule is surrounded by a 3-layered
integument.
8. Female gametophyte contains archegonia.
9. Pollination is direct as a stigma is absent and the pollen grains directly reach the
micropylar ends of ovules. Pollination is usually accomplished by wind
(anemophily).
10. Male gametophyte produces only two male gametes or sperms. Generally one of
them is functional.
11. An external water is not required for transport of male gametes. Instead, a pollen
tube is formed by the male gametophyte for effecting fertilization (siphonogamy)
12. 12. Seeds contain a food laden tissue or endosperm for future growth of embryo into
seedling. The tissue represents the female gametophyte.
13. Like pteridophytes, xylem does not possess vessels except in some gneophytes.
Phloem is without companion cells and sieve tubes. Sieve cells are not arranged end
to end in rows.

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14. Vascular tissues are arranged into vascular bundles just like angiosperms. Vascular
bundles of stem are open so that secondary growth is quite common.

Characteristics of Cycadophyta: They comprise a group of the plants with a number of

primitive characters than are possessed by any other group of living gymnosperms, and
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because of the retention of these primitive characters sometimes they are supposed to be
‘the living fossils’.
1. All cycads are typical xerophytes.
2. The plants are low and palm-like in habit.
3. The stem is short, un-branched, columnar and covered with dense persistent leaf
bases.
4. The leaves are pinnately compound and arranged in a terminal crown.
5. The plants grow very slowly but they live for ages.
6. Comparatively the pith is large and cortex is broad.
7. There is a narrow zone of conducting tissue whereas in conifers the case is reverse.
The conducting strand is represented by conjoint, collateral, endarch and open
vascular bundles around the pith separated from each other by medullary rays.
8. The cycads are strictly dioecious, i.e., micro and megasporophylls develop on
separate plants. Except the female strobilus of Cycas the sporophylls are arranged in
definite cones.
9. The ovules are straight and usually sessile. The pollen chamber is found for
receiving the pollens. 10. Male gametes are motile. Examples: Cycas sp, Zamia sp,
Dioon sp, Macrozamia sp, Bowenia sp, Ceratozamia sp.

Characteristic Features of Coniferopsida:

1. Mostly evergreen with branched stems, rarely shrubs.
2. The leaves are needle or scale-like, sometimes flattened, rarely falling in autumn,
spirally arranged or whorled, entire. The leaves possess xerophytic characters. 3
3. Wood without vessels consisting of long tracheids which show bordered pits. Resin
canals present frequently.
4. The flowers are monoecious or dioecious. The female flowers are terminal or lateral
and then surrounded by supporting bracts.
5. The male flowers consist of a number of stamens arranged in strobili. The stamens
are usually many, each with 2 to 20 pollen sacs, connective often produced as an
appendage.
6. Pollen grains may be winged, e.g., Pinus.

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7. The female flowers are arranged in cones or catkins with the exception of Taxaceae,
Cephalotaxaceae and Podocarpaceae.
8. Each female flower consists of a bract (sterile) and a scale (fertile). The scale is
found above the bract. The ovules develop on the upper surface of ovuliferous
scales. Page | 4
9. The female cone ripens in 1-3 years and is usually dry on ripening.
10. The seeds are often winged, nut like and with a leathery or woody testa.
11. The cotyledons are epigeal and 2-16 in number.
12. Polyembryony is quite common. 13. They produce non-motile sperms at the time of
fertilization.

Examples: Pinus sp., Picea sp., Juniperus sp., Cupressus sp., Podocarpus sp., Taxus sp.,
Abies sp., Sequoia sp., Taxodium sp. etc.
Characteristic features of Gnetophyta:
1. These are woody plants, of which some species are trees (Gnetum gnemon),
many are lianes or shrubs and a few are stumpy turnip-like (e.g. Welwitschia
mirabilis).
2. Leaves are simple elliptical or strap-shaped or sometimes reduced to minute
scales. They are generally opposite or whorled.
3. Vessels are present in the secondary wood. ‘
4. Flowers’ are unisexual, usually dioecious and only rarely monoecious as in some
species of Gnetum.
5. ‘Flowers’ are arranged in compound strobili or ‘inflorescences’.
6. The male flowers are surrounded by a perianth. Each male flower contains an
antherophore with one to eight synangia.
7. A single erect orthotropous ovule is present in each female flower.
8. Nucellus of the ovule remains surrounded by two or three envelopes.
9. The micropyle of each ovule remains projected in the form of a long bristle-like
tube.
10. At the time of fertilization the pollen tube contains two male nuclei.
11. A unicellular primary suspensor is present in the embryo.
12. Two cotyledons are present in the embryo. Examples: Gnetum sp., Welwitschia
sp., Ephedra sp.

