COURE CODE: ELCT 101

COURSE TITLE: ENGINEERING DRAWING

AUTHOR: SOMEFUN OLAWALE M

SCHOOL: COMPUTING AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT: COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE DESCRIPTION: The course is to enable the student to comprehend or

understand engineering drawing as a means of
communication in engineering. It also familiarizes the
student with the drawing tools and instruments; their
purpose and how to use them. It impart knowledge
about lettering and dimensioning, tangency, isometric
and orthographic drawing. It present introduction to
computer aided design (CAD).

COURSE PRE-REQUISITE: Mathematics geometry is very relevant

course to accelerate learning. Also basic
knowledge of computer and knowledge of
using simple drawing instruments.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: The aim and principle objective of the course is to

introduce and familiarise the students to engineering
drawing and to further enhance technical drawing
abilities in the students.

The said goal is achieve by

 Extensive familiarization and practice with drawing instrument and materials,

observing conventions and norms of engineering drawing
 Engage in computer-aided design and construction.

COURSE TEXT(S)

(1) DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ENGINEERING SYMBOLOGY, PRINTS

AND DRAWINGS Volume 1 of 2

(2) ENGINEERING MECHANICS AND DRAWING (Electrical Machines and

Appliances ) Rheory – II

(3) TECHNOLOGICAL DESIGN (Mr. Wadowski)

(4) MACHINE DRAWING (K.L. Narayana, P. Kannaiah, K. Venkata Reddy)

 (5) ENGINEERING DRAWING LECTURE 2 (Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

(6) COURSE NOTES – ENGINEERING DRAWING AND CAD, School of

Engineering, Drake Circus Plymouth.

(7) ENGINEERING DRAWING 4401102 (Dr. Zeyad Tarawneh Civil Engineering

Department, The Hashemite University)

(8) ENGINEERING GRAPHICS, CLASS 3 BASIC DRAFTING AND LETTERING

(Mohammad I. Kilani, Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Jordan)

(9) BASIC ENGINEERING DRAWING AND COMMUNICATION (Dr. Ballegu WRW

or Dr. Mpagalile J J)

(10) A TEXT BOOK ON ENGINEERING GRAPHICS, CLASS XII. (CENTRAL

BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre,

Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India

(11) GEOMETRIC AND ENGINEERING DRAWING (KENNETH MORLING)

THIRD EDITION

(12) ENGINEERING DRAWING (Wuttet Taffesse, Laikemariam Kassa) Haramaya

University

Course contents

STRUCTURE OF THE SYLLABUS

MODULE 1: ENGINEERING DRAWING AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1.1: MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1.2 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1.3 STANDARDIZATION

UNIT 1.4 MEANING OF DRAWING

UNIT 1.5 NEED FOR CORRECT DRAWINGS

 UNIT 1.6 ARTISTIC DRAWINGS

UNIT 1.7 TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

UNIT 1.8 PARALLEL PROJECTION

UNIT 1.9 PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

UNIT 1.10 PURPOSE AND APPLICATION OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

UNIT 1.11 ENGINEERING DRAWING

UNIT 1.12 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING DRAWING

UNIT 1.13 MACHINE DRAWING

UNIT 1.14 PRODUCTION DRAWING

UNIT 1.15 PART DRAWING

UNIT 1.16 ASSEMBLY DRAWING

MODULE 2 DRAWING EQUIPMENTS AND THEIR USE

UNIT 2.1 IMPORTANCE OF DRAWING EQUIPMENT

UNIT 2.2 DRAWING PAPER

UNIT 2.3 TITLE BLOCK

UNIT 2.4 DRAWING BOARD

UNIT 2.5 BOARDERS AND FRAMES

UNIT 2.6 TRIANGLES (SETSQUARES)

UNIT 2.7 T-SQUARE

UNIT 2.8 FRENCH CURVE

UNIT 2.9 PROTRACTOR

UNIT 2.10 PENCIL

UNIT 2.11 COMPASS

UNIT 2.12 DIVIDER

UNIT 2.13 RUBBER OR ERASER

UNIT 2.14 ERASER SHIELD

MODULE 3 LINE AND LETTERING

UNIT 3.1 CONVENTIONAL LINES

 UNIT 3.2 HIDDEN LINES

UNIT 3.3 STANDARD ENGINEERING DRAWING LINE TYPES

UNIT 3.4 ENGINEERING LETTERING

UNIT 3.5 TEXT IN ENGINEERING DRAWING

UNIT 3.6 LETTERING SKILLS

UNIT 3.7 STYLE OF LETTERING

UNIT 3.8 TYPES OF LETTERING

UNIT 3.9 DIMENSIONING

UNIT 3.10 TYPES OF DIMENSION

UNIT 3.11 METHODS OF INDICATING DIMENSION

UNIT 3.12 ARRANGEMENT OF DIMENSIONS

UNIT 3.13 SPECIAL INDICATIONS

UNIT 3.14 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DIMENSIONING

MODULE 4: GEOMETRICAL DRAWING

UNIT 4.0 INTRODUCTION

UNIT 4.1 GEOMETRIC NOMENCLATURE

UNIT 4.2 PLANE GEOMETRY

UNIT 4.3 POINT

UNIT 4.4 LINE

UNIT 4.5 ANGLE

UNIT 4.6 TRIANGLES

UNIT 4.7 QUADRILATERAL

UNIT 4.8 POLYGON

UNIT 4.9 CIRCLE

UNIT 4.10 SOLIDS

UNIT 4.11 TECHNIQUES OF GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION

UNIT 4.12 HOW TO DIVIDE A LINE INTO NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS

UNIT 4.13 HOW TO BISECT AN ANGLE

 UNIT 4.14 HOW TO DRAW AN ARC OR CIRCLE (RADIUS) THROUGH THREE
GIVEN POINTS

UNIT 4.15 HOW TO DRAW A LINE PARALLEL TO A STRAIGHT LINE AT A

GIVEN DISTANCE

UNIT 4.16 HOW TO DRAW A LINE PARALLEL TO A LINE CURVES LINE AT A

GIVEN DISTANCE

UNIT 4.17 HOW TO DRAW A PERPENDICULAR LINES TO A LINE AT A POINT

UNIT 4.18 HOW TO DRAW A PERPENDICULAR TO A LINE FROM A POINT

NOT ON THE LINE

UNIT 4.19 HOW TO DRAW A TRIANGLE WITH KNOWN LENGTHS OF SIDES

UNIT 4.20 HOW TO DRAW A SQUARE

UNIT 4.21 HOW TO DRAW A PENTAGON (5 SIDES)

UNIT 4.22 HOW TO DRAW A REGULAR HEXAGON (GIVEN THE DISTANCE

ACROSS FLATS AND CORNER)

UNIT 4.23 TO DRAW A REGULAR OCTAGON (GIVEN THE DISTANCE ACROSS

FLATS AND CORNER)

UNIT 4.24 TO DRAW ANY SIDED REGULAR POLYGON

UNIT 4.25 TO DRAW A CIRCLE TANGENT TO A LINE AT A GIVEN POINT

UNIT 4.26 TO DRAW A TANGENT TO A CIRCLE THROUGH A POINT

UNIT 4.27 TO DRAW AN ELLIPSE (BY FOUR-CENTRED METHOD)

UNIT 4.28 HOW TO DRAW AN OGEE CURVE

MODULE 5: TANGENCY

UNIT 5.1 MAKING AN OFFSET AT DISTANCE R

UNIT 5.2 AN ARC THAT IS TANGENT TO TWO LINES

UNIT 5.3 AN ARC THAT IS TANGENT TO LINE AND AN ARC (R1)

UNIT 5.4 AN ARC (R) THAT IS TANGENT TO TWO ARCS INTERNALLY (R1,
R2)

UNIT 5.5 AN ARC THAT IS TANGENT TO TWO ARCS EXTERNALLY (R1, R2)

UNIT 5.6 ARC IN RIGHT ANGLE

 UNIT 5.7 ARC IN ACUTE ANGLE

UNIT 5.8 ARC IN OBTUSE ANGLE

UNIT 5.9 ARC TANGENT TO TWO CIRCLES

MODULE 6: ISOMETRIC

UNIT 6.1 TYPES OF AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION

UNIT 6.2 ISOMETRIC DRAWING

UNIT 6.3 OBJECT WITH CIRCULAR GEOMETRY

UNIT 6.4 COMBINATION OF TWO SOLIDS

MODULE 7: PROJECTION

UNIT 7.1 DESIGNATION AND RELATIVE POSITIONS OF VIEWS

UNIT 7.2 FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

UNIT 7.3 THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

UNIT 7.4 HIDDEN LINES

MODULE 8: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

UNIT 8.1 LAUNCH AutoCAD

UNIT 8.2 3D Modeling Interface

MODULE 1: ENGINEERING DRAWING AS MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1.1 MEANING OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is defined as, ”the process by which people exchange information or express
their thought and feelings” (LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY
ENGLISH)

The purpose of communication-irrespective of the form/means in which it is conveyed- is to

pass a message from one entity (a person or group of people) to another entity (person or
group) in the most convenient way and with minimum distortion or ambiguity.

