CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In conducting a research, the provision of theory is needed to explain the
concepts or terms used in this research. Researchers reviewed the literature related
to the study area. In this chapter, we present the theory from related literature,
several related studies and the conceptual framework of each of the points
presented in detail below.
A. Literature Review

1. The Concept of Teaching EFL in Indonesia

In Indonesia, English is a foreign language, not a second language,

so the way of teaching is different between English as a foreign

language and English as a second language. The author has mentioned

in the introduction that English is a cumulative subject. This means that

all students must study these subjects whether they are interested in

these subjects or not. In such situations, the teacher must be able to

teach students using methods that are appropriate to the students'

conditions (motivation, individual abilities, experience, learning styles,

and also family background). In another world, teaching English as a

foreign language to large classes, the teacher must be able to become an

effective teacher. According to Jeremy Harmer, Effective teachers are

those who learn their skills through a combination of personality,

intelligence, knowledge, and experience.

The teacher must be aware of his duties; such as making

preparations, taking notes, and being reliable, and they must also have

skills in managing classes, matching assignments, and groups, and

having a variety of activities and topics. it is quite clear that the aim of

teaching-learning English as a foreign language is to make students

 master the language. then students must be actively involved in the

teaching and learning process and do a lot of exercises in order to

realize these goals. The teacher must also manage the class well and be

creative in the learning process.

2. The Concept of Writing

Writing is producing a sequence of sentences arranged in a certain

order and connected together in a certain way. According to Byrne,

Donn (1988) The sequences may be very short that perhaps only two or

three sentences are arranged and linked together, and they form a

coherent whole. According to Siahaan, S. (2008) The concept of

writing as a skill needs to be distinguished from writing as text. Writing

text is part of written information. On the other hand, writing text refers

to a meaningful linguistic unit. In writing a text, most students use

prepositions to help express an idea or thought.

Writing is a communication process that uses conventional;

graphics system to convey messages to readers. For foreign language

learners, they consider writing to be the most difficult skill because in

writing, apart from memorizing vocabulary, they must incorporate

correct grammar and also the coherence of a paragraph. it means

writing as a process of expressing ideas or thoughts in words.

According to Raimes, writing means communication where writers use

language to express their ideas, thoughts and feelings that are arranged
 in it. then writing as a way to send messages or information must have a

goal to make it easier for the reader to understand it.

Writing is a communication process that uses conventional;

graphics system to convey messages to readers. For foreign language

learners, they consider writing to be the most difficult skill because in

writing, apart from memorizing vocabulary, they must incorporate

correct grammar and also the coherence of a paragraph. it means

writing as a process of expressing ideas or thoughts in words.

According to Raimes, writing means communication where writers use

language to express their ideas, thoughts and feelings that are arranged

in it. then writing as a way to send messages or information must have a

goal to make it easier for the reader to understand it.

In other words, writing can also be defined as a way of

communication by converting observations, information, thoughts or

ideas into language, so that they can be shared with others and we can

do the process of expressing ideas or thoughts in words in our free time.

writing is the activity of pouring all the thoughts of a writer into the

pages of a book and writing can be enjoyed for a long time as long as

there are ideas and means to achieve it.

3. Process of Writing

Writing is not a simple process, it is hard work. However, writing is

an opportunity to convey the author's ideas and communicate his views

to the masses. Sometimes, students cannot systematically communicate

their ideas to others in written language. They found their writing very

poor and ineffective. Actually, a writer also needs time and a hard

process to make good and effective writing.

According to Harmer, the writing process has four main elements.

They are planning, drafting, editing, and final version.

1. Planning

Planning is an arrangement made to do something. This planning

stage is very important because at this stage there is an idea of the

writing process. This may involve making details or not.

2. Drafting

Drafting is the process of putting all ideas on and through a work of

paper to be in a very rough form. This stage requires editing to check

the text. Assumed to be the first version of a draft.

3. Editing

How to revise and refine the first draft is called editing. Editing is

an important part of preparing a piece of writing for public reading or

publication. Editing involves reviewing the writing and making

changes to organization, style, grammar, and lexical correctness, and

appropriateness.

4. Final Draft

The final draft is the final product of a piece of writing. Once

authors have edited their draft and have made changes where

necessary to production to produce a final draft. It may look very

 different from both the original plan and the first draft, as many things

may have been changed in the editing process.

4. The Definition of Text

Text is a linguistic unit meaningful in context. The text is

spoken text and written text. Spoken text is the meaning of the spoken

text. The text can be in the form of words or phrases or sentences or

discourse. Written text is written text that contains meaning. This

means that text is a number of words to convey a message to someone

in writing or orally. According to Hyland, K. (2009) Text has

structure, grammar of words, clauses, and regular sentences, and by

following the rules of grammar, writers can encode the full semantic

representation of the intended meaning. Furthermore, language is

always produced, exchanged or received as a text, namely language as

a communication system organized as cohesive units that we call

texts. That is, the text is used as communication by the author by

compiling the structure of the text and the grammar of words, clauses

and sentences.