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Morphology of the Stem of Gymnosperms

The stem of gymnosperms is a crucial organ that serves several vital functions, including
support, transportation of water and nutrients, and photosynthesis. Gymnosperms, which
include conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes, possess stems that have evolved to suit
their environments, with sadaptations to withstand harsh conditions such as cold and Page | 5
drought.
General Structure of Gymnosperm Stems
 Woody Structure: The stems of gymnosperms are typically woody, allowing for
substantial support and enabling the plants to grow to considerable heights. This
wood consists primarily of xylem (for water transport) and phloem (for nutrient
transport).
 Growth Habit: Most gymnosperms have an erect growth habit, with some trees
growing quite tall (e.g., pines, firs). The stem often has a central axis and can
branch out in a regular or irregular pattern depending on the species.
 Branching: Gymnosperms exhibit both lateral branching (side branches) and
apical growth (growth from the tip of the stem). Branches are typically arranged in
a whorled or spiral pattern along the stem.

2. Anatomy of the Stem

The stem of gymnosperms is primarily made up of the following tissues:
 Outer Epidermis:
o The outermost layer of the stem is the epidermis, which acts as a protective
barrier. In some gymnosperms, this epidermis may be covered by a cuticle, a
waxy layer that helps reduce water loss.
 Cortex:
o Beneath the epidermis is the cortex, which consists of parenchyma cells that
store food and provide structural support. In some species, the cortex may
contain collenchyma for additional support.
 Vascular Bundle:
o Gymnosperms have open vascular bundles. The vascular bundle consists of
xylem (for water transport) and phloem (for nutrient transport), arranged
in a radial pattern.
o The xylem in gymnosperms primarily consists of tracheids, long, tapered
cells with thickened walls that provide structural support and water
conduction. The xylem of gymnosperms lacks the vessel elements present in
angiosperms.

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o Phloem is found alongside the xylem and functions to transport the products
of photosynthesis (mainly sugars) throughout the plant.

3. Secondary Growth and Cambium

 Lateral Meristem: Page | 6
o The stem of gymnosperms exhibits secondary growth due to the presence
of lateral meristems, primarily the vascular cambium and cork cambium.
This growth occurs after the initial development of the primary vascular
system.
 Vascular Cambium:
o The vascular cambium is a thin layer of meristematic cells that lies between
the xylem and phloem. It produces new cells that contribute to the increase
in girth of the stem. These cells are responsible for producing secondary
xylem (wood) toward the inside and secondary phloem toward the outside.
 Wood Formation:
o The new xylem produced by the vascular cambium is known as secondary
xylem or wood. This growth results in the stem's thickening over time,
forming the characteristic woody trunk.
o The secondary xylem consists of tracheids and, in some gymnosperms (like
gnetophytes), may contain vessel elements (though this is not common).
 Cork Cambium:
o The cork cambium (or phellogen) is responsible for the production of
periderm, which replaces the epidermis as the plant matures. The periderm
includes the outer layer of protective cork cells, providing an additional
barrier to water loss and physical damage.

4. Xylem and Phloem Structure

 Xylem:
o Gymnosperms have primary xylem (formed during the first growth of the
plant) and secondary xylem (formed after secondary growth begins). The
primary xylem contains tracheids and may have parenchyma cells and ray
cells.
o Tracheids are long, tapering cells with thick, lignified walls that facilitate
water conduction and provide structural support. In most gymnosperms,
vessels are absent, and water movement occurs mainly through tracheids.
 Phloem:

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o Primary phloem forms during the initial growth of the plant, while
secondary phloem is produced by the cambium during secondary growth.
o The phloem contains sieve cells, which help in the transport of
photosynthates, and companion cells, which assist in the functioning of
sieve cells. Page | 7

5. Annual Rings and Growth Pattern

 Annual Rings:
o Gymnosperms often display annual rings in their wood, also known as
growth rings. These rings are the result of the varying rate of growth
between early wood (produced during the spring and early summer when
water is abundant) and late wood (produced in late summer or fall, when
growth slows due to environmental factors such as reduced water
availability).
o The size and clarity of these rings can provide insights into the age of the
plant and environmental conditions during its growth.
 Pith and Rays:
o The pith is the central region of the stem, typically composed of parenchyma
cells that store water and nutrients.
o Ray cells in the xylem and phloem form radial lines that run across the stem.
These rays help in lateral transport of water, nutrients, and other substances
across the plant’s vascular tissue.