The two main forms of communication are through audio and visual means. Audio means
rely on sound signals that are perceived by ears. Sound producing/receiving devices are used
for this purpose. Visual means on the other hand, depend on light signals (images) that are
perceived by eyes. Image producing/receiving devices are used for this purpose. This may
include things like text, drawings, figures, photographs, video images, Tv images, images of
real objects etc. Other human senses are sometimes used for communication.
UNIT 1.2 TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

Technical communication is an advanced form of communication whereby people of the

same trade (profession) can convey messages to one another more accurately and precisely
conforming to standard using acceptable symbols and technical language.

UNIT 1.3 STANDARDIZATION

“standardization is the process of formulating and applying rules for an orderly approach to a
specific activity for the benefit and with the cooperation of all concerned, and in particular for
the promotion of optimum overall economy taking due account of functional conditions and
safety requirements.” (ISO- International Organization for Standardization)

Standards are set at different levels. There are local standards, national standards, regional
standards and international standards.

UNIT 1.4 MEANING OF DRAWING

Drawing is a graphic representation of an object (and structure), and is the result of creative
thought by an engineer or technician. Graphic communication involves using visual materials
to relate ideas. Drawings, photographs, slides, transparencies, and sketches are all forms of
graphic communication. Graphical representation means dealing with the expression of ideas
by lines and marks impressed on a surface. Any medium that uses a graphic image to aid in
conveying a message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic communication. One of
the most widely use forms of graphic communication is the drawing. It is done using free
hand, mechanical or computer methods.

Technically, it can be defined as “graphic representation of an idea, a concept or an entity

which actually or potentially exists in life. The drawing itself is a way of communicating all
necessary information about an abstract, such as an idea or concept or a graphic
representation of some real entity, such as a machine part, or tools.

UNIT 1.5 NEED FOR CORRECT DRAWINGS

The drawings prepared by any technical person must be clear, unmistakable in meaning and
there should not be any scope for more than one interpretation, else litigation may arise. In a
number of dealing with contracts the drawing is an official document and the success or
failure of a structure depends on the clarity of details provided on the drawing. Thus, the
drawing should not give any scope for mis-interpretation even by accident.

Hence, an engineer should possess good knowledge, not only in preparing a correct drawing
but also to read the drawing correctly.

There are two basic types of drawings: Artistic and Technical drawings.
UNIT 1.6 ARTISTIC DRAWINGS

Artistic Drawings range in scope from the simplest line drawing to the most famous
paintings. The drawing may connote some embedded meaning in the drawing that requires
the artist explanation. Regardless of their complexity, artistic drawings are used to express
the feelings, beliefs, philosophies, and ideas of the artist. Artists often take a subtle or abstract
approach in communicating through their drawing, which in turn give rise to various
interpretations.

UNIT 1.7 TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

Technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle, or abstract. It does not require an
understanding of its creator, only an understanding of technical drawings.

Technical drawing is a means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the information
necessary to transform an idea or a concept in to reality. Therefore, a technical drawing often
contains more than just a graphic representation of its subject. It also contains dimensions,
notes and specifications. It takes special knowledge and skills to be able to represent
technical ideas with sufficient precision for the product to be mass produced and parts to be
easily interchanged, this special knowledge is called technical drawing.

Technical drawings are based on the fundamental principles of projections. A projection is a

drawing or representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or planes. A projection involves
four components:

1. The actual object that the drawing of projection represents

2. The eye of the viewer looking at the object
3. The imaginary projection plane
4. Imaginary lines of sight called Projectors.

The two broad types of projections, both with several sub-classifications, are parallel
projection and perspective projection.

UNIT 1.8 PARALLEL PROJECTION

Parallel Projection is a type of projection where the line of sight or projectors are parallel and
are perpendicular to the picture planes. It is subdivided into the following three categories:
Orthographic, Oblique and Axonometric Projections.

 Orthographic Projections: are drawn as multi view drawing, which show flat
representations of principal views of the subject
 Oblique Projection: actually show the full size of one view.
 Axonometric Projections: are three-dimensional drawings, and are of three different
varieties: Isometric, Dimetric and Trimetric.
Orthographic multi view drawing

Oblique drawing

Axonometric drawing
UNIT 1.9 PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

Perspective projections are drawings which attempt to replicate what the human eye actually
sees when it views an object. There are three types of perspective projections: One-point,
Two-point and Three-point Projections.

One point perspective projection

Two-point perspective projection

UNIT 1.10 PURPOSE AND APPLICATION OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

Technical drawing provides the design process needed for the actualization of a project. The
design process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in accomplishing a needed design.

Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled, constructed, built, or

subjected to any other types of conversion process must first be designed.
Technical drawings are used in many different applications. They are needed in any setting,
which involves design, and in any subsequent forms of conversion process. The most
common applications of technical drawings can be found in fields of manufacturing
engineering and construction. Surveyors, civil engineers, mechanical engineer use technical
drawings to document such works as the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marking of the
boundaries for a piece of property. Contractors and construction personnel use technical
drawing as their blue prints in converting architectural and engineering designs into reality.

UNIT 1.11 ENGINEERING DRAWING

Engineering Drawing is a technical (not artistic) drawing which clearly defines and
communicates a design to other interested parties. It is a way through which engineers can
communicate their ideas, designs, analysis of engineering system and thoughts to others.
Creative ideas of engineers are recorded by means of engineering drawing.

Drawing is the foundation for all engineers. And it is a universal language of engineering. It
is used for a graphical representation of the size, shape and allowances of any object. Since it
is a language, then all drawings should be detailed following the universal standards.
Deviation from such standards will ultimately lead to misunderstanding problems.

METHOD OF EXPRESSION

1) Free hand sketching

2) With Drawing instruments
3) Computer-aided design

UNIT 1.12 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING DRAWING

UNIT 1.13 MACHINE DRAWING

It is pertaining to machine part or components. It is presented through a number of

orthographic views, so that the size and shape of the component is fully understood. Part
drawing and assembly drawings belong to this classification.

UNIT 1.14 PRODUCTION DRAWING

A production drawing, also referred to as working drawing, should furnish all the dimensions,
limits and special finishing processes such as heat treatment, honing, lapping, surface finish,
etc,

UNIT 1.15 PART DRAWING

Component or part drawing is a detailed drawing of a component to facilitate its manufacture.

All the principles of orthographic projection and the technique of graphic representation must
be followed to communicate the details in a part drawing. A part drawing with production
details is rightly called as a production drawing or working drawing.
UNIT 1.16 ASSEMBLY DRAWING

A drawing that shows the various parts of a machine in their correct working locations is an
assembly drawing.

QUESTIONS

(1) What do you understand by graphic communication

(2) Explain different types of drawing
(3) What is Engineering drawing
MODULE2: DRAWING EQUIPMENTS AND THEIR USE

UNIT 2.1 IMPORTANCE OF DRAWING EQUIPMENT

To record information on paper, instruments and equipment are needed. Engineering drawing
is entirely a graphic language hence instruments are essentially needed. Drawing must be
clear, neat and legible in other to serve its purpose. Hence it is extremely important for
engineers to have good speed, accuracy, legibility and neatness in the drawing

All drawings are made by means of various instruments. The quality of drawing depends to a
large extent on the quality, adjustment and care of the instruments.

UNIT 2.2 DRAWING PAPER

Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. All engineering drawings are
made on sheets of paper of strictly defined sizes.

Table2.1 Description of the size of drawing paper

 Fig. 2.1 Drawing paper layout

UNIT 2.3 TITLE BLOCK

Title block, is a rectangular frame that is located at the bottom of the sheet. The title block
should lie within the drawing space such that, the location of it containing the identification
of the drawing, is at the bottom right hand corner. This must be followed, both for sheets
positioned horizontally or vertically. It is recommended that space should be provided in all
title blocks for such information as description of title of the drawing, dates, designer
(drawer), and name of enterprise or educational institute, size (scale)

The direction of viewing of the title block should correspond in general with that of the
drawing. The title block can have maximum length of 170mm

Fig.2.2 Location of title block

UNIT 2.4 DRAWING BOARD

Drawing board is a board whose top surface is perfectly smooth and level, on which the
drawing paper is fastened. Different drawing instruments such as set squares, protractor,
compass, dividers, etc, are used on it to draw parallel, perpendicular or oblique lines.

Fig 2.3 Placing the drawing paper (Use the T-square, do not use randomness.)

Fig 2.4 Constructing horizontal & vertical lines

UNIT 2.5 BORDERS AND FRAMES

Borders enclosed by edges of the trimmed sheet and the frame, limiting the drawing space,
should be provided with all sheet sizes. It is recommended that these boarders have a
minimum width of 20mm for the sizes A0 and A1 and a minimum width of 10mm for the
sizes A2, A3, and A4. A filing margin for taking perforations, may be provided on the edge,
far left of the title block

UNIT 2.6 TRIANGLES (SETSQUARES)

They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 30 0, 450, 600 AND 900) in technical
drawings. The 450 x 450 and 300 x 600 triangles are the most commonly used for ordinary
work.

