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Impacts, Issues
The Effects of AIDS

 Some viruses and bacteria help us; others, such

as the HIV virus that causes AIDS, can kill

Viruses and Prokaryotes

Chapter 21

21.1 Viral Characteristics and Diversity Viruses

 A virus consists of nucleic acid and protein  Viruses

• Noncellular infectious particles that multiply only
 A virus is smaller than any cell and has no inside living cells
metabolic machinery of its own • Consist of genetic material and a protein coat;
some also have a lipid envelope
• Some viruses cause disease (pathogens); others
control disease-causing organisms

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Characteristics of a Virus Examples of Viruses

 Viruses that infect plants (tobacco mosaic virus)

 Viruses that infect bacteria or archaeans

(bacteriophages)

 Naked viruses (adenoviruses)

 Enveloped viruses (herpesviruses)

RNA

Examples of Viruses

protein
subunits
of coat

Fig. 21-2a, p. 334

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DNA
inside
protein
coat

sheath

tail
fiber

Fig. 21-2b, p. 334 Fig. 21-2c, p. 334

viral DNA and enzymes

lipid envelope with protein coat

protein components inside envelope
Fig. 21-2d, p. 334 Fig. 21-2e (1), p. 334

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lipid envelope with protein coat

protein components inside envelope
Effects of Plant Viruses

Fig. 21-2e (2), p. 334

Viral Origins and Evolution 21.2 Viral Replication

 Viruses may have descended from cells that

were parasites of other cells
 All viruses replicate only inside host cells, but
 Viruses may be genetic elements that escaped the details of the process vary among viral
from cells groups

 Viruses may represent a separate evolutionary

branch

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Steps in Viral Replication

Stepped Art
Table 21-2, p. 336

Bacteriophage Replication Bacteriophage Replication

 Lytic pathway
• Under direction of viral genes, the host makes an
enzyme that lyses and kills the cell

 Lysogenic pathway
• Virus enters a latent state
• Host replicates viral genes and passes them on
to descendents before entering lytic pathway

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A1 Viral DNA is A1 Viral DNA is

A Virus particle binds, inserted into host A2 Chromosome A Virus particle binds, inserted into host A2 Chromosome
injects genetic material. chromosome by and integrated viral injects genetic material. chromosome by and integrated viral
E Lysis of host cell DNA are replicated. E Lysis of host cell DNA are replicated.
lets new virus particles viral enzyme lets new virus particles viral enzyme
escape. action. escape. action.
Lytic Lysogenic Lytic Lysogenic
Pathway Pathway Pathway Pathway

D Accessory parts are B Host replicates A3 Cell D Accessory parts are A3 Cell
B Host replicates
attached to viral coat. viral genetic material, divides; attached to viral coat. divides;
viral genetic material,
builds viral proteins. recombinant recombinant
C Viral proteins self- A4 Viral DNA in each C Viral proteins self- builds viral proteins. A4 Viral DNA in each
assemble into a coat enzyme excises daughter cell. assemble into a coat enzyme excises daughter cell.
around viral DNA. viral DNA from around viral DNA. viral DNA from
chromosome. chromosome.

Stepped Art
Fig. 21-4, p. 337 Fig. 21-4, p. 337

Replication of an Enveloped DNA Virus Replication of a Retrovirus

 Example: Herpes  Example: HIV

• Viral envelope fuses with host membrane; viral • Virus binds to receptors on certain white blood
DNA enters host cytoplasm cells; viral envelope fuses with host membrane;
• Viral DNA enters nucleus, directs synthesis of viral RNA enters host cytoplasm
new viral DNA and proteins • Enzyme (reverse transcriptase) converts viral
• New viral particles are assembled and enveloped RNA to DNA, which integrates with host DNA
in host nuclear membrane • Host cell produces viral RNA and proteins which
• New viral particles exit cell by exocytosis assemble into new viral particles
• New viruses are enveloped in host plasma
membrane and exit by exocytosis

