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CSEC PHYSICS NOTES

Section A: MECHANICS

. GALILEO AND MEASUREMENT

1.0 Galileo and the Development of Physics

Galileo Galilei helped change science from relying on guesses and philosophy to relying on
observation and experiments.

Before Galileo:

●​ Scientists like Aristotle believed ideas should be accepted mainly through reasoning.
●​ Very little testing was done.

Galileo introduced:

●​ Careful observation
●​ Measurement
●​ Repeated experiments
●​ Recording results
●​ Drawing conclusions from evidence

This became the basis of the scientific method.

The Scientific Method

Steps:

1.​ Observation
2.​ Ask a question/problem
3.​ Form a hypothesis
4.​ Carry out experiments
5.​ Collect data
6.​ Analyze results
7.​ Draw conclusions
8.​ Repeat to verify

Galileo’s Contribution

Galileo:

●​ Timed falling objects

●​ Used inclined planes
●​ Measured motion carefully
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●​ Proved many old beliefs wrong

Importance to Physics

His work led to:

●​ Experimental physics
●​ Accurate measurement
●​ Mathematical relationships in science
●​ Modern mechanics

1. SIMPLE PENDULUM
1. Factors Affecting the Period of a Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of:

●​ A small heavy bob

●​ A light string
●​ Suspended from a fixed point

1.​ Period (T)

The time taken for one complete oscillation.

Unit: seconds (s)

2.​ Oscillation- the to and fro motion of the pendulum from one point to another then back to its
original position

Factors Investigated

1. Length of String

●​ Increasing length increases the period.

●​ A longer pendulum swings more slowly.
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2. Mass of Bob

●​ Changing mass does NOT affect period.

●​ Heavy and light bobs swing at the same rate.

3. Angle of Displacement
●​ The greater the angle, the greater the period

Pendulum Formula

Where:

●​ T = period (s)
●​ L = length (m)
●​ g = gravitational field strength (m/s²)

1.3 Graphs from Pendulum Data

Students may plot:

(a) T vs L

This gives a curve.

(b) T² vs L

This gives a straight line.

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Importance of T² vs L Graph

●​ Easier to analyze
●​ Straight-line graph helps determine g
●​ Shows direct proportionality

1.4 Line of Best Fit

A best fit line is the straight line drawn so that:

●​ Roughly equal points lie above and below the line

●​ The line represents the average trend

Why It Is Used

Experimental readings contain errors.​

The best fit line reduces the effect of:

●​ Human error
●​ Random error
●​ Inconsistent readings

1.5 Gradient of a Straight-Line Graph

Gradient Formula

Rules for Finding Gradient

●​ Use two points on the best fit line

●​ NOT actual plotted points
●​ Triangle should cover at least half the graph

MEASUREMENT
1.6 Significant Figures
Significant Figures
Digits used to express precision in measurements.

Rules

1.​ Non-zero digits are significant.

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2.​ Zeros between digits are significant.

3.​ Leading zeros are not significant.
4.​ Trailing zeros after decimals are significant.

Examples

●​ 0.0045 → 2 significant figures

●​ 3.200 → 4 significant figures

Importance

Results should not appear more accurate than measuring instruments allow.

1.7 Errors in Measurement

Types of Errors

1. Random Errors

Caused by unpredictable variations.​

Examples:

●​ Reaction time
●​ Small reading variations

Reduction

●​ Repeat experiment
●​ Average readings

2. Systematic Errors

Errors that consistently affect readings.

Examples:

●​ Zero error
●​ Faulty instruments

Reduction

●​ Calibrate instruments
●​ Correct zero error

3. Human Errors

Examples:

●​ Parallax error
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●​ Misreading scales

Reduction

●​ Read scale at eye level

●​ Use digital instruments carefully

Digital Instrument Errors

Examples:

●​ Battery weakness
●​ Limited decimal places
●​ Delay in response

1.8 Measuring Instruments

1.​ Length

Ruler

Measures:

●​ Length
●​ Height

Unit:

●​ metre (m)
●​ centimetre (cm)

Vernier Calipers

Used for:

●​ Internal diameter
●​ External diameter
●​ Depth

More accurate than the ruler.

Micrometer Screw Gauge

Measures very small thicknesses:

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●​ Wire diameter
●​ Thickness of paper

Most accurate of the three.

Mass

Triple Beam Balance

Units:

●​ kilogram (kg)
●​ gram (g)

Time

Stopwatch / Clock

Unit:

●​ seconds (s)

Volume

Measuring Cylinder

Measures liquid volume.

Unit:

●​ cm³ or mL

1 cm³ = 1 mL

1.9 Suitability of Instruments

Sensitivity

Ability to detect small changes.

Example:

●​ A micrometer is more sensitive than a ruler.

Accuracy
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How close reading is to true value.

Range

Maximum and minimum values measurable.

Example:

●​ A 30 cm ruler has a smaller range than a tape measure.

1.10 : Density

Density is the mass per unit volume

Formula:

Where:

●​ ρ = density
●​ m = mass
●​ V = volume

Unit of Density

kg/m3

Or:

●​ g/cm³

Finding Density of Regular Solids

1.​ Measure mass

2.​ Measure dimensions
3.​ Calculate volume
4.​ Use density formula

Irregular Solids

Use a water displacement method ( calculate the change in volume then use the density formula)
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2. VECTORS
2.1 Scalars and Vectors

Scalars

Have magnitude only.

Examples:

●​ Mass
●​ Distance
●​ Speed
●​ Time

Vectors

Have magnitude and direction.

Examples:

●​ Velocity
●​ Displacement
●​ Force
●​ Acceleration

Example:​
A hurricane moving west at 80 km/h is a vector.

2.2 Resultant of Two Vectors

Resultant Vector

A single vector having the same effect as two or more vectors combined.

Use:

●​ Scale diagrams
●​ Head-to-tail method

Oblique vectors included.

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2.3 Calculating Resultants

1.​ Parallel to each other

●​ Parallel forces

Add magnitudes.

