Structural Engineering Notes
1. Frame Structure
• Definition: A type of structure made up of connected members forming a skeleton
framework, usually in triangles or rectangles, that supports loads.
• Characteristics:
o Made of beams, columns, and sometimes braces.
o Loads are transferred through the framework.
o Can resist bending, tension, and compression efficiently.
• Examples: Steel or timber building frames, bridge trusses, roof frames.
• Advantages:
o Strong and stable.
o Efficient use of materials.
o Can span large areas without intermediate supports.
2. Functions of Structures
Structures are designed to support loads safely while serving specific purposes. Their main
functions include:
1. Support – Holding people, equipment, and materials safely.
2. Protection – Shielding occupants or contents from weather, heat, or hazards.
3. Stability – Preventing collapse under various forces.
4. Aesthetic / Functional – Providing usable space and desired shapes.
3. Structural Members
These are the components that make up a structure. They carry and transfer loads safely.
Structural
Function Main Load Type Examples
Member
Beam Supports loads across a span Bending, shear Floor beams, roof beams
Transfers vertical loads to
Column Compression Concrete/steel columns
foundation
Distributes load efficiently Tension, Roof trusses, bridge
Truss
through triangles compression trusses
Provides horizontal surfaces
Slab Bending, shear Concrete floor slabs
(floors/roof)
Page 1 of 8
Structural
Function Main Load Type Examples
Member
Foundation Supports entire structure Compression Footings, piles
Supports loads or divides
Wall Compression Load-bearing walls
space
Main support for secondary
Girder Bending, shear Steel or concrete girders
beams
Provides stability against Tension, Cross bracing in
Brace
lateral forces compression towers/roof trusses
4. Struts and Ties
These are types of structural members that resist axial forces:
• Strut
oDefinition: A member subjected to compression along its length.
oFunction: Resists pushing forces; keeps the structure from buckling.
oExamples: Roof struts, column bracing in frames.
• Tie (or Tie Rod)
o Definition: A member subjected to tension along its length.
o Function: Resists pulling forces; holds parts of the structure together.
o Examples: Tension rods in trusses, cables in suspension bridges.
Key difference: Struts are compressed, ties are stretched.
5. Forces Acting on Structures
Structures experience different forces that influence their design:
1. Compression – Forces that push a member together.
o Example: Columns under building weight.
2. Tension – Forces that pull a member apart.
o Example: Tie rods in trusses.
3. Shear – Forces that cause one part of a material to slide past another.
o Example: Beams under load, scissors action.
4. Bending (Flexure) – Combination of tension and compression that causes a member to
bend.
o Example: Floor beams, cantilevers.
5. Torsion – Twisting force along the axis of a member.
o Example: Shafts in machinery, twisted bridges.
Page 2 of 8
Classwork
Instructions: Answer all questions. Write neatly.
Section A: Definitions (2 marks each)
1. Define a frame structure.
2. What is a beam?
3. Explain the function of a column.
4. What is the difference between a strut and a tie?
5. Define compression and tension.
Section B: Short Answer (3 marks each)
6. List three functions of structures.
7. Name five structural members and their main load type.
8. Explain why triangles are used in trusses.
9. Give two examples of braces in buildings.
10. What is the difference between a load-bearing wall and a non-load-bearing wall?
Section C: Applied Questions (5 marks each)
11. A roof truss has members in tension and compression. Identify which members are likely
tied and which are struts.
12. A floor beam is bending under a load. Identify the forces acting on the top and bottom
of the beam.
13. A bridge has cables holding it up. Are these cables tension or compression members?
Explain.
14. Sketch a simple frame structure showing beams, columns, ties, and struts.
15. Explain why foundations are always in compression.
Page 3 of 8
Homework
Instructions: Complete and bring answers to the next class.