Text structure is how to produce and interpret a coherent and

unified text and how to choose and use the correct grammatical

aspects of a certain coherent and unified text. According to Emilia, a

text has texture and good features as follows:

a. Coherence

Coherence refers to a group of clauses or sentences related

by context. Coherence is divided into situational coherence and

 generic coherence. Situational coherence is when the reader can

recognize the situation when what is stated in the text occurs, when

the reader can identify the topic, method, and who is speaking to

whom. Meanwhile, generic coherence is when the reader can

recognize or identify the text as a certain type of text, such as

Recount, Report, Narration, Procedure, Description, and recognize

the organizational structure with each element that is usually

present in that type of text.

b. Cohesion

Cohesion refers to how the writer connects each part of the

text. Based on this explanation, it can be concluded that a good text

is a text that is related to the theme, uses grammatical and generic

structures that are correct according to the text, and can be

understood by the reader.

5. The Genres of Text

According to the SMK English Syllabus (2013 Curriculum),

teaching writing to students involves teaching paragraphs or texts. In

English, we can find many types of texts in teaching writing to

students. Each of these texts has its own characteristics and functions.

Students must have knowledge of these texts. according to Gerot and

Wignell, The examples of text genres are:

1. Spoof Text

Spoof text is a retelling of events with a humorous twist.

a. General structure (schematic):

 1. Orientation: set the mood.

2. Event(s): tells what happened.

3. Twist: provide a "punchline".

b. Significant lexicogrammatical features:

1. Focus on individual participants.

2. The use of material process.

3. Conditions of time and place.

4. Use the past tense.

2. Text Recount

Recount text is a retelling of events for the purpose of

informing or entertaining.

a. Generic structure:

1. Orientation: provide settings and introduce participants.

2. Events: tell what happened, in what order.

3. Re-orientation : optional- event closing.

b. Significant lexicogrammatical features:

1. Focus on a specific participant.

2. The use of material process.

3. Use the past tense.

4. Focus on the temporal sequence.

3. Report text

Report is to describe the way things are, with reference to

various natural things,

made, and social phenomena in our environment.

 a. General structure:

1. General classification: tells what phenomenon is being

discussed.

2. Description: tells what kind of phenomenon is being

discussed

Terms: Parts (and functions), traits, and habits or behavior,

if live: use, otherwise natural.

b. Significant lexicogrammatical features:

1. Focus on common participants.

2. The use of relational processes to state what is and what is.

3. Use the simple present tense.

4. There is no temporal sequence.

4. Analytical exposition text

Analytical exposition text is to convince the reader or listener

that something is a case.

a. General structure:

1. Thesis: position (introduces the topic and indicates the

author's position) and preview (outlines the main arguments

to be presented).

2. Arguments: points (restating the main argument outlined in

the preview) and elaboration (develop and support each

point/argument)

3. Repetition: restating the author's position.

 b. Significant lexicogrammatical features:

1. Focus on general human and non-human participants.

2. Use the simple present tense.

3. Use of relational processes.

4. Use internal conjunctions to stage arguments.

5. Reasoning through causal conjunctions or nominalization.

5. Narrative text

Narrative text is for entertaining, and for dealing with

actual or representative experiences in different ways; the narrative

deals with problematic events that lead to a crisis or some kind of

change, which in turn finds a resolution

a. General structure:

1. Orientation: setting the tone and introducing participants.

2. Evaluation: a step back to evaluate the bad situation.

3. Complications: a crisis arises.

4. Resolution: the crisis is resolved, for better or for worse.

5. Re-orientation: optional.

b. Significant lexicogrammatical features:

1. Focus on specific and usually individual participants.

2. The use of material process.

3. Use of relational processes and mental processes.

4. Use the past tense.

 Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that there are

many types of text such as spoof text, recount text, report text,

analytical exposition text, and narrative text. These types of texts must

be mastered by students in writing to improve students' writing skills.

In this research, the writing only focuses on recount text.

6. The Concept of Recount Text

Because the writer wants to do research on recount text, the writer

wants to give further explanation about recount text. Recount is a text

that retells past events, usually in the order they happened. The goal is

to give the audience an idea of what and when it happened.

Meanwhile, recount text is a story with paragraphs whose purpose is

to amuse or amuse the reader with the author's real or imaginary

experiences in a different way. Gerot and Wignell added that recount

is retelling an event, tending to use the past tense, material processes,

and certain participants. That is, recount is a series of events in the

past and has its own generic structure. The recount text consists of an

orientation that introduces participants, place and time, a series of

events that occurred in the past, and a re-orientation that states

personal comments from the author.

Meanwhile there are some grammatical features of recount such as:

1. Descriptive words to provide details about who, what, when, where,

and how.

2. The use of past tense to retell events

3. Words that show the sequence of events (eg: first, next, then)
 Based on this explanation, the writer concludes that recount text is

one of the texts that tells about past events or experiences that have

the purpose of informing or involving. Recount text always uses the

simple past tense. The general structure of recount text is orientation,

event, and reorientation.