●​ Anti-parallel Vectors

Subtract magnitudes. ( the direction would come from the larger number)

Perpendicular Vectors

Use Pythagoras:

Then to find the angle using trig ratios its usually the sine rule (SOHCAHTOA)

2.4 Resolving Vectors

A single vector can be split into:

●​ Horizontal component
●​ Vertical component

Example:​
A thrown ball moves:

●​ Horizontally
●​ Vertically downward due to gravity

3. STATICS

A force is a push or pull that can change the size, shape, or motion of a body.
●​ It is a vector quantity

3.1 Effects of Forces

A force may:

●​ Change speed
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●​ Change direction
●​ Change shape
●​ Change size

Example:

●​ Plasticine changes shape

●​ Marble speeds up when pushed

3.2 Types of Forces

Contact forces (when forces join together) Non Contact Forces (no direct contact over
distance)

Frictional Gravitational attraction

Tension (ropes, string) Magnetic fields

Upthrust (floating objects)

Expansion ( compressed and heated objects)

Normal reaction forces

3.3 :Weight

Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body.

Formula

Where:

●​ W = weight (N)
●​ m = mass (kg)
●​ g = 10 Nkg⁻¹ or 9.8Nkg -1

Difference Between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight
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Measured in kg Measured in Newtons(N)

A scalar quantity A vector quantity

A measure of the amount of matter in an object The pull of the earth on an object

Constant everywhere Changes slightly when an object moves to

different places on earth

3.4 Derived Quantities and Units

Derived quantities come from combining base quantities.

Example:

Force:

3.5 Special Names of Units

Quantity Unit

Force Newton (N)

Energy Joule (J)

Power Watt (W)

Pressure Pascal (Pa)

3.6 Index Notation

Examples:

●​ m/s² → ms⁻²
●​ kg/m³ → kgm⁻³
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TURNING EFFECTS
3.7 Turning Effect of Forces

A force causes rotation about a pivot.

Examples:

●​ Opening doors
●​ Seesaws
●​ Spanners

3.8 Moment of a Force

Definition

Turning effect of a force on an object about a pivot(fixed point).

Formula:

T=Fd

Where:

●​ T = moment
●​ F = force (N)
●​ d = perpendicular distance (m)

Unit:

●​ Nm

Nm is NOT equal to Joule.

Two types of moments

1.​ Clockwise- when a force causes a body to turn about a single pivot from right to left
2.​ Anti-Clockwise- when a force causes a body to turn about a single pivot from left to right

A force acting at the pivot does not cause a turning effect

Equilibrium- when a body is in a balanced state

Two conditions must be met for an object to be in equilibrium

1.​ The sum of the upward forces = the sum of downward forces
2.​ The sum of CWM = The sum of ACWM
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3.9 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS/ LAW OF LEVERS

-​ Given that a body is in equilibrium, the sum of all clockwise moments about a single
pivot is equal to the sum of all anticlockwise moments about that same pivot.
-​

3.10 Levers
Parts of a Lever

●​ Fulcrum (pivot)
●​ Effort- the force applied
●​ Load- the object

Examples:

●​ Bottle opener
●​ Crowbar
●​ Spanner

Longer handles produce greater moments.

3.11 Centre of Gravity

-​ Point through which the entire weight acts for any orientation of the object .

NB- centre of gravity stays in the same position on the object

Finding Centre of Gravity

For regular shape:

●​ Wheres the lines of symmetry intersect

●​ Usually located closer where most mass of the object is

For irregular shape:

●​ Suspend the object

●​ Use plumbline
●​ Intersection of lines gives centre of gravity

3.12 Stability
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-​ Is when a body stays in a balanced state

Types:

1.​ Stable

-the centre of gravity rises then falls back to its ORIGINAL position

-the weight of the object causes a restoring moment to turn then return to ORIGINAL position

2.​ Unstable

-the weight of the object causes a toppling moment to fall to a new stable position

3.​ Neutral
-​ The COG neither rises or falls
-​ For objects that can roll

●​ The lower the COG the more stable a body is

●​ The larger the area of the base the more stable the body it is

DEFORMATION

-​ This is when force is applied and causes a body or an object to not be in equilibrium

Types

1.​ Elastic (temporary) - when the stretching force is removed the object reuters to its original
position, size and shape
2.​ Plastic (permanent) - when the stretching force is removed the object does not return to its
original size, position or shape due to the forces of attraction being broken

3.13 Force and Extension

Increasing force increases extension.

For springs:

●​ Extension proportional to force initially.

Force-Extension Graph

Straight-line Region
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Obeys Hooke’s Law.

Curved Region

Elastic limit exceeded.

NB- elastic limit is the point beyond which some parts of the stretching becomes permanent and the
object will not return to its original length

3.14 Hooke’s Law

-​ This states that if the elastic limit is not exceeded then the extension of the material is directly
proportional to the force applied.

Where:

●​ F = force
●​ k = spring constant
●​ x = extension

Extension (x)= stretched length (ls )- original length (lo)

(if you have more than one object being stretched)

UNIT

Ncm-1 OR Nm-1

4. DYNAMICS

4.1 Motion Terms

Distance,d

-​ The measurement of length of the path taken moving from one point to another point

Scalar.

SI unit is meters [m]

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Displacement

-​ The measurement of length of the taken moving from one point to another point in a direction

Vector.

SI unit is meters [m]

Speed
-​ The rate at which an object changes its distance with time

Scalar.

SI unit is ms-1

Velocity

Speed in a given direction.

Vector.

Acceleration
-​ The rate at which the velocity of an object changes

Where
●​ v= final velocity
●​ u= initial velocity
●​ t=time

4.2 Motion Graphs

Displacement-Time Graph

PHYSICS NOTEBOOK FOR REPRESENTATION

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Velocity Time Graphs

PHYSICS NOTEBOOK FOR REPRESENTATION
To find the area under the graph use the trapezium formula (½ (a+b) h

4.3 Aristotle’s Law of Motion

Aristotle believed:

Meaning:

●​ Greater force produces greater velocity.

He believed constant force was needed to keep motion going.

This was later disproved by Newton.

NEWTON’S LAWS
4.4 Newton’s Three Laws

Isaac Newton

First Law (Law of Inertia)

Objects remain at rest or move uniformly in a straight line unless acted upon by a resultant force.

NB- Momentum, P is the product of mass and velocity at a moving object

Formula =P= mass * velocity

Unit-Kgms-1

Types of momentum

1.​ Initial= P= mass * initial velocity (u)

2.​ Final= P= mass * final velocity (v)

Change in momentum= final momentum - initial momentum

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Second Law

-​ States that Acceleration proportional to force.

F=ma

UNIT- Newtons (N)

Third Law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

4.5 Dynamic Systems

Examples:

●​ Rockets

Newton’s Third Law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

How It Applies

●​ The rocket pushes hot gases downward at high speed.