Fig 2.5 triangle or set squares

UNIT 2.7 T-SQUARE

It is used primarily to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when drawing
vertical and inclined lines. It is manipulated by sliding the working edge (inner face) of the
head along the left edge of the board until the blade is in the required position.

Fig 2.5 T-square

UNIT 2.8 FRENCH CURVE

It is used to draw irregular (or oblique) curves that are not circle arcs. The shape varies
according to the shape of irregular curve.

Fig 2.6 French curves

UNIT 2.9 PROTRACTOR

It is a circular or semi-circular tool used for laying out and measuring angle. The units of
measurement used are degrees.
 Fig. 2.7 Protractor

UNIT 2.10 PENCIL

This is a hand-held instrument containing an interior strip of solid material that produces
marks used to write and draw, usually on paper. The marking material is most commonly
graphite typically contained inside a wooden sheath.

Selection of good, well-sharpened pencil with leads of various degrees of hardness such as:
9H, 8H, 7H, and 6H (hard); 5H & 4H (medium hard); 3H and 2H (medium); and H & F
(medium soft). The degree of pencil to be used for various purposes depends on the type of
line desired, the kind of paper used, and the humidity, which affects the surface of the paper,
standards for line quality usually will govern the selection. For instance,

 6H is used for light construction line.

 4H is used for re-penciling light finished lines (dimension lines, center lines, and
invisible object lines)
 2H is used for visible object lines
 F and H are used for all lettering and freehand work.

Table 2.2 Grade of pencil (lead) and their application

 Fig. 2.8 Pencil

UNIT 2.11 COMPASS

It is used to draw circles and arcs. It consists of two legs pivoted at the top. One leg is
equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is, provided with a
socket for detachable inserts.
 Fig. 2.9 Compass

UNIT 2.12 DIVIDER

Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces into equal parts.
It is also used for dividing curved and straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for
transferring measurements.

Fig. 2.9 Divider

UNIT 2.13 RUBBER OR ERASER

Erasers are article of stationery that is used for removing or deleting pencil writings. Typical
erasers are made of rubber. Extra lines or curves which are not required in the drawing are to
be rubbed off or erased. Erasers are of different shapes, size and hardness.
 Fig 2.10 Eraser

UNIT 2.14 ERASER SHIELD

It is an important device to protect lines near those being erased. It is made up of thin metal
plate in which gaps of different widths and lengths are cut.

QUESTIONS

(1) Name different drawing equipment

(2) State the use of the drawing equipment mentioned above
MODULE 3: LINES AND LETTERING

UNIT3.1 CONVENTIONAL LINES

Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning and is drawn in certain ways. There
should be a distinct contrast in the thickness of different kinds of lines, particularly between
the thick lines and thin lines. Construction lines should be made so light that they can barely
be seen, with a hard sharp pencil such as 4H to 6H. For visible lines, hidden lines and other
“thick” lines relatively soft pencils, such as F or H are used. All thin lines except construction
line must be thin, but dark. They should be made with a sharp medium grade pencil, such as
H or 2H.

Table 3.1 Type of line and Designation

UNIT 3.2 Hidden Lines
UNIT 3.3 STANDARD ENGINEERING DRAWING LINE TYPES

A variety of line styles graphically represent physical objects. Types of lines include the
following:

 visible – are continuous lines used to depict edges directly visible from a particular
angle.
 hidden – are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are not
directly visible.
 centre – are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to represent the
axes of circular features.
 cutting plane – are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately long- and double
short-dashed that may be used to define sections for section views.
 section – are thin lines in a pattern (pattern determined by the material being "cut" or
"sectioned") used to indicate surfaces in section views resulting from "cutting."
Section lines are commonly referred to as "cross-hatching."
 phantom - (not shown) are alternately long- and double short-dashed thin lines used to
represent a feature or component that is not part of the specified part or assembly. E.g.
billet ends that may be used for testing, or the machined product that is the focus of a
tooling drawing.

UNIT 3.4 ENGINEERING LETTERING

Engineering Lettering is an essential element in both traditional drawing and CAD drawing.
Graphic communication is often not enough to completely describe an object. Lettered text is
often necessary to provide detailed specifications about the drawn object. And there are a
number of formal rules that apply to the placement of lettering. Commercial Gothic, also
called sans-serif Gothic, is the lettering style of most interest to engineers. It is plain and
legible. While admittedly not as beautiful as many other styles, sans-serif letters are
comparatively easy to make. Words should be clearly separated by a space equal to the height
of the lettering. Only when special emphasis is necessary should the lettering be underlined.
Also, it is not desirable to vary the size of the lettering according to the size of the drawing
except when a drawing is to be reduced in reproduction.
Lettering

Lettering used in engineering drawing is referred to as a Single Stroke, Commercial Gothic.

The main advantage of this font is that it is easy to read. This makes the information on
engineering drawing easy to understand. The letters can be made either freehand or by the use

of lettering devices.

Hints on Lettering

 To save time, use a guide lining device

 The recommended height of lettering is 3-mm

 During initial learning period, make a point of concentrating on hand control

 Endeavour to make your hand do what you want it to do and not otherwise.

 Do not guess at the construction of letters and numerals. Use the sample letter

 Make letters and numerals as wide as they are high with individual letters of a word

almost touching

 Spacing between words is a matter of judgement and tends to improve with practice

 Lines of lettering should be spaced the same distance apart

 Do not attempt to erase guide lines after lettering has been completed

UNIT 3.5 TEXT IN ENGINEERING DRAWING

Text is an important part of engineering drawing. Not all information required on engineering
drawing can be communicated graphically. Example is dimension. Several different ways are
used to create text. The traditional method is freehand lettering. Other method includes
mechanical lettering as scriber template. Neat lettering is important so that the information
being conveyed can be easily read.

 For uniformity, all letters should be the same height, proportion and inclination. A
necessary tactic for maintaining uniformity is the guidelines.
 Guidelines are a critical part of freehand lettering. Uniformity, neatness and stability
can not be achieve without using guidelines.
 Guidelines ensure consistency in the size of the letter characters. If the lettering
consists of capitals, only the cap line and base line should be drawn. If lowercase
letter are included as well, the waist line and drop line should be drawn.
 The waist line indicates the upper limit of lowercase letters. The ascender is the part
of the lowercase letter that extends above the body of the letter; for example, the dot
portion of the character I in the figure 3.1 All ascenders are as high as the caps.
 Fig 3.1

Fig 3.2

 The drop line indicates the lower limit of the lowercase letters. The descender is the
part of the lowercase letter, an example being the tail of the character g in figure 3.1
view. The vertical distance from the waist line to the cap line. It is about one third of
the vertical distance between the base line and the cap line, or about one half of the
vertical distance between the base line and the waist line.

Method of using lettering guidelines for Capital Letters

 Lay off letter heights, H, and draw light guidelines with a 2H pencil
 Space lines no closer than H/2 apart.
 Draw vertical guidelines as light, thin, randomly spaced lines.
 Draw letters with single stroke using medium-grade pencil.

Fig 3.3

 To lay out guidelines for caps and lowercase, let the height of a capital be 11/3 times
the distance “a”
 Set a compass or dividers to distance “a”, and lay off distance “a” above and below
the midline selected for the guidelines, this locates the cap line and the drop line.
 Then set the compass or dividers to one half of “a”, and lay off this distance above
and below the midline. This method locates the waist line and the base line.
Fig 3.4

Fig 3.5
Fig 3.5

Fig 3.6
 Fig 3.7

Fig 3.8

The essential features of lettering on technical drawings are legibility, uniformity and
suitability for microfilming and other photographic reproductions. In order to meet these
requirements, the characters are to be clearly distinguishable from each other in order to
avoid any confusion between them, even in the case of slight mutilations. The reproductions
require the distance between two adjacent lines or the space between letters to be at least
equal to twice the line thickness. The line thickness for lower case and capital letters shall be
the same in order to facilitate lettering.

UNIT 3.6 LETTERING SKILLS

Lettering skills involves the following:

1. Knowledge of proposition and form of letters and the orders of the stroke.
2. Knowledge of the composition of the spacing of letters and words.
3. Persistent practices.

Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters because they are easier to read. The spaces
between lines of lettering should be consistent and preferably not less than half of the
character height. There are two fundamental methods of writing the graphic languages
freehand and with instruments.

UNIT 3.7 STYLE OF LETTERING

There are various forms of alphabets used in the art of lettering and each type is used for
some particular purpose. ‘Old Roman’ style is the parent of all these styles. It is the basic
standard for architects and artists. A variation of this style is known as ‘Modern Roman’ used
by civil engineers, in maps and photographical drawings. The simplified forms called
‘Commercial Gothic’ are used almost exclusively for working drawings. ‘Gothic’ letters are
elementary strokes of even width. ‘Roman’ letters have elementary strokes “accented” or
consisting of heavy and light lines. All slanting letters are classified as ‘Italics’.