7. Generic Structure of Recount Text

a. Orientation

The recount text begins by telling the reader who was involved,

what happened, where this event happened and when it happened.

b. Events

The main important activities or events that occur in the story. Its

function is to provide further explanation about the orientation.

c. Re-orientation

A conclusion of a story. In other words it is the kind of text that tells

about how something in the past happened chronologically and also

says about feelings about it. Some retellings have an evaluative

comment or conclusion which may be the author's commentary on

previous events, but this is optional. The conclusion is written in the

last paragraph, and because this section is optional, some accounts

may not have this conclusion paragraph.

8. The Definition of Error Analysis

In learning and using a foreign language, one of the main factors

that really hinders is the fear of making errors and mistakes. Making

mistakes is a sign that students have not mastered the rules of the
 language being studied. To overcome this problem, one of the

strategies used by linguists is to analyze student errors. Error analysis

is one way to examine all possible sources of errors in order to find a

solution. According to Taylor, error analysis is the study and

evaluation of uncertainties in measurements. This implies that errors

have a positive role in language learning because they are a sign that

the language learner is not learning the rules of the target language

effectively. This means that error analysis has an important role in

determining suitable remedial and effective teaching and learning

strategies for students and can be used as a guide to minimize errors in

their writing.

Error analysis has several importance. First, with error analysis, the

teacher will know the student's mistakes as a whole. Second, the errors

can tell the teacher how far the learning objectives have been achieved

and how the student is progressing, and what is left for him or her to

learn. In other words, student mistakes are valuable feedback for

teachers. Third, mistakes are needed by the students themselves,

making mistakes can be a tool in the learning process. Fourth, some

mistakes need to be corrected, otherwise it will become a habit.

9. Classification of Error Analysis

Dulay provide the most useful and commonly used basis for

descriptive classification of errors. according to Dulay, to classify the

types of errors, there are four classifications of errors. they are:

linguistic category taxonomy, surface strategy taxonomy, comparative

taxonomy, communicative effects taxonomy. Four taxonomies, one of

which is used in this study.

a. Linguistic Category Taxonomy

Dulay explained that the taxonomy of linguistic categories

is to classify errors according to one or both of the language

components which include phonology (pronunciation), syntax and

morphology (grammar), semantics and lexicon (meaning and

vocabulary), and discourse (style).

b. Surface Strategy Taxonomy

The surface strategy taxonomy focuses on aberrant surface

structures. It classifies errors based on how the learner version

differs from the expected target version. Students may omit

necessary items or add unnecessary ones or they may create the

wrong form or wrong placement.

c. Comparative Taxonomy

The classification of errors in the comparative taxonomy is

based on a comparison between the structure of the second

language errors and certain other types of constructions. If we use

a comparative taxonomy to classify the errors of Indonesians

learning English, we can compare the structure of student errors

to those reported for children acquiring English as a first

language.

d. Communicative Effects Taxonomy

 This taxonomy categorizes errors depending on how they

affect the perception of listeners or readers. In the same way, it

addresses mistakes that can lead to misinterpretation or

miscommunication.

10. The Concept of Surface Strategy Taxonomy

Dulay, Burt, and Krashen describe this taxonomy as aberrant

surface structure. Students may omit necessary items or add

unnecessary ones or they may create the wrong form or the wrong

placement. Dulay [Link] divides the Surface Strategy Taxonomy into

five categories: (a) omissions, (b) additions, (c) formation errors, and

(d) construction errors.

a. Omission

(Dulay et al., 1982) states that omission refers to the absence of

an item that must appear in a well-formed sentence. They

emphasize that every morpheme or word is possible to omit, but

certain types of morphemes are more likely to be omitted than

others.

For example:

He my coach. (Error)

There has an omission to be:

He was my coach. (Correct)

b. Addition
 According to (Dulay et al., 1982) The definitions of addition and

omission are completely contradictory. this type of error refers to

the presence of items that should not be included in a well-formed

sentence. It usually occurs in the next second stage of language

acquisition when the learner has acquired some target language

rules. The sum is divided into three types, namely as follows:

1) Double Marking

Double tagging occurs when two items have the same

features exists, one of which is not needed because it is already

represented by the other.

For example:

I didn’t visited my school. (Error)

The negative form must use the infinitive verbs instead of past

tense.

I didn’t visit my school. (Correct)

2) Regularization

A regularization error occurs when an item is changed by

equating the irregular rule with the regular rule. An example of

this error can be seen in terms of its regular, irregular forms and

constructions in a language. The students often apply the rules to

produce the regular rules for those that are irregular.

For example:

Dinda camed to his house yesterday. (Error)

 There is a regularization, the past tense of the verb "come" does

not "camed" but "came". Because come on is one of the

irregular verbs.

Dinda came to his house yesterday. (Correct)

3) Simple Addition