●​ The gases push the rocket upward with an equal and opposite force.

Action

Gases forced downward.

Reaction

The rocket moves upward.

Newton’s Second Law

F=ma

The larger the force from the gases,

●​ the greater the acceleration of the rocket.

As fuel burns:
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●​ Mass decreases
●​ The rocket accelerates more easily.

2. Trampolines

Newton’s Third Law

How It Applies

●​ The jumper pushes downward on the trampoline.

●​ The trampoline pushes upward on the jumper.

This upward reaction force launches the person upward.

3.​ Garden sprinklers

Newton’s Third Law

How It Applies

●​ Water is pushed out sideways from the sprinkler.

●​ The sprinkler experiences an opposite reaction force.

This causes the sprinkler to rotate.

Action

Water pushed out.

Reaction

The sprinkler turns in the opposite direction.

MOMENTUM
4.6 Linear Momentum

Unit:

●​ kg ms⁻¹
●​ Ns
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4.7 Conservation of Momentum

-This states when two objects collide or separate, their momentum remains constant providing no
resultant force is acting on them

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision.

Example:

●​ Billiard balls

5. ENERGY

5.1 Energy

Energy is the ability to do work.

Unit:

●​ Joule (J)

5.2 Forms of Energy

●​ Kinetic
●​ Potential
●​ Thermal
●​ Electrical
●​ Chemical
●​ Nuclear
●​ Magnetic
●​ Sound
●​ Light

5.3 Energy Transformations

Examples:

Radio
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Electrical → Sound + Thermal

Car Braking

Kinetic → Thermal

Photosynthesis

Light → Chemical

Thermal energy is usually produced.

5.4 Work Done

W=Fs

Where:

●​ W = work done
●​ F = force
●​ s = displacement

Joule (J)

5.5 Alternative Energy Sources in the Caribbean

Examples:

●​ Solar
●​ Wind
●​ Hydroelectric
●​ Geothermal
●​ Tidal

Importance:

●​ Reduce fuel imports

●​ Reduce pollution
●​ Renewable energy supply
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POTENTIAL ENERGY
5.6 Potential Energy

-​ Stored energy that an object has because of its position or state

Examples:

●​ Raised object
●​ Stretched spring
●​ Battery

5.7 Gravitational Potential Energy

-energy possessed by objects that are raised above the earth's surface

KINETIC ENERGY
5.8 Kinetic Energy

-​ Energy an object has because it is moving

5.9 Formula

5.10 Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed.​

It only changes form.

Example:​
Pendulum:

●​ GPE ↔ KE

Swing

When the swing moves, energy constantly changes between:

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●​ Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)- at its highest at the highest point

●​ Kinetic Energy (KE)

Ball

Chemical Energy→Kinetic Energy

POWER
5.11 Power

Rate at which work is done .

e= energy t=time

SI Unit:

●​ Watt (W)

5.12 Efficiency

How much useful energy is produced.

Factors affecting efficiency:

●​ Friction
●​ Heat loss
●​ Sound loss

5.13 Efficiency Formula

6. HYDROSTATICS
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6.1 Pressure

-defined as the force per unit area

Formula

Unit = Pa OR Nm-2

Pressure increases when:

●​ Force increases
●​ Area decreases

Example:​
Standing on one foot produces greater pressure.

6.2 Pressure in Fluids

Formula

P=ρgh

Where:

●​ ρ = density
●​ g = gravity
●​ h = depth

Unit= Nm-2

Important Facts

●​ Pressure increases with depth.

●​ All points at the same horizontal level have the same pressure.

6.3 Archimedes’ Principle

The upthrust force on an object partially or wholly immersed in a fluid is equal and opposite to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object
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Floating and Sinking

Object Floats When:

●​ Upthrust ≥ weight

Object Sinks When:

●​ Weight > upthrust

Examples:

●​ Ships
●​ Rafts
●​ Balloons
●​ Submarines

​
NB- Gas Pressure= hpg + Patm
Patm is simply adding 101 to hpg
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Section B: THERMAL PHYSICS AND KINETIC THEORY

1. NATURE OF HEAT
1.1 Caloric Theory vs Kinetic Theory of Heat

NB: Heat is a form of energy as a result of mechanical work being done

Caloric Theory (18th Century)

●​ Scientists believed heat was a weightless invisible fluid called caloric.

●​ Heat flowed from hotter objects to colder objects.
●​ Objects with more calories were hotter.
●​ Calories could not be created or destroyed.

Problems with the Caloric Theory

●​ During friction, heat seemed to be produced continuously.

●​ If caloric was a substance, it should eventually run out.

Rumford’s Cannon-Boring Experiment

Count Rumford

Experiment

●​ Rumford observed cannon barrels being bored.

●​ Large amounts of heat were produced continuously by friction.
●​ Water near the cannon even boiled.

Conclusion

●​ Endless heat production could not be explained by a stored fluid.

●​ Heat must be related to motion.

Kinetic Theory of Heat

●​ Heat is caused by the motion of particles.

●​ The faster molecules move, the hotter the object becomes.
●​ Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of particles.

Difference Between the Two Theories

Caloric Theory Kinetic Theory

Heat is a fluid Heat is molecular motion

Heat flows as a substance Energy transfers between particles

Cannot explain friction heating Explains friction heating

Now rejected Accepted today

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KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

●​ All matter is made up of smaller particles
●​ There are strong forces of attraction between said particles
●​ The particles are always in motion
●​ Collision of particles are perfectly elastic

EVIDENCE OF KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

1.​ Brownian motion- this is the jerky, haphazard random motion of particles in a particular
medium
2.​ Diffusion- The net, passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration, until they are evenly distributed
3.​ Cohesion- force of attraction between molecules of the same kind
4.​ Adhesion- force of attraction between molecules of the different kind

1.2 Joule’s Experiments and Conservation of Energy

James Prescott Joule

Joule’s Experiment

●​ Falling weights turned paddles in water.

●​ The moving paddles stirred the water.
●​ Water temperature increased.

Observation

●​ Mechanical energy changed into heat energy.

Conclusion

●​ Energy is not lost.

●​ Energy changes from one form to another.

Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.

Example:

●​ Electrical heater:
○​ Electrical energy → heat energy

2. TEMPERATURE
2.1 Temperature and Thermal Energy Transfer

Temperature
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-​ Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

●​ SI Unit: kelvin (K)
●​ Common unit: degrees Celsius (°C)

Direction of Heat Transfer

Thermal energy always moves:

●​ from higher temperature

●​ to lower temperature

until both objects reach the same temperature.