6. Adaptations to Harsh Environments

 Thick Bark: In many gymnosperms, especially conifers, the stem develops thick
bark as an adaptation to protect the plant against fire, cold, or desiccation. The bark
acts as an insulating layer.
 Resin Production: Some gymnosperms, especially conifers, produce resin (a sticky
substance) in specialized cells in the bark and wood. Resin acts as a defense
mechanism against herbivory and pathogen attack.
 Adaptations to Cold: The woody stems of gymnosperms are often adapted to
withstand low temperatures. The thick layers of bark and the vascular tissue's
structure allow the plant to endure freezing and thawing cycles.

7. Variation Among Groups of Gymnosperms

 Conifers: The most typical gymnosperms, conifers have a central stem with well-
defined annual rings. The stem is thick and heavily lignified, supporting tall growth.

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 Cycads: These have a short, thick stem with a crown of large, compound leaves.
The stem is often swollen at the base and may resemble a trunk-like structure.
 Ginkgo: The Ginkgo tree has a distinctive stem with fan-shaped leaves and
produces branched stems with dichotomous (Y-shaped) branching patterns.
 Gnetophytes: These gymnosperms exhibit a diverse range of stem structures, with Page | 8
some species like Welwitschia having a very large, thick stem, while others such as
Ephedra have much thinner, more shrub-like stems.

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Morphology of Roots of Gymnosperms

The root system of gymnosperms plays a vital role in anchoring the plant, absorbing water
and minerals, and providing structural support. Gymnosperms exhibit various types of root
systems that are adapted to their environments, from deep roots in dry soils to shallow
ones in moist or wet areas. Below is an in-depth look at the morphology of the roots of Page | 10
gymnosperms:
1. General Structure of Roots in Gymnosperms
 Tap Root System:
o Gymnosperms generally have a taproot system, where the primary root
develops into a thick, dominant root, which grows deeper into the soil. This
main root produces smaller, secondary roots (lateral roots) branching off
from it.
o The taproot system is advantageous for anchoring the plant securely and
accessing deep water reserves, particularly in dry environments.
 Secondary Roots (Lateral Roots):
o Lateral roots arise from the primary root and help in increasing the surface
area for water and nutrient absorption. These roots typically grow
horizontally and branch out in various directions, forming a more extensive
root network.
o The root system is often more branched in gymnosperms compared to some
other plant groups, which ensures effective absorption from a large volume
of soil.
 Fibrous Roots (In Some Species):
o While the taproot system is typical, in certain gymnosperms like cycads, the
root system may also have some fibrous roots, though less common
compared to angiosperms.
o These roots are thinner, more numerous, and spread out near the soil
surface, which is often useful in environments with shallow, moist soils.

2. Structure of the Root

The internal structure of gymnosperm roots is designed to facilitate water and nutrient
absorption, support growth, and provide the plant with stability. The following are the key
regions of the root structure:
 Root Cap:
o The root cap is a protective layer of cells at the tip of the root that shields the
growing tip from mechanical damage as the root pushes through the soil.

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o It also helps in the perception of gravity, guiding the root to grow downward.
 Meristematic Region:
o Just behind the root cap lies the meristematic region, where rapid cell
division occurs. This region contributes to the growth of the root, extending
Page | 11
it further into the soil.
 Elongation Zone:
o The cells in the elongation zone undergo enlargement and increase the
length of the root. These cells also differentiate into specialized cell types
necessary for absorption and transport.
 Maturation Zone:
o In this region, cells mature and differentiate into distinct tissue types,
including those involved in the absorption of water and minerals (e.g.,
epidermal cells).
o Root hairs form in this zone, increasing the surface area for absorption.