ABCDEFG ABCDEFG

1234567 12345678

UNIT 3.8 TYPES OF LETTERING

Lettering may be drawn in various types. These are given below:

(a) According to the Height

(i) Lettering ‘A’

(ii) Lettering ‘B’

In lettering ‘A’ type, the height of the capital letter is divided into 14 parts, while in lettering
‘B’ type, it is divided into 10 parts. The height of letters and numerals for engineering
drawing are generally in the range of 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 10, 14 and 20 mm according to the size of
drawing. (Refer Tables 1 & 2)

(b) According to the Proportion of Width and Height

(i) Normal Letters. Normal letters have usual height and width and are used for general
purpose written in usual space.

(ii) Compressed or Condensed Letters. Compressed or condensed letters are those which
are written narrow in their proportion of width to height, i.e. height of these letters is more
than the width. These are used when the space is limited.

(iii) Extended Letters. Extended letters are those which are written wide in their proportion
of width to height, i.e. height of these letters is less or equal to the width.

Normal, Condensed and Extended Letters

(c) According to the Stem Thickness. Letters also vary in the thickness of the stems or
strokes. Letters having very thin stems are called light face, while those having heavy stems
are called bold face.

LIGHT FACE

BOLD FACE

Light and Bold Face Letters

(d) According to the Stroke of Pencil

(i) Single Stroke Letters. The thickness of the lines of the single-stroke letters is obtained in
one stroke of the pencil. This is the reason why these are called single stroke letters. These
letters being simple are usually employed in most of the engineering drawings. Single stroke
letters are of two types: (i) vertical (ii) inclined. Both vertical and inclined letters and
numerals are suitable for general use. One can resort to any of these two, depending upon
convenience. The lines of the inclined letters are drawn at an approximate inclination of 75 O
to the right.

(ii) Double Stroke Letters. The thickness of the lines of the double-stroke letters can not be
obtained by a single stroke of pencil and hence, two strokes of the pencil are used. This is the
reason why these are called double stroke letters. The letters and numerals have uniform
thickness in this style. The ratio of thickness and height of letters is 1:10 and 1: 14.

A good style of single stroke lettering should aim at:

(a) Uniformity of Thickness. Conical point pencil is used for uniformity. Pencil should not be
too sharp as it would pierce into the surface of the drawing paper.

(b) Uniformity of Size. The width of the stroke of the pencil or pen is to be same as the width
of the letter. Light guide lines for both top and bottom of letters should always be drawn with
a sharp pencil.

(c) Uniformity of Style. One of the two styles, vertical or inclined, should be used. Vertical
lettering is usually preferred. Both vertical and inclined letters are standard and the
technicians should use them according to their practice and convenience.

(d) Uniformity of Spacing. Uniformity in spacing of letters, whether they are vertical or
inclined, is a matter of equalizing the spaces between alphabets, words, lines, etc. The
background area between letters, not only the distance between them, should be
approximately equal.

(e) Uniformity of Shape. The shape of all the letters, irrespective of the styles or types used,
should be uniform. If inclined letters are used, all of them must have the same inclination and
should be inclined towards the right hand side.

In any style of lettering, uniformity is essential. Uniformity in height, proportion, inclination,

strength of lines, spacing of letters, and spacing of words ensures a pleasing appearance.
Uniformity in spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing spaces by eye. The background areas
between letters, not the distances between them, should be approximately equal. Space words
well apart, but space letters closely within words. Uniformity in height and inclination is
promoted by the use of light guide lines. As guide in lettering, extremely light horizontal
lines are necessary to regulate the height of letters. In addition, light vertical or inclined lines
are needed to keep the letters uniformly vertical or inclined. A simple method of spacing
horizontal guidelines is to use a scale or bow dividers. Another convenient instrument for
drawing guide lines for lettering, dimension figures and section lines is the lettering triangle.
Uniformity in strength of lines can only be obtained by the skilled use of properly selected
pencils and pens. Either pencils or pens can be used in lettering. Pencil letters are best made
with a medium-soft lead with a conical point or with a suitable thin-lead mechanical pencil.
Pencil lettering should be executed with a fairly soft pencil such as an For H for ordinary paper.
The choice of a pen for lettering, in contrast, is determined by the size and style of the letters,
the thickness of stroke desired, and the personal preference of the drafter. Good lettering
involves artistic design, in which the white and black areas are carefully balanced to produce
a pleasing effect. Letters are designed to look well, and some allowances must be made for
errors in perception.

UNIT 3.9 DIMENSIONING

To enable productions of machine parts/components, all the relevant dimensions have to
appear on the drawing. The practice is that any dimension is shown only once in that view in
which it appears more explicitly. For this reason, it is not surprising that most of the
important dimensions appear in the front view. Repetitions are discouraged unless clarity
necessitates this. To keep the drawing clean, it is advised to put all the dimensions outside the
drawing, except where and when this is unavoidable.
UNIT 3.10 TYPES OF DIMENSION
Types of dimensioning can be broadly classified as; Functional Dimensions (FD), Non-
Functional Dimensions (NFD) and Auxiliary Dimensions (AD), Size Dimensions, Location
Dimensions, Mating dimensions

(1) FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONS (FDs)

These are dimensions, which directly dictate the functioning of the component. That is a FD
is a dimension defined on the basis of the function of the product and the method of locating
it in any assembly of which it may form part of, e.g. the diameter of a shaft, the length of a
bolt, etc.

(2) NON-FUNCTIONAL DIMENSIONS (NFDs)

These are dimensions, which do not directly affect the functioning of the component but have
to be specified to enable production of that component, e.g. the size of a bolt head.
Auxiliary Dimensions (ADs)
These are dimensions which should not necessarily appear on the drawing but are sometimes
included to avoid calculations or when they would provide additional/useful information.
ADs are usually written in brackets.

(3) SIZE DIMENSIONS

This is used to describe heights, widths, diameters, etc.

(4) LOCATION DIMENSIONS

This is used to place various features of a component relative to each other, such as a hole
centre line to a reference surface

(5) MATING DIMENSIONS

This is used for parts that fit together requiring a certain degree of accuracy.

UNIT 3.8 PLACING OF DIMENSIONS

Dimensions should be placed on the view, which shows the relevant features most clearly.
The two recommended systems of placing the dimensions are:

(a) Aligned System. In this system, all dimensions are so placed that these may be read
from the bottom or the right hand edge of the drawing sheet. All dimensions should be placed
above the dimension lines.

(b) Unidirectional System. In this system, all dimensions are so placed that these may
be read from the bottom edge of the drawing sheet. In this system, there is no restriction
controlling the direction of dimension lines. This system is advantageous on large drawings,
where it is inconvenient to read dimensions from the right hand side. In this method, all
dimension lines are interrupted, preferably near the middle for the insertion of the dimension
value.

UNIT 3.11 METHODS OF INDICATING DIMENSIONS

Dimensions should be shown on drawings in characters of sufficient size, to ensure complete

legibility. They should be placed in such a way that they are not crossed or separated by any
other line on the drawing. Dimensions should be indicated on a drawing, according to one of
the following two methods. However, only one method should be used on any one drawing.

METHOD = 1 (Aligned System)

Dimensions should be placed parallel to their dimension lines and preferably near the middle,
above and clear-off the dimension line (Fig. 3.9). An exception may be made where
superimposed running dimensions are used (Fig. 2.44b)

Dimension may be written so that they can be read from the bottom or from the right side of
the drawing. Dimensions on oblique dimension lines should be oriented as shown in Fig.
3.10. Angular dimensions may be oriented as shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10 Oblique dimension Fig. 3.11 Angular dimension

METHOD-2 (uni-directional System)

Dimensions should be indicated so that they can be read from the bottom of the drawing only.
Non-horizontal dimension lines are interrupted preferably near the middle for insertion of the
dimension (Fig. 3.12).

Angular dimensions may be oriented as in Fig. 2.40

Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13

Dimensions can be, (i) above the extension of the dimension line, beyond one of the
terminations, where space is limited (Fig. 3.9) or (ii) at the end of a leader line, which
terminates on a dimension line, that is too short to permit normal dimension placement (Fig.
3.9) or (iii) above a horizontal extension of a dimension line, where space does not allow
placement at the interruption of a non-horizontal dimension line (Fig. 3.13). Values of
dimensions, out of scale (except where break lines are used) should be underlines as shown in
Fig. 3.13.
The following indications (symbols) are used with dimensions to reveal the shape
identification and to improve drawing interpretation. The symbol should precede the
dimensions (Fig. 3.14)

Fig. 3.14 Shape identification symbols

UNIT 3.12 ARRANGEMENT OF DIMENSIONS

The arrangement of dimensions on a drawing must indicate clearly the design purpose. The
following are the ways of arranging the dimensions.

(a) CHAIN DIMENSIONS

Chains of single dimensions should be used only where the possible accumulation of
tolerances does not endanger the functional requirement of the part (Figure 3.16)

(b) PARALLEL DIMENSION

In parallel Dimensions, a number of dimension lines, parallel to one another and spaced-out
are used. This method is used where a number of dimensions have a common datum feature
(Fig. 3.17 a)

(c) SUPER-IMPOSED RUNNING DIMENSIONS

These are simplified parallel dimension and may be used where there are space limitations
(Fig. 3.17b).