Example:

●​ Hot tea cools because heat transfers to cooler air.

2.2 Physical Properties Used to Measure Temperature

A thermometer uses a property that changes with temperature.

Properties That Change With Temperature

1.​ Expansion of liquids

2.​ Expansion of solids
3.​ Electrical resistance
4.​ Thermoelectric effect
5.​ Gas pressure

2.3 Thermometers and Their Design

(a) Laboratory Thermometer

Features

●​ Long narrow tube

●​ Large temperature range
●​ No kink
●​ Usually contains mercury or alcohol

Range

●​ About –10°C to 110°C

Uses

●​ Scientific experiments

(b) Clinical Thermometer

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Features

●​ Has a constriction (kink)

●​ Small temperature range
●​ Sensitive

Range

●​ 35°C to 42°C

Purpose of the Kink

●​ Prevents mercury from falling immediately.

●​ Allows reading after removal from the body.

Uses

●​ Measuring body temperature

(c) Thermocouple Thermometer

Principle

●​ Uses two different metals joined together.

●​ Produces a voltage when heated.

Features

●​ Very fast response

●​ Wide temperature range
●​ Measures very high temperatures

Uses

●​ Furnaces
●​ Industrial processes

2.4 Fixed Points on the Celsius Scale

Lower Fixed Point

●​ Temperature of melting ice

●​ 0°C

Upper Fixed Point

●​ Temperature of steam above boiling water

●​ 100°C

(Both measured at standard atmospheric pressure.)

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2.5 Temperature and Kinetic Energy

Relationship

●​ Temperature depends on the average kinetic energy of molecules.

Higher Temperature Means:

●​ Faster molecular motion

●​ Greater kinetic energy

PHASES OF MATTER
2.6 Solids, Liquids and Gases
Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed Takes container shape No fixed shape

Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed

Particle Movement Vibrate only Slide past each other Move freely

Intermolecular Forces Strong Moderate Weak

Compressibility Very low Slight High

Kinetic Theory Explanation

Solids

●​ Particles tightly packed.

●​ Strong forces hold them together.
●​ Only vibrate.

Liquids

●​ Particles less tightly packed.

●​ Can move around each other.

Gases

●​ Particles far apart.

●​ Weak forces.
●​ Rapid random motion.

Evidence of Intermolecular Forces

Example:

●​ Liquid in a syringe is difficult to compress.

●​ Gas compresses easily.
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EXPANSION
2.8 Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion

●​ Increase in size when heated.

Why Expansion Occurs

●​ Molecules gain kinetic energy.

●​ Vibrate or move further apart.

Effects and Applications

Telephone Wires

●​ Expand in hot weather

●​ Contract in cold weather

Opening Metal Jar Lids

●​ Hot water expands the metal lid.

●​ Lid loosens.

Creaking Roofs

●​ Metal expands and contracts with temperature changes.

Demonstrations

Ball and Ring Apparatus

●​ A cold ball passes through the ring.

●​ The heated ball expands and cannot pass through.

Bimetallic Strip

●​ Two metals expand differently.

●​ Strip bends when heated.
●​ Used in thermostats.

GAS LAWS
2.9 Kelvin Scale from Gas Graphs
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Observation

●​ Gas volume decreases as temperature decreases.

●​ Extrapolating graphs gives –273°C.

Absolute Zero

●​ Lowest possible temperature.

●​ Molecular motion is minimal.

Kelvin Scale

●​ Starts at absolute zero.

●​ SI unit of temperature.

2.10 Kelvin and Celsius Relationship

Where:

●​ T = temperature in kelvin
●​ θ = temperature in Celsius

Example:

●​ 27°C = 300 K

2.11 Gas Laws

(a) Boyle’s Law
-​ At a constant temperature, pressure and volume are inversely proportional

Statement

For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature:

●​ Pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

Relationship

●​ Increase volume → decrease pressure

(b) Charles’ Law

-​ At a constant pressure, volume and temperature are directly proportional
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Statement

For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure:

●​ Volume is directly proportional to temperature.

(c) Pressure Law

Statement

For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume:

●​ Pressure is directly proportional to temperature.

(d) General Gas Law

2.12 Kinetic Theory Explanation of Gas Laws

Gas Pressure

●​ Caused by molecules colliding with container walls.

Boyle’s Law

●​ Smaller volume → more collisions → higher pressure.

Charles’ Law

●​ Higher temperature → faster molecules → larger volume.

Pressure Law

●​ Higher temperature → harder collisions → higher pressure.

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3. THERMAL MEASUREMENTS

Specific Heat Capacity

3.1 Specific Heat Capacity vs Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity (c)

●​ Heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of substance by 1°C or 1 K without change in

state.
●​ Unit: J kg⁻¹k⁻¹

Heat Capacity (C)

●​ Heat needed to raise the temperature of the whole object by 1°C or 1 K.

Relationship

C=mc

3.2 Heat Energy Equation

Where:

●​ EH​= heat energy

●​ m = mass
●​ c = specific heat capacity
●​ ΔT = temperature change

This expression calculates the ratio of heat capacities between two substances or
systems : same unit as specific heat capacity

3.3 Determining Specific Heat Capacity

Electrical Method

●​ Heater placed in material.

●​ Electrical energy supplied is measured.

Formula

Electrical energy:
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Then:

Method of Mixtures

●​ Hot metal placed in cooler water.

●​ Heat lost = heat gained.

Specific Latent Heat

3.4 Temperature During Phase Change

Observation

●​ Temperature remains constant while melting or boiling.

Reason

●​ Heat energy breaks intermolecular forces instead of increasing kinetic energy.

Cooling Curve Example

●​ Candle wax cooling experiment.

3.5 Specific Latent Heat Equation

-​

Where:

●​ EH​​= heat energy

●​ m = mass
●​ l = specific latent heat

3.6 Specific Latent Heat of Water

Fusion (lf)

●​ Energy needed to change ice to water.

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Vaporization (lv)

●​ Energy needed to change water to steam.

Unit

●​ J kg⁻¹

3.7 Evaporation vs Boiling

Evaporation Boiling

Occurs at all temperatures Occurs at boiling point

Surface only Throughout liquid

Slow Rapid

Causes cooling Does not cool surroundings

Kinetic Theory Explanation

Evaporation

●​ Fast molecules escape from the liquid surface.