3. Root Tissues
The root tissues are highly specialized to perform functions such as nutrient uptake, water
transport, and anchorage. The major tissues in gymnosperm roots include:
 Epidermis:
o The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root and serves as the primary
tissue for water absorption. Root hairs, which are extensions of epidermal
cells, increase the surface area significantly, enhancing water and nutrient
uptake.
 Cortex:
o Beneath the epidermis lies the cortex, a region primarily composed of
parenchyma cells that store starch and water. This tissue also provides
structural support.
o In some gymnosperms, the cortex can be quite thick and act as a storage
organ.
 Endodermis:
o The endodermis is a layer of tightly packed cells surrounding the vascular
cylinder. The cells of the endodermis have a Casparian strip, a waterproof
barrier that regulates the flow of water and dissolved substances into the
vascular tissue.
 Vascular Cylinder (Stele):

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o The vascular cylinder, or stele, is the central part of the root, consisting of
xylem (for water transport) and phloem (for nutrient transport).
o The xylem in gymnosperm roots is typically made up of tracheids, which are
long, tapered cells with thick walls that facilitate the conduction of water.
Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not have vessel elements in the xylem. Page | 12
o Phloem is located adjacent to the xylem and is responsible for transporting
photosynthetic products (mainly sugars) from the leaves to the rest of the
plant.
o Cortex and Pericycle: In some gymnosperms, there is a pericycle, a layer of
cells just inside the endodermis, which can give rise to lateral roots.

4. Lateral Roots
 Formation of Lateral Roots:
o Lateral roots arise from the pericycle, a layer of cells in the vascular cylinder
just inside the endodermis. These lateral roots are essential for increasing
the plant's ability to anchor itself and absorb water and nutrients.
o The lateral roots originate as small outgrowths and grow outward and
downward from the main root. As they mature, they become fully functional
parts of the root system.

5. Adaptations to Environmental Conditions

Gymnosperms are adapted to a wide range of environments, and their root systems have
evolved to cope with various ecological pressures. Some key adaptations include:
 Deep Roots:
o The deep taproot in many gymnosperms is an adaptation to dry or nutrient-
poor environments. It allows the plant to access deeper water sources and
minerals that other plants cannot reach, helping gymnosperms survive in
arid regions or during drought conditions.
 Mycorrhizal Symbiosis:
o Gymnosperms often form symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi in
their root systems. These fungi assist in the absorption of nutrients,
particularly phosphorus, in exchange for carbohydrates produced by the
plant. This relationship is especially important in nutrient-poor soils.
 Root Modifications:
o Some gymnosperms, such as cycads, may exhibit modified roots that are
adapted for specific environmental needs, such as aerial roots (in some

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wetland species) or storage roots (in species that need to store water and
nutrients in dry conditions).
 Root Hair Density:
o The density of root hairs can increase in environments where water and
nutrient absorption is limited, enhancing the root’s ability to gather Page | 13
resources from the surrounding soil.
 Resin Secretion:
o Many conifers produce resin from their roots, especially when under stress.
Resin can act as a defense mechanism against pathogens and herbivores.

6. Variation Among Gymnosperm Groups

 Conifers: The most common type of gymnosperm, conifers, generally have a deep
and well-developed taproot system with numerous lateral roots. These roots often
penetrate the soil to considerable depths, helping the plant withstand dry
conditions.
 Cycads: Cycads have a less well-defined taproot system, and their roots are often
more fibrous in nature. They are also known to have large, swollen roots (especially
in some species) that store water and nutrients.
 Ginkgo: The roots of the Ginkgo tree are characterized by deep taproots and
extensive lateral root systems. Ginkgo roots are not as fibrous as those of many
other gymnosperms.

Gnetophytes: These gymnosperms exhibit a range of root morphologies. Some, like

Welwitschia, have large, woody roots that store water, while others, like Ephedra, have
more fibrous and shallow root systems.

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Leaf Morphology in Different Gymnosperm Groups

Gymnosperms are divided into several major groups, each with specific leaf types:
 Conifers (e.g., Pines, Spruces, Firs, Cedars)
o Needle-like Leaves: The leaves of conifers are typically long, slender, and
Page | 14
needle-shaped. This shape reduces water loss and helps them survive in cold
or dry environments.
o Arrangement: Needles are often arranged in clusters called fascicles. The
number of leaves per fascicle can vary by species (e.g., pines typically have
fascicles with 2-5 needles).
o Structure: Needles have a central vascular bundle surrounded by a thick
layer of cells. They also contain stomata that are generally fewer in number
than in broad leaves, reducing water loss.
o Cuticle: A thick waxy cuticle covers the surface of the needle to protect
against desiccation.
o Adaptations: The leaves of conifers have sunken stomata and sometimes
resin canals, further preventing water loss and protecting against herbivores
or pathogens.
 Cycads
o Pinnate Leaves: Cycads have large, compound leaves that are usually
pinnately divided. Each leaf consists of a central rachis (stem) with numerous
leaflets attached on either side.
o Shape: The leaflets of cycads are generally stiff, leathery, and have a glossy
surface.
o Arrangement: The leaves are often arranged in a spiral, emerging from a
terminal bud.
o Adaptation: The leaflets are often tough and thick, helping cycads conserve
water in their native environments.
 Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba)
o Fan-shaped Leaves: The leaves of Ginkgo biloba are unique in
gymnosperms due to their broad, fan-like shape. They are not needle-like or
scale-like as seen in other gymnosperms.
o Venation: The venation of Ginkgo leaves is dichotomous, meaning the veins
split into two, which is rare among modern plants.