Fig. 3.16 Chain dimensioning

Fig. 3.17 Parallel and super-impose dimensioning

(d) COMBINED DIMENSIONS

These are the result of simultaneous use of chain and parallel dimensions (Fig. 3.18).

(e) CO-ORDINATE DIMENSIONS

The sizes of the holes and their co-ordinates may be indicated directly on the drawing: or they
may be conveniently presented in a tabular form, as shown in Fig. 3.19

Fig. 3.18 Combined dimensioning Fig. 3.19 Co-ordinate dimensioning

UNIT 3.13 SPECIAL INDICATIONS

Diameters

Diameters should be dimensioned on the most appropriate view to ensure clarity. The
dimension value should be preceded by Figure 3.20 shows the method of dimensioning
diameters

Chords, Arcs, Angles and Radii

The dimensioning of chords arcs and angles should be shown in Fig. 3.21. Where the centre
of an arc falls outside the limits of the space available, the dimension line of the radius should
be broken or interrupted according to whether or not it is necessary to locate the centre.

Where the size of the radius can be derives from other dimensions, it may be indicated by a
radius arrow and the symbol R, without an indication of the value (Fig. 3.22).

Equi-distant Features

Linear spacing with equi-distance features may be dimensioned as shown in Fig. 3.23
 Fig. 3.20 Dimensioning of diameters

Fig. 3.21 Dimensioning of chords, arcs and angles

Fig. 3.22 Dimensioning of radius

Fig. 3.23 Dimensioning equi-distant features

In figure 3.24, dimension features shows the following:

 Parallel dimensions, indicating the size of the plate

 Edge A and B are being used as the reference edges
 Minimum number of dimensions requires are specified
 Evenly spaced dimension lines
 Fig. 3.24

UNIT 3.14 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DIMENSIONING.

(a) Dimension lines are thin and dark. They are broken in the middle with a space large
enough to hold the dimension.
(b) Dimension lines are drawn parallel to the object.
(c) Dimension line are spaced approximately 10mm apart beginning from the object
(d) Dimension lines have arrowheads on each end to show the limit of the dimension.
(e) Standards and conventions should be followed

(f) Dimensions should be placed on drawings so that they may be easily read

(g) The drawing must include the minimum number of dimensions required to accurately
manufacture the design

(h) A dimension should not be stated more than once, unless it aids communication

(i) It should be necessary for the operator manufacturing the component to have to calculate
any dimension.
(j) As far as possible, all the dimensions for one particular operation shall be specified in one
view only, such as diameter and depth of drilled hole, or size and depth of a threaded hole,
etc.

(k) Normally dimensions should be placed outside the views, but if it is not possible it may be
placed within the view as. However, dimensions should not be placed within a view unless
drawing becomes clear by doing so. Dimensions should not be placed too close to each other
or to the parts being dimensioned.

(l) Dimensions are to be given from visible outlines. Dimensions are to be given from a base
line, a centre line of the hole, a cylindrical part, important hole or a finished surface which
may be readily established, based on design requirements and the relationship to other parts..

(m) Dimensions for different operations on a part, for example, drilling and bending, should
be given separately, if permissible by its design.

(n) An axis or a contour line should never be used as a dimension line but may be used as a
projection line

(o) The intersection of dimension line should be avoided as far as possible if, however, the
intersection of two dimension lines is unavoidable, the lines should not be broken. Dimension
lines may be broken for inserting the dimension in the case of unidirectional dimensioning.
.

(p) Overall dimensions should be placed outside the intermediate dimensions. Where an
overall dimension is shown, one of the intermediate dimensions is redundant and should not
be dimensioned.
Dimensions Placed Outside the View and Dimensions Placed Within the View

Dimensions for Visible Outline

Dimensions to a Centre Line
Dimensioning the Cylindrical Parts

Dimensions for Different Operations used as Dimension Line

Axis or Contour Line Not
Overall Dimension Outside the Intermediate Dimensions

QUESTIONS

(1) State different type of lines

(2) Discuss the application of each line types in engineering drawing
(3) Explain the difference among dimension line and extension line
(4) Discuss the purpose of dimensioning
(5)
MODULE 4: GEOMETRICAL DRAWING

UNIT4.0. INTRODUCTION

The drawing of object views involves plane geometric constructions. It is necessary to have a
good knowledge of plane geometry. Preparation of engineering drawings involves a number
of geometrical constructions. Hence it is necessary to study geometrical drawing.
Geometrical constructions relating to straight lines, circles, arcs of circles, triangles,
rectangle, square, regular polygons are considered. Interpretation of geometric construction
allows use of drawing instruments to make construction with speed and accuracy.

UNIT 4.1 GEOMETRIC NOMENCLATURE

The study of geometry can be broken into two broad types: plane geometry, which deals with

only two dimensions and solid geometry which allows all three. The world around us is

obviously three-dimensional, having length, width and height, Solid geometry deals with

objects in that space such as cubes and spheres.

UNIT 4.2 PLANE GEOMETRY

Plane geometry deals in objects that are flat, such as triangles and lines, that can be drawn on

a flat piece of paper. A plane may be considered as an infinite set of points forming a

connected flat surface extending infinitely far in all directions. A plane has infinite length,

infinite width, and zero height (or thickness). It is usually represented in drawings by a four-

sided figure.

In plane geometry, all the shapes exist in a flat plane. A plane can be thought of as a flat sheet

with no thickness and which goes on forever in both directions.

 Fig 4.1 Plane and Solid geometry

A plane is two dimensional (2D)

A solid is three-dimensional (3D)

UNIT 4.3 POINT

A point is that which has simply position but no magnitude and generally represented by a

very small circle or small dot. A point is an exact location in space or on a drawing surface. A

point is actually represented on the drawing by a crisscross at its exact location. The exact

point in space is where the two lines of the crisscross intersect. When a point is located on an

existing line, a light, short dashed line or cross bar is placed on the line at the location of the

exact point.

A point is the most fundamental object in geometry. It is represented by a dot and named by a

capital letter. A point represent position only; it has zero size (that is, zero length, zero width,

and zero height. A point has no dimensions, only position

Collinear points

Points that lie on the same line are called collinear points. If there is no line on which all of

the points lie, then they are noncollinear points.

UNIT 4.4 LINE

A line can be thought of as a connected set of infinitely many points. It extends infinitely far

in two opposite directions. A line has infinite length, zero width, and zero height.

Lines are straight elements that have no width but are infinite in length (magnitude), and they

can be located by two points which are not on the same spot but fall along the line. Lines may

be straight lines or curved lines. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points. It
can be drawn in any direction. If a line is indefinite, and the ends are not fixed in length, the

actual length is a matter of convenience. If the end points of a line are important, they must

be marked by means of small, crossbars.

Straight lines and curved lines are considered parallel if the shortest distance between them

remains constant. The symbol used for parallel is //. Lines which are tangent and at 90 0 are

considered perpendicular. The symbol for perpendicular line is ⊥.

Fig 4.2 Points and lines.

A line is one-dimensional

UNIT 4.5 ANGLE

An angle is formed by the intersection of two lines. There are four major kinds of angles:

right angles, acute angles, obtuse angles reflex angles. The right angle is an angle of 90 0, an

acute angle is an angle less than 900, and obtuse angle is an angle more than 90 0 and less than
1800. Reflex angle is the angle greater than 180 0 and less than 3600. A straight line is 1800.

The symbol for an angle is < (singular) and <’s (plural). Angles are measured in degrees.

There are 3600 in a circle.

Fig 4.4 Angles

UNIT 4.6 TRIANGLES

A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides and their interior angles sum up

exactly 1800 (a plane rectilinear figure with 3 sides). The various kinds of triangles: a right

angle triangle (the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse), an equilateral

triangle, an isosceles triangle, and scalene triangle.

Fig 4.5 Triangles

UNIT 4.7 QUADRILATERAL

It is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides. When opposite sides are parallel, the

quadrilateral is also considered to be parallelogram.

Fig. 4.6 Quadrilaterals

UNIT 4.8 POLYGON

A polygon is a closed plane figure with more than three straight sides. It is a close plane

figure made up several line segments that are joined together. The sides do not cross each

other. Exactly two sides meet at every vertex. Examples of polygons are pentagon with five

sides, hexagon with six sides, and the octagon with eight sides.

In geometry a polygon is traditionally a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of

straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed chain or circuit. These segments are

called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the polygon’s vertices

(singular: vertex) or corners.

A polygon is a plane figure bounded by more than four straight sides. Polygons have

particular names depending on number of sides and angles.

 A pentagon is a plane figure bounded by five sides

  A hexagon is a plane figure bounded by six sides

 A heptagon is plane figure bounded by seven sides

 A octagon is plane figure bounded by eight sides

 A nonagon is plane figure bounded by nine sides

 A decagon is plane figure bounded by ten sides

The diagonal of a polygon is the distance from one corner to the corner furthest away from it.

Types of Polygons

Regular – all angles are equal and all sides are the same length. Regular polygons are both

equiangular and equilateral.

Equiangular – all angles are equal.