●​ Remaining molecules have lower average energy.
●​ Liquid cools.

Boiling

●​ Molecules throughout liquid gain enough energy to form bubbles.

Cooling Effect of Evaporation

Examples

●​ Perspiration cools the body.

●​ Earthenware vessels keep water cool.
●​ Air conditioners.
●​ Refrigerators.

4. TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

4.1 Conduction

Definition

Transfer of heat through a substance without movement of the substance.

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Best Conductors

●​ Metals

Poor Conductors (Insulators)

●​ Air
●​ Plastic
●​ Wood

Why Air Is a Good Insulator

●​ Molecules are far apart.

●​ Collisions transfer energy slowly.

Applications

●​ Expanded polystyrene
●​ Hollow concrete blocks

4.2 Convection

Definition

Transfer of heat by movement of fluids (liquids and gases).

Process

1.​ Fluid heated

2.​ Expands and becomes less dense
3.​ Rises
4.​ Cooler fluid sinks

This forms a convection current.

Land and Sea Breezes

Sea Breeze (Day)

●​ Land heats faster than sea.

●​ Warm air over land rises.
●​ Cool air from the sea moves inland.

Land Breeze (Night)

●​ Land cools faster.

●​ Warm air rises over sea.
●​ Cool air from land moves toward the sea.
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4.3 Radiation

Definition

Transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves.

Important Facts

●​ No medium needed.
●​ Can travel through vacuum.
●​ Mainly infra-red radiation.

Demonstration

●​ Heat from the Sun reaches Earth through space.

4.4 Factors Affecting Absorption and Emission

Factors

(a) Texture

●​ Rough surfaces absorb and emit better.

(b) Nature

●​ Dull surfaces absorb and emit better.

●​ Shiny surfaces reflect heat.

(c) Colour

●​ Black surfaces are the best absorbers and emitters.

●​ White surfaces are poor absorbers.

(d) Area

●​ A larger area absorbs and emits more heat.

4.5 Good Absorbers are Good Emitters

Examples

●​ Car radiators painted black.

●​ Solar collectors painted dull black.

4.6 Applications of Heat Transfer

 40

Vacuum Flask

How It Reduces Heat Transfer

Conduction

●​ Vacuum prevents conduction.

Convection

●​ Vacuum prevents convection.

Radiation

●​ Silvered surfaces reflect radiation.

Solar Water Heater

Working Principle

●​ Black surface absorbs solar radiation.

●​ Water heated in pipes.
●​ Convection circulates hot water.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Greenhouse Effect

●​ Sun’s radiation enters the atmosphere.

●​ Earth emits infra-red radiation.
●​ Carbon dioxide traps some heat.

Global Warming

●​ Increased greenhouse gases raise Earth’s temperature.

Effects

●​ Rising sea levels

●​ Stronger storms
●​ Droughts
●​ Melting ice caps
 41

Section C: WAVES AND OPTICS

1. WAVE MOTION

Types of Waves
1.1 Different Types of Waves
Pulse

●​ A single disturbance that travels through a medium.

●​ Example:
○​ One quick shake of a rope.

Progressive Wave

●​ A continuous wave that transfers energy from one place to another.

Example:

●​ Water waves moving across the sea.

Transverse Waves

Definition

●​ Particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.

Examples

●​ Light waves
●​ Water ripples
●​ Waves on a rope

Features

●​ Crest = highest point

●​ Trough = lowest point

Longitudinal Waves

Definition

●​ Particles vibrate parallel to the direction of wave travel.

Examples

●​ Sound waves
●​ Compression waves in springs

Features
 42

●​ Compression = particles close together

●​ Rarefaction = particles spread apart

Producing Waves

Ripple Tank

Used to demonstrate:

●​ Reflection
●​ Refraction
●​ Diffraction
●​ Interference

Slinky Spring

Can produce:

●​ Transverse waves
●​ Longitudinal waves

Wave Parameters
1.2 Speed, Frequency, Wavelength, Period and Amplitude
Amplitude

●​ Maximum displacement from rest position.

●​ Determines wave energy.

Wavelength (λ)

●​ Distance between two consecutive crests or compressions.

Unit:

●​ metre (m)

Frequency (f)

●​ Number of waves produced each second.

Unit:

●​ hertz (Hz)

Period (T)

●​ Time for one complete wave.

 43

Unit:

●​ second (s)

Wave Speed (v)

Where:

●​ vvv = wave speed

●​ fff = frequency
●​ λ\lambdaλ = wavelength

Example

A wave has:

●​ frequency = 5 Hz
●​ wavelength = 2 m

v=5×2=10 m/sv = 5 \times 2 = 10 \text{ m/s}v=5×2=10 m/s

Echoes

Echo

●​ Reflected sound heard again.

Uses

●​ Measuring distance
●​ Determining speed of sound

Formula

Divide by 2 because sound travels to the object and back.

 44

1.3 Wave Graphs

Displacement-Position Graph

Shows

●​ Wave shape at one instant.

Can Determine

●​ Wavelength
●​ Amplitude

Displacement-Time Graph

Shows

●​ Motion of one particle over time.

Can Determine

●​ Period
●​ Frequency
●​ Amplitude

2. SOUND

Production and Propagation

2.1 Production of Sound

Sound is Produced By

●​ Vibrating objects.

Examples:

●​ Drums
●​ Guitar strings
●​ Tuning forks
●​ Vocal cords

Sound Propagation

●​ Sound travels as a longitudinal wave.

●​ Requires a medium:
 45

○​ solids
○​ liquids
○​ gases

Cannot travel in vacuum.

Cup and String Telephone

How It Works

●​ Vibrations travel along tight string.

●​ Sound transferred from one cup to another.

2.2 Pitch and Loudness

Pitch

●​ Depends on frequency.

High Frequency

→ High pitch

Low Frequency

→ Low pitch

Loudness

●​ Depends on amplitude.

Large Amplitude

→ Loud sound

Small Amplitude

→ Soft sound

Human Hearing Range

Normal Human Ear

●​ 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz

Below 20 Hz:

●​ Infrasound

Above 20 000 Hz:

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●​ Ultrasound

Examples

●​ Steel pan → different pitches

●​ Bottles with different water levels → different frequencies

Speed of Sound
2.3 Speed of Sound in Practical Situations

Thunder and Lightning

●​ Light travels faster than sound.

●​ Lightning seen before thunder heard.