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o Leaf Characteristics: Ginkgo leaves are deciduous, meaning they fall off in
the autumn, which is unusual for gymnosperms as most retain their leaves
year-round.
o Adaptation: The broad leaves allow for greater surface area for
photosynthesis but can be prone to water loss, although the Ginkgo tree is Page | 15
known for its resilience in urban environments.
 Gnetophytes (e.g., Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia)
o Varied Leaf Shapes: Gnetophytes show a wide diversity in leaf shape, from
needle-like in Ephedra to broad, flat leaves in Gnetum.
o Ephedra: The leaves of Ephedra are small, scale-like, or reduced to bracts,
and photosynthesis often occurs in the green stem rather than the leaves.
o Gnetum: Gnetum species have broad, leathery, and sometimes glossy leaves
similar to angiosperms.
o Welwitschia: Welwitschia has only two long, strap-like leaves that grow
continuously throughout the plant's life.

3. Microscopic Features
 Stomatal Distribution: Gymnosperms typically have fewer stomata on their leaf
surfaces than angiosperms, and in many species, the stomata are deeply sunken to
reduce water loss.
 Resin Canals: Many gymnosperms (especially conifers) have resin canals in their
leaves, which secrete a sticky resin to protect the plant from herbivory and
pathogens.
 Mesophyll: The mesophyll (the tissue between the upper and lower epidermis) in
gymnosperm leaves is typically not differentiated into palisade and spongy layers,
as in angiosperms, but instead, it is more uniform in structure.

4. Leaf Arrangement
 Alternate or Spiral: Most gymnosperms exhibit an alternate or spiral arrangement
of leaves along the stem. This arrangement helps maximize light absorption and
reduces shadowing between leaves.
 Fasciculate: In conifers, the leaves may be arranged in bundles or fascicles, which is
a key feature in distinguishing some conifer species from one another.

5. Leaf Persistence
 Evergreen: Most gymnosperms, particularly conifers, are evergreen, meaning they
retain their leaves for multiple years.

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 Deciduous: Some gymnosperms, like Ginkgo and a few species of conifers (e.g.,
larch), are deciduous and shed their leaves annually.

6. Adaptations to Environment
 Water Conservation: The needle-like shape of most gymnosperm leaves is a Page | 16
significant adaptation for water conservation. The small surface area, thick cuticle,
and fewer stomata reduce transpiration.
 Temperature Tolerance: The structure of gymnosperm leaves allows them to
endure cold winters, as they are typically well-adapted to freezing conditions.

7. Leaf Function
 Photosynthesis: Gymnosperm leaves are primarily involved in photosynthesis,
though many gymnosperms also conduct some photosynthesis in their stems
(especially in some gnetophytes).
 Protection: The resin and thick cuticle serve as protective features, reducing water
loss and defending against pests or diseases.

Reproduction in gymnosperms
Reproduction in gymnosperms is a complex process that involves the production of seeds
without flowers, which is a defining characteristic of this group of plants. Gymnosperms
reproduce via a process known as seeds production from cones (strobili), and they
follow a sexual reproduction strategy involving separate male and female reproductive
organs. The reproductive organs are typically unisexual, and fertilization occurs in a
distinct manner. Below are detailed notes on the process of reproduction in gymnosperms:
1. General Features of Gymnosperm Reproduction
 Unisexual Reproductive Structures: Gymnosperms exhibit unisexual reproductive
organs. This means that male and female reproductive organs are usually borne
separately, either on the same plant or different plants (depending on the species).
 Cones (Strobili): Male and female reproductive structures in gymnosperms are
typically organized into cone-like structures called strobili. These cones are
unisexual, with male cones (microstrobili) producing pollen and female cones
(megastrobili) containing ovules.
 Seed Formation: Gymnosperms produce seeds, but unlike angiosperms, the seeds
are not enclosed in a fruit. Instead, they are exposed on the surface of the cone
scales or in other reproductive structures.