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HIV Replication

C Viral DNA gets D Viral DNA gets

viral enzyme integrated into the transcribed along
(reverse transcriptase) host’s chromosome. with the host’s genes.
A Viral RNA E Some RNA
and protein transcripts are
nucleus viral proteins new viral RNA.
enter the
host cell. Others are
viral coat translated into
proteins viral proteins.
B Viral reverse RNA and
transcriptase viral RNA proteins
uses viral RNA viral DNA assemble as
one of two to make double- new virus
strands of lipid envelope stranded viral particles.
viral RNA with proteins DNA.
F Viral particles
bud from the
infected cell.

Fig. 21-5, p. 337

21.3 Viroids and Prions Viroid Disease in Plants

 Viroids and prions are infectious particles that

are even simpler than viruses

 Viroid
• Infectious RNA, not surrounded by a protective
protein coat

 Prion
• Proteins in the nervous system that can misfold,
and cause other prions to misfold

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Prion Diseases Prion Diseases

 Scrapie: A prion disease that affects sheep

 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad

cow disease): Affects cattle that have eaten feed
made with infected sheep

 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (vCJD):

Affects humans who have eaten infected beef

21.1-21.3 Key Concepts: Viruses and 21.4 Prokaryotes—Enduring,

Other Noncellular Infectious Particles Abundant, and Diverse

 Viruses are noncellular particles made of protein

and nucleic acid; they replicate by taking over  Prokaryotes
the metabolic machinery of a host cell • Structurally simple cells that lack a nucleus
• Evolved before eukaryotes
 Viroids are short sequences of infectious RNA
 Prokaryotes still persist in enormous numbers
 Prions are infectious misfolded versions of and show great metabolic diversity
normal proteins

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Evolutionary History and Classification

 Automated gene sequencing and comparative to ancestors of eukaryotic cells

biochemistry helps classify species and
subgroups (strains) of prokaryotes DOMAIN BACTERIA DOMAIN ARCHAEA

biochemical and molecular origin of life

p. 339

Abundance and Metabolic Diversity Prokaryotic Nutritional Modes

 Prokaryotes are Earth’s most abundant organisms

 Metabolic diversity contributes to their success

• Example: Saprobes that break down wastes or
remains are important decomposers

 All four forms of nutrition are used by prokaryotes

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21.5 Prokaryotic Structure and Function Prokaryotic Cell Characteristics

 Prokaryotic structure
 Prokaryotic cells have many structural features • Nucleoid region contains a single, circular
that adapt them to their environment chromosome
• Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane, with
a slime layer (capsule) outside the cell wall
 The typical prokaryote is a walled cell with
ribosomes but no nucleus • Flagella rotate like propellers
• Pili extend from the cell surface for adhesion or
motion

Prokaryotic Cell Characteristics Prokaryotic Body Plan

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Prokaryotic Cell Size and Shape coccus

 Prokaryotic cells are

much smaller than
eukaryotic cells (about
the size of bacillus
mitochondria)

 Prokaryotes have
three typical shapes:

spirillum
Fig. 21-8a, p. 340

Prokaryotic Reproduction
DNA, in
cytoplasm, with ribosomes nucleoid region

pilus  Prokaryotic chromosome

bacterial • A circular, double-stranded DNA molecule
flagellum

 Prokaryotic fission
outer capsule
cell wall • DNA replicates; parent cell divides in two
plasma
membrane

Fig. 21-8b, p. 340

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Prokaryotic Fission A The bacterial C The DNA copy E Lipids, proteins, and
chromosome is becomes attached at carbohydrates are built
attached to the a membrane site for new membrane and
plasma membrane near the attachment new wall material. Both
prior to DNA site of the parent get inserted across the
replication. DNA molecule. cell’s midsection.