Estimating Distance of Strike

distance=vt\text{distance} = vtdistance=vt

Approximate speed of sound in air:

●​ 340 m/s

Echo Method

●​ Used to estimate speed of sound.

2.4 Evidence of Sound Wave Behaviour

Reflection

Example:

●​ Echoes

Refraction

Example:

●​ Sound moving from air into water changes direction.

Diffraction

Example:

●​ Hearing sound around corners.

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Interference

Example:

●​ Loud and soft spots from sound systems.

2.5 Ultrasound
Ultrasound

●​ Sound with frequency above 20 000 Hz.

Uses of Ultrasound

Medical

●​ Prenatal scanning

Industrial

●​ Detecting cracks in metals

3. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
3.1 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Properties

●​ Transverse waves
●​ Travel through vacuum
●​ Travel at same speed in vacuum

Speed in vacuum:

3.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Order from longest wavelength to shortest:

1.​ Radio waves

2.​ Microwaves
3.​ Infrared
 48

4.​ Visible light

5.​ Ultraviolet
6.​ X-rays
7.​ Gamma rays

3.3 Sources and Uses of EM Waves

Wave Source Use

Radio Radio transmitters Communication

Microwaves Magnetrons Cooking, radar

Infrared Hot objects Remote controls

Visible Light Sun, lamps Vision

Ultraviolet Sun Sterilization

X-rays X-ray tubes Medical imaging

Gamma Rays Radioactive materials Cancer treatment

4. LIGHT WAVES

Wave-Particle Duality
4.1 Rival Theories of Light
Huygens’ Wave Theory

Christiaan Huygens

●​ Light behaves as a wave.

Newton’s Particle Theory

Isaac Newton

●​ Light made of tiny particles.

Young’s Evidence for Waves

Thomas Young

●​ Double slit experiment showed interference.

●​ Supported wave theory.
 49

Einstein’s Photon Theory

Albert Einstein

●​ Light also behaves as particles called photons.

Modern View

●​ Light has both:

○​ wave nature
○​ particle nature

Applications

●​ Digital cameras
●​ Photo sensors

4.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Observation

●​ Bright and dark fringes formed.

Explanation

●​ Interference occurs.
●​ Confirms light behaves as a wave.

Rays of Light
4.3 Why Diffraction of Light is Not Normally Seen

Reason

●​ The wavelength of light is very small.

●​ Significant diffraction occurs only when gap size is comparable to wavelength.

4.4 Light Travels in Straight Lines

Evidence

●​ Formation of shadows
●​ Eclipses
●​ Pinhole camera
 50

Pinhole Camera

Features

●​ Forms inverted image.

●​ No lens needed.

Reflection
4.5 Laws of Reflection

Laws

1.​ Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

2.​ Incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie in the same plane.

4.6 Images in Plane Mirrors

Characteristics of Image

●​ Virtual
●​ Upright
●​ Same size as object
●​ Same distance behind mirror

No Parallax Method

●​ Used to locate virtual image positions.

Refraction
4.7 Evidence of Refraction

Examples

●​ The pencil appears bent in water.

●​ The swimming pool appears shallower.
●​ Mirage on hot roads.

Cause

●​ Light changes speed when entering another medium.

4.8 Refraction Through Blocks and Prisms

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Rectangular Block

●​ Emergent ray parallel to incident ray.

●​ Lateral displacement occurs.

Prism

●​ Light bends toward base.

4.9 Dispersion by a Prism

Dispersion

●​ Splitting white light into colours.

Rainbow Colours

●​ Red
●​ Orange
●​ Yellow
●​ Green
●​ Blue
●​ Indigo
●​ Violet

4.10 Snell’s Law

Where:

●​ n= refractive index
●​ i = angle of incidence
●​ r= angle of refraction

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

4.11 Critical Angle

Critical Angle

●​ Angle of incidence in denser medium for which angle of refraction is 90°.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

Conditions for TIR

 52

1.​ Light travels from denser to less dense medium.

2.​ The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

4.12 Relationship Between Critical Angle and TIR

●​ When angle exceeds critical angle:

○​ no refraction occurs
○​ all light reflected internally

4.13 Applications of TIR

Fibre Optic Cables

●​ Communication systems

Endoscopes

●​ Medical viewing devices

Periscopes

●​ Used in submarines

5. LENSES

Action of Lenses
5.1 Converging and Diverging Lenses
Converging Lens (Convex)

●​ Brings parallel rays together.

●​ Forms real focus.

Diverging Lens (Concave)

●​ Spread rays apart.

●​ Forms virtual focus.

5.2 Important Lens Terms

Principal Axis

●​ Straight line through the optical centre.

Principal Focus
 53

●​ Point where parallel rays meet or appear to come from.

Focal Length

f=distance between optical centre and principal

Focal Plane

●​ Plane passing through focus perpendicular to principal axis.

Magnification

5.3 Real vs Virtual Images

Real Image Virtual Image

Can be formed on screen Cannot be formed on screen

Rays actually meet Rays appear to meet

Usually inverted Usually upright

5.4 Magnification Equation

Where:

●​ m = magnification
●​ v = image distance
●​ u = object distance

5.5 Determining Focal Length

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Where:

●​ f = focal length
●​ u = object distance
●​ v = image distance

Experimental Method

Apparatus

●​ Converging lens
●​ Screen
●​ Object
●​ Metre rule

Procedure

1.​ Place the object before the lens.

2.​ Move the screen until a sharp image forms.
3.​ Measure u and v.
4.​ Use the lens formula to calculate f.
 55

Section D: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

1. ELECTROSTATICS
Electric Charge (Q)

What is Electric Charge?

Electric charge is a property of matter caused by the gain or loss of electrons.

There are two types of charges:

●​ Positive charge (+) → loss of electrons

●​ Negative charge (-) → gain of electrons

Important Facts

●​ Electrons are negatively charged.

●​ Protons are positively charged.
●​ Electrons can move easily from one object to another.
●​ Protons remain fixed in the nucleus.

1.1 Charging of Objects

Charging by Friction

When two different materials are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one object to another.

Example 1: Glass Rod and Dry Cloth

●​ Glass loses electrons.

●​ Glass becomes positively charged.
●​ Cloth gains electrons and becomes negatively charged.

Example 2: Perspex/Polythene Rod and Dry Cloth

●​ Perspex or polythene gains electrons.

●​ Rod becomes negatively charged.
●​ Cloth loses electrons and becomes positively charged.

Why Does This Happen?

Different materials hold electrons with different strengths. Friction causes electrons to move between
them.