Equilateral – all sides are the same length.

Fig 4.7 Polygons

UNIT 4.9 CIRCLE

A circle is a closed curve with all points on the circle at the same distance from the centre

point. A circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line called circumference, which is

always equidistant from the centre. Components of circle are:

 The diameter of the circle is the straight distance from one outside curved surface

through the centre point to the opposite outside curved surface; A line drawn through

the centre, meeting the circumference at both ends.

 The radius of a circle is the distance from the centre point to the outside curved

surface. A straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference. The radius is half

the diameter, and is used to set the compass when drawing a diameter.

 An arc is any part of circumference.

 A central angle is an angle formed by two radial lines and the circumference.

 A sector is a part of a circle bounded by two radii and an arc

 The quadrant is a sector with a central angle of 90 0 and usually with one of the radial

lines oriented horizontally. A quadrant is part of a circle bounded by two radii at

right angles and an arc.

 A cord is any straight line whose opposite ends terminate on the circumference of the

circle. Any straight line drawn across the circle, meeting the circumference at both

ends.

 A segment is the smaller portion of a circle separated by a chord. Part of a circle

bounded by an arc and chord.

 A tangent is a straight line which touches the circumference. It is always at right

angle to the radius.

 Concentric circles are two or more circles with a common or same centre point but

different radii.

 Eccentric circle have different centres.

 A semi circle is half of the circle.

 Fig 4.8 Circle

UNIT 4.10 SOLIDS

They are geometric figures bounded by plane surfaces. The surfaces are called faces, and if

these are equal regular polygons, the solids are regular polyhedral.

Fig 4.9 Solids

UNIT 4.11 Techniques of Geometric constructions

How to Bisect a Line or an Arc

To bisect a line means to divide it into half or to find its centre point. In the given process, a

line will also be constructed at the exact centre point at exactly 900.

Given: Line A-B

Step 1: Draw the given line AB

Step 2: Set the compass approximately two-thirds of the length of the line A-B and swing an

arc from point A.

Step 3: Using the exact same compass setting, swing an arc from point B.

Step 4: At the two intersections of these arcs, locate points D and E

Step 5: Draw a straight-line connecting point D with point E. Where this line intersects line

A-B, it bisects line A-B. Line D-E is also perpendicular to line A-B at the exact centre point.

Fig 4.10 Example on how to bisect a line or arc

4.12 HOW TO DIVIDE A LINE IN TO NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS

Given: Line A-B

Step 1: Draw the given line AB

Step 2: Draw a construction line AC that starts at end A of given line AB. This new line is

longer than the given line and makes an angle of not more than 300 with it.

Step 3: Find a scale that is approximately divide the line AB into the number of parts needed,

and mark these divisions on the line AC. There are now ‘n’ equal divisions from A to D that

lie on the line AC.

Step 4: Join the last number to point B. Draw lines parallel to the line from the other

numbers, AB is now divided into the required number of equal parts.

Fig 4.11 Example on how to divide a line into a number of equal parts

4.13 HOW TO BISECT AN ANGLE

To bisect an angle means to divide it in half or to cut it into two equal angles.

Given: Angle BAC

Step 1: Set the compass at any convenient radius and swing an arc from point A

Step 2: Locate points E and F on the legs of the angle, and swing two arcs of the same

identical length from points E and F, respectively.

Step 3: Where these arcs intersect, locate point D. Draw a straight line from A to D. This line

will bisect angle BAC and establish two equal angles: CAD and BAD.
 Fig 4.12 Example on how to bisect an angle

4.14 HOW TO DRAW AN ARC OR CIRCLE (RADIUS) THROUGH THREE GIVEN

POINTS

Given: Three points in space at random: A, B and C.

Step 1: With straight line, lightly connect points A to B, and B to C,

Step 2: Using the method outlined for bisecting a line, bisect lines A-B and B-C

Step 3: Locate point X where the two extended bisectors meet. Point X is the exact centre of

the arc or circle.

Step 4: Place the point of the compass on point X and adjust the lead to any of the points A,

B, or C (they are the same distance), and swing the circle. If all work is done correctly, the

arc or circle should pass through each point.

 Fig 4.13 Example on how to draw an arc or circle

4.15 HOW TO DRAW A LINE PARALLEL TO A STRAIGHT LINE AT A GIVEN

DISTANCE

GIVEN: Line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line.

Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Place the point of the

compass at any location on the given line, and swing a light arc whose radius is the required

distance.

Step 2: Adjust the adjustable triangle so that it line up with line A-B, slide the straight edge

up or down to the extreme high point, which is the tangent point, of the arc, then draw the

parallel line.
 Fig 4.14Example on how to draw parallel line

4.16 HOW TO DRAW A LINE PARALLEL TO A LINE CURVED LINE AT A

GIVEN DISTANCE

Given: Curved line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line,

Step 1: Set the compass at the require distance to the parallel line. Starting from either end of

the curved line, place the point of the compass on the given line, and swing a series of light

arcs along the given line.

Step 2: Using an irregular curve, draw a line along the extreme high points of the arcs.

Fig 4.15 Example on how to draw parallel curve line

4.17 HOW TO DRAW A PERPENDICULAR LINES TO A LINE AT A POINT

Method 1

Given: line A-B with point P on the same line.

Step 1: Using P as a centre, make two arcs of equal radius or more continuous arc (R1) to

intercept line A-B on either side of point P, at points S and T.

Step 2: Swing larger but equal arcs (R2) from each of points S and T to cross each other at

point U.

Step 3: A line from P to U is perpendicular to line A-B at point P

Fig 4.16 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line to a point outside the line

Method 2

Given: Line A-B with point P on the line

Step 1: Swing an arc of any convenient radius whose centre O is at any convenient location

NOT on line A-B, but positioned to make the arc line A-B at point P and Q
Step 2: A line from point Q through centre O intercepts the opposite side of the arc at point R

Step 3: Line R-P is perpendicular to line A-B (A right angle has been inscribed in semi circle)

Fig 4.17 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line to a point on the line

4.18 HOW TO DRAW A PERPENDICULAR TO A LINE FROM A POINT NOT ON

THE LINE

Given: Line A-B and point P

Step 1: Using P as a centre, swing an arc (R1) to intercept line A-B at points G and H.

Step 2: Swing larger, but equal length arcs (R2) from each of the point G and H to intercept

each other at point J.

Step 3: Line P-J is perpendicular to line A-B
 Fig 4.19 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line to a point outside the line

4.19 HOW TO DRAW A TRIANGLE WITH KNOWN LENGTHS OF SIDES

Given: lengths 1, 2, and 3

Step 1: Draw the longest length line, in this example length 3, with ends A and B. Swing an

arc (R1) from point A whose radius is either length 1 or length 2; in this example length 1.

Step 2: Using the radius length not used in step 1, swing an arc (R2) from point B to intercept

the arc swung from point A at point

 Step 3: Connect A to C and B to C to complete the triangle

Fig 4.20 Example on how to draw triangles with given sides

4.20 HOW TO DRAW A SQUARE

Given: The locations of the centre and the required distance across the sides of a square.

Step 1: Lightly draw a circle with a diameter equal to the distance around the sides of the

square. Set the compass at half the required diameter.

Step 2: Using triangles, lightly complete the square by constructing tangent lines to the circle.

Allow the light construction lines to project from the square, without erasing them.

Step 3: Check to see that there are four equal sides and if so darken in the actual square using

the correct line thickness.

Fig 4.21 Example on how to draw square with given side

Method 2

Given one side AB. Through point A, draw a perpendicular. With A as a centre, and AB as

radius; draw the arc to intersect the perpendicular at C. With B and C as centres, and AB as

radius, strike arcs to intersect at D. Draw line CD and BD.

Fig 4.22 Example on how to draw square with given side

 4.21 HOW TO DRAW A PENTAGON (5 SIDES)

Given: the locations of the pentagon centre and the diameter that will circumscribe the

pentagon.

Step 1: Bisect radius OD at C.

Step 2: With C as centre, and CA as radius, strike arc AE. With A as centre, and AE as

radius, strike arc EB.

Step 3: Draw line AB, then set off distances AB around the circumference of the circle, and

draw the sides through these points.

Fig 4.23 Example on how to draw pentagon with a given side

4.22 HOW TO DRAW A REGULAR HEXAGON (6 Sides)

(A) GIVEN THE DISTANCE ACROSSS FLATS

Step 1: Draw a circle having a diameter equal to the distance across flats.
Step 2: Draw tangents to this circle with a 600 set square

Fig 4.24

(B) GIVEN THE DISTANCE ACROSS CORNERS

Step 1: Draw a circle having a diameter equal to the distance across corners

Step 2: Step off the radius round it to give six equally spaced points

Step 3: join these points to form the hexagon.

Fig 4.25 Example on how to draw hexagon with a given side

4.23 TO DRAW A REGULAR OCTAGON

 (A) GIVEN THE DISTANCE ACROSS FLATS

Step 1: Draw a circle with the diameter equal to the distance across flats.

Step 2: Construct octagon by drawing tangent at 450 to this circle

(B) GIVEN THE DISTANCE ACROSS CORNERS

Step 1: Draw a circle with the diameter equal to the distance across corners.