B Replication starts D Then the two DNA F The ongoing,

and proceeds in two molecules are moved orderly deposition
directions from a apart by membrane of membrane and
certain site in the growth between the wall material at the
bacterial chromosome. two attachment sites. midsection cuts
the cell in two.

Fig. 21-10, p. 341

A The bacterial C The DNA copy E Lipids, proteins, and

Horizontal Gene Transfers
chromosome is becomes attached at carbohydrates are built
attached to the a membrane site for new membrane and
plasma membrane near the attachment new wall material. Both
prior to DNA site of the parent get inserted across the
replication. DNA molecule. cell’s midsection.
 Conjugation
• Transfer of a plasmid (non-chromosomal DNA)
between prokaryotic cells via a sex pilus

 Transduction
B Replication starts D Then the two DNA F The ongoing,
• Transfer of prokaryotic genes via bacteriophages
and proceeds in two molecules are moved orderly deposition
directions from a apart by membrane of membrane and
certain site in the growth between the wall material at the
bacterial chromosome. two attachment sites. midsection cuts
the cell in two.
 Transformation
• Prokaryotic genes acquired from the environment
Stepped Art
Fig. 21-10, p. 341

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Conjugation

A Conjugation in E.
coli begins when a
cell with a specific
type of plasmid
extends a sex pilus
to another E. coli
sex pilus cell that lacks this
plasmid. The pilus
attaches the cells to
one another. When
it shortens, the cells
are drawn together.

Fig. 21-11a, p. 341

A Conjugation in E. coli begins when a

cell with a specific type of plasmid
nicked plasmid conjugation tube extends a sex pilus to another E. coli
B A conjugation tube forms, cell that lacks this plasmid. The pilus
connecting the cytoplasm of attaches the cells to one another. When
the cells. An enzyme nicks sex pilus it shortens, the cells are drawn
the plasmid in the donor cell. together.

C As a single strand of nicked plasmid conjugation tube

plasmid DNA moves into the B A conjugation tube forms,
recipient, each cell makes a connecting the cytoplasm of
complimentary DNA strand. the cells. An enzyme nicks the
plasmid in the donor cell.

D The cells separate and the

C As a single strand of plasmid DNA
plasmid resumes its circular
moves into the recipient, each cell
shape.
makes a complimentary DNA strand.

D The cells separate and the

plasmid resumes its circular
shape.
Stepped Art
Fig. 21-11 (b-d), p. 341 Fig. 21-11, p. 341

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21.4-21.5 Key Concepts

Features of Prokaryotic Cells 21.6 The Bacteria

 Bacteria are the oldest, most diverse, and most

 Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that do abundant prokaryotic lineage
not have a nucleus or the diverse cytoplasmic
organelles found in most eukaryotic cells  Most are harmless or benefit us by releasing
oxygen, fixing nitrogen, or cycling nutrients
 Collectively, prokaryotes show great metabolic
diversity; they divide rapidly and exchange DNA  Some bacterial chemoheterotrophs cause
by a variety of mechanisms disease in humans

Heat Lovers Cyanobacteria

 Chloroplasts evolved from ancient cyanobacteria

• Put oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere
 Thermophiles are an old lineage that live in
volcanic springs or deep-sea hydrothermal vents  Nitrogen fixation
• Some cyanobacteria form heterocysts that fix
 Heat-stable DNA polymerase from Thermus atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3)
aquaticus was used in the first polymerase chain
reactions

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Metabolically Diverse Proteobacteria

 Thiomargarita namibiensis strips electrons from

sulfur

 Helicobacter pylori causes stomach ulcers

resting spore heterocyst
 Magnetotactic bacteria detect magnetic fields
6 µm

 Myxobacteria form multicelled fruiting bodies

Fig. 21-12, p. 342

Metabolically Diverse Proteobacteria

0.2 mm Fig. 21-13a, p. 343

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magnetite

1 µm Fig. 21-13b, p. 343 Fig. 21-13c, p. 343

The Gram-Positive Heterotrophs

 Gram-positive bacteria have thick walls that

stain purple by Gram-staining
• Thin-walled bacteria (Gram-negative) stain pink

 Lactobacillus fermentation reactions produce

yogurt and other foods

 Some form endospores in unfavorable

capsule with conditions, and make deadly toxins
resting cells
• Anthrax, tetanus, botulism