Demonstration of Charging by Friction

Experiment

Rub:
 56

●​ a plastic ruler,
●​ comb,
●​ or polythene rod

with a dry cloth.

Observation

The object can attract:

●​ bits of paper,
●​ dust,
●​ hair.

Explanation

The object becomes electrically charged and exerts electrostatic force.

1.2 Forces Between Electric Charges

Law of Charges

●​ Like charges repel

●​ Unlike charges attract

Examples

●​ Positive and positive → repel

●​ Negative and negative → repel
●​ Positive and negative → attract

These forces are fundamental properties of electric charges.

Demonstration

Suspend two charged objects with thread.

Observation

●​ Similar charges move apart.

●​ Opposite charges move together.

1.3 Charging by Induction

Definition

Charging by induction is charging an object without direct contact.

A charged object causes electrons in another object to rearrange.

 57

Example

Bring a negatively charged rod near neutral paper bits.

What Happens?

●​ Electrons in the paper move away slightly.

●​ The side nearest the rod becomes slightly positive.
●​ Attraction occurs.

Key Point

A charged object can attract a neutral object because charges inside the neutral object rearrange
themselves.

Electric Fields

1.4 Electric Field

Definition

An electric field is the region around a charged object where another charge experiences a force.

Electric Field Lines

Rules

1.​ Lines start on positive charges.

2.​ Lines end on negative charges.
3.​ Lines never cross.
4.​ Closer lines mean stronger fields.

Field Around a Positive Charge

Field lines point outward.

Field Around a Negative Charge

Field lines point inward.

Field Between Opposite Charges

Lines go from positive to negative.

Field Between Parallel Plates

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●​ Uniform electric field

●​ Lines are straight and parallel

Comparison with Other Fields

Electric fields are similar to:

●​ gravitational fields,
●​ magnetic fields.

All are force fields.

1.5 Static Electricity

Hazard of Static Electricity

Lightning

Clouds build up large charges.

When charge suddenly discharges:

●​ lightning occurs,
●​ can damage buildings,
●​ may kill people.

Static Build-Up on Vehicles

Fuel trucks use chains/earth wires to prevent sparks.

Useful Applications

Electrostatic Painting

Paint droplets are charged.​

The object gets the opposite charge.

Result:

●​ paint spreads evenly,

●​ less wastage.

Photocopiers

A charged drum attracts toner powder to form images.

Dust Extraction
 59

Factories use charged plates to remove smoke and dust from air.

2. CURRENT ELECTRICITY

2.1 Conductors and Insulators

Conductors

Materials that allow electricity to flow easily.

Examples

●​ copper
●​ aluminium
●​ silver

Why?

They contain free electrons.

Insulators

Materials that resist the flow of electricity.

Examples

●​ plastic
●​ rubber
●​ glass
●​ wood

Test Circuit

Use:

●​ cell,
●​ bulb,
●​ connecting wires.

If bulb lights → conductor.​

If the bulb does not light → insulator.

2.2 Electric Current in Metals

Definition of Current

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.

 60

In metals:

●​ current is caused by moving electrons.

Other Conducting Media

Electrolytes

Current carried by:

●​ positive ions,
●​ negative ions.

Semiconductors

Materials like:

●​ silicon,
●​ germanium.

Used in electronics.

2.3 Electron Flow vs Conventional Current

Electron Flow

Electrons move:

●​ from negative terminal to positive terminal.

Conventional Current

Scientists agreed current flows:

●​ from positive terminal to negative terminal.

This convention was made before electrons were discovered.

2.4 Unit of Current

Unit = Ampere (A)

Measured using an ammeter.

2.5 Relationship Between Charge, Current and Time

 61

Relationship:

Where:

●​ Q = charge (C)
●​ I = current (A)
●​ t = time (s)

Important Unit

1 coulomb = 1 ampere × 1 second

Example

A current of 2 A flows for 5 s.

Charge:

Alternating Current (AC)

2.6 Direct Current vs Alternating Current

Direct Current (DC)

●​ Flows in one direction only.

●​ Produced by batteries.

Graph:

●​ straight horizontal line.

Alternating Current (AC)

●​ Reverses direction continuously.

●​ Produced by generators.

Graph:
 62

●​ wave-shaped (sine wave).

Comparison
Direct Current Alternating Current

One direction Changes direction

Battery source Generator source

Constant voltage Varying voltage

2.7 Current-Time and Voltage-Time Graphs

Period (T)

Time for one complete cycle.

Frequency (f)

Number of cycles per second.

Relationship:

Where:

●​ f = frequency (Hz)
●​ T = period (s)

Example

If period = 0.02 s
 63

3. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

3.1 Conversion of Electrical Energy

Electrical to Other Forms
Electrical Energy → Example

Heat iron, kettle

Light bulb

Sound speaker

Motion fan

Other Forms to Electrical

Energy Source Example

Chemical → electrical battery

Solar → electrical solar panel

Mechanical → electrical generator

3.2 Potential Difference

Relationship:

Where:

●​ V = voltage (V)
●​ E = energy (J)
●​ Q = charge (C)

Definition

Potential difference is energy transferred per unit charge.

3.3 Electrical Power

Relationship:
 64

Where:

●​ P = power (W)
●​ I = current (A)
●​ V = voltage (V)

Another formula:

Example

A heater uses:

●​ 240 V
●​ 5 A

3.4 Conserving Electrical Energy

Why Conserve Electricity?

●​ Fossil fuels are limited.

●​ Reduces pollution.
●​ Saves money.

Ways to Conserve Energy

Use LED Bulbs

●​ more efficient,
●​ less heat loss.

Use Solar Water Heaters

 65

Reduce electricity use.

Buy Efficient Appliances

●​ efficient refrigerators,
●​ efficient air conditioners.

Turn Off Unused Devices

Avoid wasting energy.

4. CIRCUITS AND COMPONENTS

4.1 Circuit Diagrams

Common Symbols

You should know symbols for:

●​ cell,
●​ battery,
●​ resistor,
●​ switch,
●​ lamp,
●​ ammeter,
●​ voltmeter,
●​ Diode.
●​ Fuse.

Ammeter

●​ measures current,
●​ connected in series.

Voltmeter

●​ measures voltage,
●​ connected in parallel.

4.2 Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Circuit

Features

●​ one path for current,

●​ same current everywhere,
●​ voltage shared.
 66

If one component fails

Entire circuit stops.