2. Male Reproductive Structures (Microstrobili)

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 Microstrobili: The male reproductive organs in gymnosperms are called

microstrobili, which are small, cylindrical or cone-shaped structures. These are
typically found on the lower branches of the plant and are often short-lived.
 Structure:
o The microstrobilus consists of a central axis and several microsporophylls Page | 17
(leaf-like structures) that bear microsporangia.
o Each microsporangium contains numerous microsporocytes, which
undergo meiosis to produce haploid microspores.
o The microspores are released from the sporangium as pollen grains, which
contain the male gametes (sperm cells).
 Pollen Production: The pollen grain carries the male gametes (sperm cells), which
are responsible for fertilizing the female gametes (eggs) in the ovule. The process of
pollen release is typically wind-mediated (anemophily), though in some cases,
insects may be involved in pollination.
 Example: In pines (Pinus), the male cones are small, cylindrical, and release pollen
during spring.

3. Female Reproductive Structures (Megastrobili)

 Megastrobili (Seed Cones): The female reproductive organs are called
megastrobili or seed cones. These are typically much larger than male cones and can
be woody or fleshy, depending on the species.
 Structure:
o The female cones consist of a central axis (stem) and a series of ovuliferous
scales, which are modified leaves that bear ovules on their surface.
o Each ovule contains a megasporangium (or nucellus), within which meiosis
occurs to produce megaspore mother cells.
o A single megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploid
megaspore cells, but typically only one megaspore survives and develops
into the female gametophyte (which will eventually produce the egg cell).
 Ovule: The ovule is the structure that will eventually become the seed after
fertilization. It contains the female gametophyte and is located on the surface of the
ovuliferous scales.
 Example: In pines, the female cones are large and woody, with two ovules borne on
each scale.

4. Pollination

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 Wind Pollination: Gymnosperms predominantly rely on wind pollination

(anemophily). The pollen grains produced by the male cones are carried by the wind
and land on the ovules of female cones. This is in contrast to the insect or animal
pollination commonly seen in angiosperms.
 Pollination Mechanism: Page | 18
o When the pollen grain reaches the female cone, it lands on the micropyle (an
opening at the tip of the ovule) and begins to germinate.
o The pollen grain develops a pollen tube, which extends through the
micropyle into the ovule to reach the female gametophyte.
o The pollen tube serves as a conduit for the sperm cells to reach the egg cell in
the ovule.

5. Fertilization
 Delayed Fertilization: Gymnosperms exhibit delayed fertilization, meaning that
fertilization does not immediately occur after pollination. It may take several
months or even years for the pollen tube to reach the egg, and fertilization
typically occurs long after the pollen has been released.
 Sperm Movement: The pollen tube contains two sperm cells. Once it reaches the
female gametophyte, the sperm cells travel down the tube to the archegonium (a
structure that contains the egg cell).
 Fertilization Process:
o Fertilization occurs when one of the sperm cells fuses with the egg cell,
resulting in the formation of a diploid zygote.
o This fertilized egg will eventually develop into a seed.
 Example: In pines, fertilization can take place one to two years after pollination,
depending on the species.

6. Seed Development
 Embryo Formation: After fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo, which
is the young sporophyte (new plant). The embryo grows inside the ovule, which
becomes surrounded by a seed coat and remains attached to the female cone.
 Seed Maturation: The seed develops over a period of time (typically one or two
years), depending on the species. During this period, the seed stores nutrients, and
the seed coat hardens to protect the embryo.
 Seed Structure: The seed consists of:
o The embryo (the young plant).

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o The endosperm (nutritive tissue to support the embryo).

o The seed coat (which protects the seed).
 Example: In conifers, the seeds are typically located between the scales of the
female cones. Once mature, the seeds are released from the cones.
Page | 19
7. Seed Dispersal
 Wind Dispersal: Gymnosperms primarily rely on wind to disperse their seeds. The
seeds are often lightweight and have wings or other adaptations that enable them to
be carried by the wind.
 Example: Pine seeds have a wing-like structure (the winged seed) that helps them
float through the air, allowing them to be dispersed far from the parent plant.
 Seed Release: Once the seed cone matures, the cone opens, and the seeds are
released into the environment. In some species, such as pines, the cones remain on
the tree for several years before they open and release seeds.

8. Germination
 Seed Germination: After the seeds are dispersed, they will eventually germinate if
they land in a suitable environment. Germination is the process by which the seed
develops into a new plant (sporophyte).
 Conditions for Germination:
o The seed requires proper moisture, temperature, and light conditions to
break dormancy and begin germination.
o Upon germination, the seed coat breaks open, and the embryo begins to
grow, forming a new plant.
 Example: In conifers, the embryo develops into a small seedling, which gradually
grows into a mature tree.