Step 2: Across this circle draw vertical and horizontal diameters and two at 450.

Step 3: Join the eight points so obtained on the circle to form the octagon.

4.24 TO DRAW ANY SIDED REGULAR POLYGON

To construct a regular polygon with a specific number of sides, divide the given diameter

using the parallel line method as shown. In this example, let us assume seven-sided regular

polygon. Construct an equilateral triangle (0-7-8) with the diameter (0-7) as one of its sides.

Draw a line from the apex (point 8) through the second point on the line (point 2). Extend

line 8-2 until it intersects the circle at point 9, radius 0-9 will be the size of each side of the

figure. Using radius 0-9 step off the corners of the seven sides polygon and connect the point.
 Fig 4.26 Example on how to draw any sided regular polygon

4.25 TO DRAW A CIRCLE TANGENT TO A LINE AT A GIVEN POINT

Given: Given line AB and a point on the line.

Step 1: At P erect a perpendicular to the line.

Step 2: Set off the radius of the required circle on the perpendicular.
Step 3: Draw circle with radius CP.

Fig 4.27 Example on how to draw a tangent to a line

4.26 TO DRAW A TANGENT TO A CIRCLE THROUGH A POINT

Method-1

Given: Point P on the circle.

Move the T-square and triangle as a unit until one side of the triangle passes through the

point P and the centre of the circle; then slide the triangle until the other side passes through

point P, and draw the required tangent.

Method -2

Given: Point P outside the circle

Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle passes through point P

and, by inspection, is the tangent to the circle; and then slide the triangle until the other side

passes through the centre of the circle, and lightly mark the point of tangency T. Finally move

the triangle back to its starting position and draw the required tangent.
Fig 4.28 Example on how to draw a tangent to a circle

4.27 TO DRAW AN ELLIPSE (BY FOUR-CENTREED METHOD)

Join 1 and 3, layoff 3-5 equal to 01-03. This is done graphically as indicated in the fig. Below

by swinging 1 around to 5 with 0 as centre where now 03 from 05 is 3-5; the required

distance. With 3 as centre, an arc from 5 to the diagonal 1-3 locates 6. Bisect 1-6 by a

perpendicular crossing 0-1 at 9 and intersect 0-4 produced (if necessary) at 10. Make 0-9

equal to 0-9, and 0-10 equal to 0-10. Then 9, 9, 10 and 10 will be centres for four tangent

circles arcs forming a curve approximating the shape of an ellipse.

Fig 4.29 Example on ellipse construction using four entred method

4.28 HOW TO DRAW AN OGEE CURVE

An ogee curve is used to join two parallel lines. It forms a gentle curve that reverses itself in a

neat symmetrical geometric form.

Given: Parallel lines A-B and C-D

Step 1: Draw a straight line connecting the space between the parallel lines. In this example,

from point B to point C.

Step 2: Make a perpendicular bisector to line B-C to establish point X.

Step 3: Draw a perpendicular from line A-B at point B to intersect the perpendicular bisector

of B-X, which locates the first required swing centre. Draw a perpendicular from line C-D at

point C to intersect the perpendicular bisector of CX, which locates the second required

swing centre.

Step 4: Place the compass point and adjust the compass lead to point B, and swing an arc

from B to X. Place the compass point on the second swing point and swing an arc from X to

C. This completes the ogee curve.

Fig 4.30 Example on ogee curve construction
EXERCISE

Reconstruct the following shapes

MODULE 5 TANGENCY

UNIT 5.1 MAKING AN OFFSET AT DISTANCE R

UNIT 5.2 AN ARC (R) THAT IS TANGENT TO TWO LINES
UNIT 5.3 AN ARC (R) THAT IS TANGENT TO LINE AND AN ARC (R1)
UNIT 5.4 AN ARC (R) THAT IS TANGENT TO TWO ARCS INTERNALLY (R1,
R2)

 Draw arcs, using A and B as centre, parallel to the given arcs at distance equal to the
radius R of the arc.
 The parallel arcs intersect at C (centre of the arc).
 Tangent points T on arc (draw lines connecting C to the centres A and B the given
arcs.)
 Using C as centre and radius R, draw required tangent arc which starts and ends at
points T.
UNIT 5.5 AN ARC (R) THAT IS TANGENT TO TWO ARCS EXTERNALLY (R1,
R2)

Given: Diameter A and arc B with centre points located, and required radius.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and out of the way, swing a radius of the

required length from a point on the circumference of given diameter A. Out of the way, swing

a required radius from a point on the circumference of a given arc B.

Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light radius outside of the

given radii A and B.

Step 3: Where these arcs intersect is the exact location of the required swing point. Set the

compass point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius. Allow the radius

swing to extend past the required area.

Step 4: Check all work; darken in the radii using the correct line thickness. Darken in the arcs

or radii in consecutive order from left to right or from right to left, then constructing a smooth

connecting line having no apparent change in direction.

Example on how to draw an arc tangent to two radii or diameter

(a) Assume that the radii of the given circles are 20 and 25 mm, spaced 85 mm apart,
and that the radius to touch them is 40 mm. Draw a curve of the given radius to
touch two given circles when the circles are outside the radius
(b) Draw a curve of given radius to touch two circles when the circles are inside the
radius. Assume that the radii of the given circles are 22 and 26 mm, spaced 86 mm
apart, and that the radius to touch them is 100 mm

UNIT 5.6 ARC IN RIGHT ANGLE

 Open the compass at the given radius

 Strike arc intersecting given lines at points T (tangent points)
 Using the same radius do step iii and iv
Given: A right angle, lines A and B and a required radius.

Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius from line A

and one from line B.

Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light line parallel to line A

and another line parallel to line B.

Step 3: Where these lines intersect is the exact location of the required swing point. Set the

compass point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius. Allow the radius

swing to extend past the required area. It is important to locate all tangent points (T.P) before

darkening in.

Step 4: Check all work and darken in the radius using the correct line thickness. Darken in

connecting straight lines as required. Always construct compass work first, followed by

straight lines. Leave all light construction lines.

Example on how to draw an arc tangent to an angle

UNIT 5.7 ARC IN ACUTE ANGLE

Open the compass at the given radius R

 Draw lines at distance equal to the radius of the arc (parallel lines).
 The two parallel lines intersect at C (centre of the arc).
 Tangents point T (draw perpendicular line from centre C to given lines).
 Using C as centre and radius R, draw required tangent arc which starts and ends at
point T.

UNIT 5.8 ARC IN OBTUSE ANGLE

Open the compass at the given R

 Draw lines at distance equal to the radius of the arc (parallel lines).
 The two parallel lines intersect at C (centre of the arc).
 Tangents points T (drop perpendicular line from centre C to given lines)
  Using C as centre and radius R, draw required tangent arc which starts and ends at
points T.

UNIT 5.8 ARC STRAIGHT LINE

 Draw arc and line parallel respectively to the given arc and line at distance equal to
the radius R of the arc.
 The parallel line and arc intersect at C (centre of the arc).
 Tangent points T on line (drop perpendicular line from centre C to given lines)
 Tangent points T on arc (draw a line connecting C to the centre O of the given arc.
 Using C as centre and radius R, draw required tangent arc which starts and ends at
points T.

UNIT 5.9 ARC TANGENT TO TWO CIRCLES

 Draw circles, using X and Y as centre, parallel to the given arcs at distance equal to
the radius R-R1 and R-R2 of the two circles
 The two arcs intersect at O (centre of the arc).
 Tangent points T on arc (draw lines connecting C to the centres X and Y the given
arcs.
 Using C as centre and radius R, draw required tangent arc which starts and ends at
points T1 and T2.
TO DRAW TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES

Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle is tangent, by

inspection, to the two circles; then slide the triangle until the other side passes through the

centre of one circle, and lightly mark the point tangency. Then slide the triangle until the side

passes through the centre of the other circle, and mark the point of tangency. Finally slide the

triangle back to the tangent position, and draw the tangent lines between the two points of

tangency. Draw the second tangent line in similar manner.

Example on how to draw a tangent to two circles
MODULE 6 ISOMETRIC

Isometric is a method of producing a pictorial view of an object showing all three faces of the

object simultaneously. It is a type of parallel projection. It is a type of axonometric

projection. All angles between axonometric axes are equal. The three coordinate axes of the

object appear equally foreshortened (about 3/4th of true length). The angles between any two

of the three coordinate axes is 1200.

Isometric Terminology

 The three coordinate axes are called isometric axes.

 Any line parallel to isometric axes is called isometric line

 A non-isometric line is a line not parallel to any one of the three isometric axis

 In isometric projection of cube, the faces of the cube and any plane parallel to them is

called isometric planes.

UNIT 6.1 Types of Axonometric Projections

Isometric Projection

Dimetric Projection
Trimetric Projection

Isometric Projections

UNIT 6.2 Isometric Drawing

Steps in Isometric drawing

Step1

Isometric sketches begin with defining isometric axes, three lines, one vertical and two drawn

at 300 from the horizontal.