Section A: Definitions (2 marks each)
1. Define a slab and give an example.
2. What is a girder?
3. Explain the function of a brace.
4. Define shear force.
5. Explain torsion in structures.
Section B: Short Answer (3 marks each)
6. List three advantages of frame structures.
7. Name two examples of struts in buildings.
8. Name two examples of ties in buildings.
9. Explain why triangular units are stronger than rectangular units in structures.
10. Give two functions of roofs.
Section C: Applied Questions (5 marks each)
11. A column is buckling under load. What type of force is acting on it?
12. A tie rod in a truss is snapped. What would happen to the structure?
13. Draw and label a beam under bending, showing compression and tension zones.
14. A non-load-bearing wall collapses during an earthquake. Explain why it may not affect
the main structure.
15. Explain how a truss converts bending forces into tension and compression in its
members.
Page 4 of 8
Classwork & Homework
Classwork Answer Key
Section A: Definitions
1. Frame structure: A skeleton-like structure made of connected members (beams,
columns, braces) that supports and transfers loads.
2. Beam: A horizontal structural member that supports vertical loads and transfers them to
columns or walls.
3. Column: A vertical structural member that carries compressive loads from beams or
slabs down to the foundation.
4. Strut vs Tie:
o Strut: Member under compression.
o Tie: Member under tension.
5. Compression and Tension:
o Compression: Force that pushes material together.
o Tension: Force that pulls material apart.
Section B: Short Answer
6. Three functions of structures:
o Support
o Protection
o Stability
7. Five structural members & load types:
Member Load Type
Beam Bending & shear
Column Compression
Truss Tension & compression
Page 5 of 8
Member Load Type
Slab Bending & shear
Brace Tension & compression
8. Triangles in trusses: Triangles are stable shapes; they prevent distortion under loads.
9. Examples of braces:
o Cross-bracing in roof trusses
o Diagonal braces in towers
10. Load-bearing vs Non-load-bearing wall:
o Load-bearing wall: Supports weight of structure above.
o Non-load-bearing wall: Only divides spaces; carries no structural load.
Section C: Applied Questions
11. Roof truss members:
o Ties: Bottom horizontal members (under tension)
o Struts: Diagonal/top members (under compression)
12. Floor beam under bending:
o Top fibers: Compression
o Bottom fibers: Tension
13. Bridge cables: Tension members (cables are stretched, supporting weight).
14. Frame structure sketch (description):
o Vertical columns
o Horizontal beams connecting columns
o Diagonal braces for stability
o Label struts (diagonal in compression) and ties (bottom horizontal in tension)
15. Foundations: Always in compression because they carry the weight of the entire
structure and push down on the soil.
Homework Answer Key
Section A: Definitions
1. Slab: Flat horizontal member forming floor or roof; e.g., concrete floor slab.
2. Girder: Main horizontal beam that supports secondary beams.
3. Brace: Diagonal member providing lateral stability to a structure.
4. Shear force: Force that causes layers or parts of a member to slide past each other.
5. Torsion: Twisting force along a member’s longitudinal axis.
Page 6 of 8
Section B: Short Answer
6. Advantages of frame structures:
o Strong and stable
o Efficient use of materials
o Can span large areas
7. Examples of struts:
o Roof struts
o Column bracing
8. Examples of ties:
o Tie rods in trusses
o Suspension bridge cables
9. Triangles stronger than rectangles: Triangles maintain shape under load; rectangles
deform easily unless braced.
10. Functions of roofs:
o Protect from weather
o Support live loads (like snow)
Section C: Applied Questions
11. Column buckling: Compression force.
12. Tie rod snapped: Structure may collapse or deform; tension support lost.
13. Beam under bending (description of diagram):
o Draw horizontal beam
o Top fibers labeled compression
o Bottom fibers labeled tension
o Shear forces at supports
14. Non-load-bearing wall collapses: Doesn’t affect main structure because it carries no
structural load.
15. Truss converting forces:
o Load applied causes bending in the beam.
o Triangular truss converts bending into tension in ties and compression in struts,
distributing load safely.
If you want, I can also make a fully illustrated version showing:
• Beam bending with tension/compression zones
• Truss with labeled struts and ties
• Frame structure diagram
This would make the answers visual for students, which is extremely helpful for learning.
Page 7 of 8
Do you want me to create that diagram set?
Page 8 of 8