Fig. 21-13d, p. 343

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Gram-Positive Bacteria

DNA

spore
coat

capsule
around
cell wall

Fig. 21-14b, p. 343

21.6 Key Concepts

Spirochetes and Chlamydias The Bacteria
 Spirochetes are spring-shaped
• Example: Borrelia burgdorferi (pathogen that  Bacteria are the most abundant prokaryotic cells
causes Lyme disease) carried by ticks (vectors)
on Earth

 Bacteria perform important services such as

degrading wastes, adding oxygen to the air, and
providing essential nutrients to plants

 Chlamydias are intracellular parasites

• Example: C. trachomatis, a common cause of
 Nearly all disease-causing prokaryotes are
sexually transmitted disease bacteria

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21.7 The Archaeans Archaean Physiology

 Archaeans, the more recently discovered  Methanogens (methane producers)

prokaryotic lineage, are the third domain – the • Strict anaerobes
closest prokaryotic relatives of eukaryotes
 Extreme halophiles (salt lovers)
 Archaeans live everywhere – many live in very • Aerobic or photosynthetic
hot or very salty habitats
 Extreme thermophiles (heat lovers)
 Hardly any archaeans cause human disease • Chemoautotrophs or heterotrophs

Methanogenic Archaeans Life in Extreme Environments

0.5 µm

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5 µm

Fig. 21-17a, p. 345 Fig. 21-17b, p. 345

Fig. 21-17c, p. 345 Fig. 21-17d, p. 345

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21.7 Key Concepts

The Archaeans 21.8 Evolution and Infectious Disease

 Archaeans are the more recently discovered,  Infection occurs when pathogens enter the
less studied prokaryotic group internal environment and multiply

 Some show a remarkable ability to survive in  Disease follows when the pathogen’s activities
extreme habitats, but others live in more interfere with normal body functions
ordinary places
 Viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens evolve
 They play important roles in ecosystems by natural selection, as do their hosts

Deaths From Infectious Diseases The Spread of Diseases

 Sporadic diseases
• Occur irregularly, affect few people

 Epidemic diseases
• Spread quickly, then subside

 Endemic diseases
• Occur continually, but don’t spread far

 Pandemic diseases
• Break out and spread worldwide

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The SARS Epidemic An Evolutionary Perspective

 Two barriers prevent pathogens from dominating

• Species that coevolve with specific pathogens
have built-in defenses
• A pathogen that kills its host too fast might
disappear along with the host

Emerging Diseases The Threat of Drug-Resistance

 Animals in remote habitats carry dangerous  In a population of pathogens, drug-resistant

pathogens that have not coevolved with humans individuals survive and reproduce
• HIV, SARS, Ebola, and H5N1 avian influenza all • About half the known strains of Streptococcus
came from close contact with animals pneumoniae are penicillin resistant
• A bird flu caused the 1918 pandemic that killed • Many strains of HIV are now resistant to the
50 million people antiviral drugs used to fight them

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It’s a Small World Which is Deadlier?

 Ebola kills up to 90% of those infected, but is

sporadic; Mycobacterium tuberculosis kills 50%,
but is widespread and drug resistant
 In this age of global air travel and constant
human migrations, it is difficult to contain the
spread of dangerous pathogens

400 nm
0.5 µm
Fig. 21-19a, p. 347 Fig. 21-19b, p. 347

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21.8 Key Concepts

Evolution and Disease

 An immense variety of pathogens, or disease-

causing agents, infect human hosts

 Pathogens and their hosts coevolve; each acts

as a selective agent on the other

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