9. Types of Gymnosperms and Their Reproductive Features

 Conifers (e.g., Pine, Spruce, Fir, Cedar):
o Male cones are small, produce pollen, and are typically located on lower
branches.
o Female cones are large, woody, and produce seeds that are exposed on the
cone scales.
o Pollination is wind-mediated, and fertilization occurs one to two years after
pollination.
 Cycads:

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o Male and female cones are large and separate; males often produce brightly
colored cones.
o Pollination occurs through insect activity, although wind pollination can also
occur.
Page | 20
o Fertilization occurs after a period of time, and the seeds are large and fleshy.
o Male cones:
o Male cones are compact , cylindrical or ovoid structures, large , solitary or
few and apparently terminal at the growing apex of the stem.
o Each cone consist of a central axis upon which numerous microphylls are
arranged in acropetal succession. Each microsporophyll is a flattened woody
structure ; on the under surface (i.e. abaxial surface) of fertile portion
numerous microsporangia are borne in sori. Each sorus contains 3 to 5
microsporangia.
o Each microsporangium is sessile and oval , consists of a wall of several layers
of cells. Pollen grains i.e. microspores are many in each micro-sporangium.
o Dehiscence of microsporangium is longitudinal.

Reproductive structure of female Cycas:

o Female cones are not true cones but simple structures ;
megasporophylls are large , generally leafy and loosely arranged
spirally around the stem-apex of the female plant.
o Each megasporophyll is brown in colour and is covered with hairs and
each bears 1-5 pairs of big ovules on both sides of the lower stalklike
part.
o Each megasporangium i.e. ovule consist of a massive nucellus and is
surrounded by a thick Reproductive structure of female
o Single integument which is three- layered: a) outer fleshy layer b)
middle stony layer and c) inner fleshy layer.
o Nucellus is fused with the integument except at the micropylar
region , where it forms a beak like structure called nucellar beak.
o Within the nucellar beak lies the pollen chamber.

 Ginkgo:
o Male and female organs are separate, with ovules borne directly on short
branches.

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o Pollination occurs via wind, and seeds mature into fleshy structures.
 Gnetophytes (e.g., Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia):
o Male and female cones are separate or sometimes modified into fleshy, fruit-
like structures.
Page | 21
o Pollination can be wind-mediated or, in some species, insect-mediated.

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Classification and distribution of gymnosperms

Classification of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are traditionally classified into four main groups:
Page | 22
A. Coniferophyta (Conifers)
 General Characteristics:
o Conifers are the largest group of gymnosperms and include well-known
species like pines, spruces, firs, cedars, and cypresses.
o They are predominantly evergreen, meaning they retain their needle-like
leaves year-round.
o Conifers have simple, needle-like or scale-like leaves, adapted to cold or dry
environments.
o The reproductive organs (cones) are unisexual, with male cones producing
pollen and female cones bearing seeds.
 Key Families:

1. Pinaceae (Pine family): Pines, spruces, firs, and larches.

2. Cupressaceae (Cypress family): Includes cypresses, redwoods, junipers, and
cedars.
3. Taxaceae (Yew family): Includes yews, which have fleshy, berry-like
structures around the seeds.
4. Araucariaceae (Araucaria family): Includes the genus Araucaria, with
species like the monkey puzzle tree.
5. Podocarpaceae (Podocarp family): Includes the genus Podocarpus, mainly
found in the Southern Hemisphere.
6. Sciadopityaceae (Umbrella-pine family): Includes Sciadopitys, a rare species
native to Japan.
 Examples:

o Pinus (Pine), Picea (Spruce), Abies (Fir), Juniperus (Juniper), and Sequoia
(Redwood).

B. Cycadophyta (Cycads)
 General Characteristics:

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o Cycads are tropical and subtropical plants that resemble palm trees, with
large, compound leaves.
o They have a unique form of reproduction, with separate male and female
plants (dioecious), both producing cones.
Page | 23
o The male cones are typically large and cylindrical, while the female cones are
also large, producing seeds with a fleshy covering.
o Cycads have a very slow growth rate and are considered to be "living fossils,"
as they have existed for over 250 million years.
 Key Families:

1. Cycadaceae: Includes Cycas and other genera.

2. Zamiaceae: Includes Zamia, a genus of cycads.
3. Stangeriaceae: Includes the genus Stangeria.
4. Ephedraceae (Cycad-like species): Some species like Ephedra are included
in a broader classification of cycads in some systems.
 Examples:

o Cycas revoluta (Sago palm), Zamia species, Encephalartos species.

C. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo)
 General Characteristics:
o The only living species in this group is Ginkgo biloba, often referred to as
the "maidenhair tree."
o Ginkgo trees are deciduous, and they have distinctive, fan-shaped leaves.
o Ginkgo is dioecious, with separate male and female trees. The female tree
produces fleshy seeds, which are known for their unpleasant odor when they
ripen.
o It has a long fossil record, with its ancestors existing more than 200 million
years ago.
 Key Features:
o Ginkgo biloba is the only surviving member of this ancient group, though
fossil species once thrived worldwide.
 Example:
o Ginkgo biloba (commonly known as the Ginkgo tree, or maidenhair tree).

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D. Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes)
 General Characteristics:
o Gnetophytes are a diverse group of gymnosperms that share some
characteristics with angiosperms, such as the presence of vessel elements in
their xylem (which is uncommon in other gymnosperms). Page | 24
o Gnetophytes have varied growth forms, including trees, shrubs, and vines.
o The group is divided into three distinct genera: Gnetum, Ephedra, and
Welwitschia.
 Key Families and Genera:

1. Ephedraceae: Includes the genus Ephedra, which consists of shrubs and small trees
found in arid regions.
2. Gnetaceae: Includes the genus Gnetum, which consists of climbing plants
and trees primarily found in tropical regions.
3. Welwitschiaceae: Includes the genus Welwitschia, a unique desert plant
endemic to southwestern Africa with only two large, long leaves.
 Examples:

o Ephedra sinica (used in traditional medicine), Gnetum species (tropical

trees and vines), Welwitschia mirabilis (a distinctive desert plant).

2. Distribution of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are found in a wide range of environments, from tropical rainforests to arid
deserts and cold temperate regions. Their distribution is largely influenced by climate, with
conifers and cycads being more widespread compared to the rarer Ginkgo and
gnetophytes.

A. Conifers
 Distribution:
o Conifers are the most widely distributed group of gymnosperms. They are
found across the Northern Hemisphere, especially in boreal forests
(taiga), and they also extend into temperate and subtropical regions.
o In the Southern Hemisphere, conifers are found in parts of Australia, New
Zealand, and South America (e.g., Chile).
o High altitudes in temperate regions often have coniferous forests, such as
the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains, and the Andes.
 Examples:

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o Pines (Pinus) dominate the boreal forests of northern Europe, North

America, and parts of Asia.
o Redwoods (Sequoia) are endemic to California, USA.
o Firs (Abies) are common in North America, Europe, and Asia.
Page | 25
B. Cycads
 Distribution:
- Cycas is found both as cultivated or in wild state in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world.
- It normally grows in well drained soil exposed to sun, such as sunny
slopes of the hills, and thus exhibits many xerophyic characters.
- The genus is distributed in the Eastern Hemisphere, has several
species spread over Madagascar to Japan including Australia.
- Cycas is the only genus of family Cycadaceae that occurs in India. It
grows in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala. Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Sikkim.
- It also grows in neighbouring countries such as Nepal, Myanmar
(Burma) and Srilanka.
 Examples:
o Cycas species are found in Asia (particularly Southeast Asia).
o Zamia species are native to North and South America.
o Encephalartos species are primarily found in Africa.

C. Ginkgo
 Distribution:
o Ginkgo biloba is native to China, where it has been cultivated for over a
thousand years.
o Wild populations of Ginkgo are no longer found, and the species is
considered to be extinct in the wild. However, it is widely planted around
the world as an ornamental tree.
 Example:
o Ginkgo biloba is widely cultivated in urban areas around the world for its
resilience and distinctive fan-shaped leaves.

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D. Gnetophytes
 Distribution:
o Ephedra is found in arid and semi-arid regions across the globe, including
North America, Asia, and Africa.
o Gnetum is primarily tropical, with species found in Africa, Asia, and the Page | 26
Pacific Islands.
o Welwitschia is endemic to the deserts of southwestern Africa, particularly
the Namib Desert.
 Examples:
o Ephedra species are found in desert regions of North America, Asia, and
Africa.
o Gnetum species are native to tropical rainforests in Southeast Asia and
Africa.
o Welwitschia mirabilis is native to the Namib Desert in Namibia and
Angola.

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