Step2

Three lines of the isometric axes represent the three primary dimensions of the object: width,

height, and depth

Step3

Draw the font face of the isometric block

Step4

Draw the rest of the isometric block

Step5

Add details to the block starting from the front face, then add details to the other faces.

Step6
Darken all visible lines to complete the isometric sketch. (make sure that construction lines

are light)

Non-isometric lines are drawn by transferring the ordinates (which are on isometric lines) of

the end of the lines.

UNIT 6.3 Objects with Circular Geometry

A circle in an orthographic projection will appear as an ellipse in an isometric drawing.

Instead of actual ellipses often approximate ellipses are drawn for isometric drawing. Four-

centre ellipses are used to approximate ellipses on isometric planes.

How to draw four-centre ellipse

Approximate Ellipse

 Draw the isometric centre lines of the circles. Using the centre lines, draw an

isometric square with sides equal to the diameter of the circle.

 From the near corners of the box, draw two large arcs with radius R, using the two red

points as centres.

 Draw the two smaller arcs with radius r, using two green points as centres.
Objects with Circular Geometry
How to draw an ellipse composed of four arcs using a compass

1- Trace an isometric square

2- Find the centre of the square using diagonals, then trace the axis lines.

3- Finally, trace the median lines. The meeting point of the medians shows the centre of

the four arcs of the circle.

Draw the isometric projection of a cylinder of diameter 40 mm and axial length of 70 mm

lying on the H.P keeping its axis parallel to H.P. and V.P. both.

Steps:

(i) Draw the isometric box of a square prism of 40 mm and base side and 70 mm axis

by keeping the axis parallel to both H.P. and V.P.

(ii) In the two rhombuses draw the ellipse by four center method

(iii) Draw two common tangents to the two ellipses.

(iv) Draw the visible lines and curves by thick lines

(v) Complete the isometric projection of cylinder with dimensioning and direction of

viewing.
UNIT 6.4 Combination of two solids

Draw an isometric Projection of a square prism having side of the square =30 mm and

height= 54 mm standing (upright) and centrally on a flat square slab of thickness = 26 mm

and its base side = 52 mm.

Steps

1. Draw an isometric projection of the square slab.

2. Indicate the centre of the top face with centre lines.

3. Around centre ‘O’ draw the rhombus of the square prism and lift it up to its required

height.

4. Join all the visible edges (no hidden lines) of the two solids by using thick lines.

5. Complete the isometric projection of the two solids with dimensioning, direction of

viewing and their common axis using convention lines.

MODULE 7 PROJECTION

A view of an object is known technically as a projection.A projection is a view conceived to

be drawn or projected on to a plane, known as the plane of projection.

Projection of an object can be made in any of the four quadrants of an angle but the first
quadrants are more widely used because in the third quadrants their views overlap and this
can lead to confusion. The view obtained in the first quadrant is called the first andle
projection (English System) and in the third quadrant is the third angle projection (American
System).

Projectin on the verical plane is the front view or elevation, on the horizontal plane is the plan
view and on auxiliary vertical plane is the side view.

Fig 7.1 Projector quadrants and direction

Multiview or orthographic projection is a system of views of an object formed by projectors

from the object perpendicular to the desired plane of projection.

Perpendicular lines or projectors are drawn from all points on the edges or contours of the
object to the plane of projection.
 Figure 7.2 Designation of the views

UNIT 7.1 DESIGNATION AND RELATIVE POSITIONS OF VIEWS

An object positioned in space may be imagined as surrounded by six mutually perpendicular
planes. So , for any object, six different views may be obtained by viewing at it along the six
directions, normal to these planes. Figure 7.1 shows an object with six possible directions to
obtain the different views which are designated as follows:

1. View in the direction a = view from the front

2. View in the direction b = view from above
3. View in the direction c = view from the left
4. View in the direction d = view fron the right
5. View in the direction e = view from below
6. View in the direction f = view from the rear

UNIT 7.2 FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION

VIEW POSITION

Front the main view, placed at the top of the sheet

Plan (Top view) projected down from the front elevation

Left-hand End view projected to the right of the front elevation

Right-hand End view projected to the left of the front elevation

Left-hand End view projected to the right of the front elevation

Figure 7.3a shows the relative positions of the above six views in the first angle projection
and 7.3b, the distinguishing symbol of the projection. Figure 7.4a shows the relative position
of the views in the third angle projection and 7.4b, the distinguishing symbol of this method
of projection.

NOTE A comparison of figure 7.3 and 7.4 reveals that in both the methods of projection, the
views are identical in shape and detail. Only their location with respect to the vies from the
front is different
 Figure 7.3a

Fig 7.3b

UNIT 7.3 THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

VIEW POSITION

Front Elevation placed under the plan

Right-hand End view projected to the left of the front elevation

Figure 7.4a

Figure 7.4b

UNIT 7.4 HIDDEN LINES

While obtaining the projection of an object on to any principal plane projection, certain
features of the object may not be visible. The invisible or hidden features are represented by
short dashes of medium thickness.
Figure 7.5 Application of hidden lines
Fig 7.5 Planes of projection
Fig 7.6 Object and the projection views
Fig 7.7 Projection view
Fig 7.8 Object in Third angle projecion
 Fig 7.9 Object in First angle projection

Fig 7.10 Object in Third angle Projection

Fig 7.11 Isometric representation of object

Fig 7.12 Isometric representation of object

 Fig 7.13 Isometric representation of object

UNIT 7.5 DEVELOPMENT OF MISSING VIEWS

MISSING VIEW

Introduction

In orthographic projection the object has principle dimensions, width, height, and depth
which are fixed terms used for dimensions of the three views.

Note that the front view shows only the width and the height of the object, the top view
shows the depth and width only. In fact, any one view of three-dimensional object can show
only two dimensions, the third dimension will be found in an adjacent view.

When two views of an object are given, the third view may be developed by the use of a
mitre line

To construct the view from the left, from the two given views.

1. Draw the views from the front and above.

2. Draw the projection lines to the right of the view from above
3. Decide the distance, D from the front at which, the side view is to be drawn.
4. Construct a mitre line at 450.
5. From the points of intersection between the mitre line and the projection lines, draw
vertical projection lines.
 6. Draw the horizontal projection lines from the view from the front to intersect the
above lines. The figure obtained by joining the points of intersection in order is the
required view.

Questions

(1) Draw the Elevation from the direction of arrow FV, plan and Right side view, left side
view for the pictorial view shown in figure below.
(2) Draw the Elevation looking from the direction of arrow FV, plan and Right side view,
left side view for the pictorial view shown in figure below

(3) Draw the Elevation looking from the direction of arrow FV, plan and Right side view,
left side view for the pictorial view shown in figure below
(4) Reproduce the object in the figure below

(5) Produce the object below in first angle projection

MODULE 8: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

UNIT 8.1 LAUNCH AutoCAD

Install AutoCAD software on the system

Get started by double-click the AutoCAD from the desktop icon.

Workspaces

AutoCAD workspaces are sets of menus, toolbars and dockable windows (such as the
Properties palette, DesignCentre, and the Tool palettes window) that are grouped and
organized so that you can work in a custom, task-oriented drawing environment.

1. Click the workspace Switch icon.

2. Click 3D Basics and OK

3D Basics Interface

The following is AutoCAD’s 3D Basic interface. The 3D Basic ribbons are as follows:

 Create
 Edit
 Draw
 Modify
 Selection coordinates
 Layers and views

The 3D Basic pulldown menus are a s follows:

 Home
 Render
 Insert
 Manage
  Output
 Plug-ins
 Online
 Express Tools

UNIT 8.2 3D Modeling Interface

The 3D Modeling panels are as follows:

 Modeling
 Mesh
 Solid Editing
 Draw
 Modify
 Section
 Coordinates view
 Selection
 Layers and Groups

The 3D Modeling pulldown menus are as follows:

 Home
 Solid
 Surfaces
 Mesh
 Render
 Parametric
 Insert, Annotate, View, Manage, Output, Plug-ins, Online, and Express Tools
Viewports

1. Open a drawing or create simple objects

2. Click the dropdown menu in the shortcut tools and choose show menu bar.

3. Choose View, Viewports, 4 Viewpoints

OR
4. Type VPORTS at the command prompt.
Command: -VPORTS
Enter an option
[save/Restore/Delete/Join/Single/?/2/3/4] 4:enter
Enter a configuration option [Horizontal/Vertical/Above/Below/Left/Right] ,Right>:
enter
The screen will look like the figure in with four views in one AutoCAD drawing.
 Preset 3D Viewpoints
1. Choose View, Viewports, Newports
2. Click the dropdown option for Setup and click 3D
3. Choose Four: Right as the viewport option
Somefun Olawale M received his National Diploma (ND) and Higher National Diploma
(HND) in Electrical/Electronic Engineering from Ogun State polytechnic (1996) and The
Polytechnic Ibadan (2001) respectively. He received his Bachelor Degree in Computer
Science from Olabisi Onabanjo University, PGD in Electronics from Federal University of
Technology Akure, Master Degree in Computer Science from Babcock University Ilisan
Remo, Nigeria.