Parallel Circuit

Features

●​ multiple paths,
●​ same voltage across branches,
●​ current splits.

If one component fails

Others continue working.

Cells

4.3 Zinc-Carbon Cell

Parts and Functions
Part Function

Zinc case negative terminal

Carbon rod positive terminal

Electrolyte paste allows ion movement

Manganese dioxide removes hydrogen bubbles

Diagram

A zinc container surrounds electrolyte paste with a carbon rod in the center.

4.4 Primary vs Secondary Cells

Primary Cell Secondary Cell

Cannot recharge Rechargeable

Disposable Reusable

Higher internal resistance Lower internal resistance

Examples
 67

Primary

●​ dry cell

Secondary

●​ car battery,
●​ phone battery.

4.5 Recharging a Secondary Cell

Important Points

●​ correct polarity required,

●​ charging voltage must exceed battery voltage.

Positive terminal connects to positive terminal.

I–V Relationships

4.6 Current and Potential Difference

Metallic Conductors

At constant temperature:

Current is directly proportional to voltage.

Straight-line graph through origin.

Filament Lamp

As temperature rises:

●​ resistance increases,
●​ graph curves.

Semiconductor Diode

Current flows mainly in one direction.

Graph shows:

●​ almost no reverse current,

●​ forward current after threshold voltage.

Copper Sulphate Solution

 68

Current carried by ions.

Graph may not be perfectly linear.

Resistance (R)

4.7 Concept of Resistance

Definition

Resistance is opposition to current flow.

Unit = ohm (Ω)

Factors Affecting Resistance

●​ length,
●​ thickness,
●​ material,
●​ temperature.

4.8 Ohm’s Law

Relationship:

Where:

●​ R = resistance (Ω)
●​ V = voltage (V)
●​ I = current (A)

Ohm’s Law Statement

At constant temperature:​
current is directly proportional to voltage.

4.9 Why Ammeter Has Low Resistance

An ammeter is connected in series.

 69

If resistance is high:

●​ it reduces current,
●​ changes circuit readings.

Therefore:

●​ The ammeter must have very low resistance.

4.10 Why Voltmeter Has High Resistance

A voltmeter is connected in parallel.

If resistance is low:

●​ large current flows through voltmeter,

●​ affects circuits.

Therefore:

●​ voltmeter must have very high resistance.

4.11 Series and Parallel Resistance

Series Resistance

Parallel resistance

4.12 Series and Parallel Circuits Problems

Series Circuit Rules

●​ same current,
●​ voltages add.

Parallel Circuit Rules

●​ same voltage,
●​ currents add.
 70

Electricity in the Home

4.13 Why Domestic Appliances Use Parallel Connections

Reasons

●​ appliances work independently,

●​ each gets full voltage,
●​ one appliance can be switched off without affecting others.

4.14 Fuse, Circuit Breaker and Earth Wire

Fuse

Thin wire that melts if current becomes too large.

Placed in live wire.

Circuit Breaker

Automatically switches off circuit during overload.

Can be reset.

Earth Wire

Provides a safe path for current during faults.

Prevents electric shock.

4.15 Choosing a Fuse

Fuse rating should be:

●​ slightly above normal operating current.

Example:

●​ appliance current = 5 A
●​ suitable fuse = 7 A.

4.16 Incorrect or Fluctuating Voltage

Effects

●​ overheating,
●​ damaged appliances,
 71

●​ reduced lifespan,
●​ fire risk.

5. ELECTRONICS

5.1 Semiconductor Diode and Half-Wave Rectification

Diode

Allows current in one direction only.

Half-Wave Rectification

●​ Half-wave rectification is the process of converting alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC) using a semiconductor diode. The diode acts as a one-way device that allows
current to flow during the positive half-cycle of the AC supply when it is forward biased, but
blocks current during the negative half-cycle when it is reverse biased. As a result, only one
half of the AC waveform passes through the circuit. In V–t graphs, the input graph is a
complete sine wave with positive and negative halves, while the output graph shows only one
set of half-waves with the blocked sections replaced by zero. The output is called pulsating
DC because the current flows in one direction only, but its magnitude continuously rises and
falls instead of remaining constant.

V-t Graphs

Before Rectification

Complete sine wave.

After Rectification

Only positive halves remain.

5.2 Batteries DC vs Rectified AC

Battery DC Rectified AC

Steady voltage Pulsating voltage

Constant graph Pulses on graph

Logic Gates

5.3 Logic Gate Symbols

 72

Know symbols for:

●​ AND
●​ OR
●​ NOT
●​ NAND
●​ NOR

5.4 Functions and Truth Tables

AND Gate

Output is 1 only if BOTH inputs are 1.

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

OR Gate

Output is 1 if ANY input is 1.

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

NOT Gate

Reverses input.

A Output

0 1

1 0

NAND Gate

Opposite of AND gate.

 73

NOR Gate

Opposite of OR gate.

5.5 Logic Gate Circuits

Example: Alarm Circuit

An alarm may sound when:

●​ door sensor OR window sensor activated.

Uses OR gate.

Combination Gates

Questions may involve up to three connected gates.

You should:

1.​ determine outputs step by step,

2.​ use truth tables carefully.

5.6 Impact of Electronics and Technology on Society

Positive Effects

●​ faster communication,
●​ improved healthcare,
●​ automation,
●​ online learning,
●​ safer transportation.

Negative Effects

●​ job loss from automation,

●​ electronic waste,
●​ privacy concerns,
●​ dependence on technology.
 74

MAGNETISM

6.1 Magnetic and Non-Magnetic Materials

Magnetic Materials

These are materials that are attracted by a magnet.

Examples:

●​ Iron
●​ Steel
●​ Nickel
●​ Cobalt

These materials can also be magnetised.

Non-Magnetic Materials

These are materials that are not attracted by magnets.

Examples:

●​ Wood
●​ Plastic
●​ Glass
●​ Copper
●​ Aluminium

Why Some Materials are Magnetic

Magnetic materials contain tiny regions called magnetic domains.

●​ In an unmagnetised material → domains point in random directions.

●​ In a magnetised material → domains line up in one direction.

This produces a magnetic effect.

6.2 Attraction of an Unmagnetised Object

A magnet can attract an unmagnetised magnetic material such as iron.

Explanation

When iron is brought near a magnet:

●​ The magnetic field causes domains in the iron to line up.

●​ The side nearest the magnet becomes an opposite pole.
●​ Opposite poles attract.

So the object becomes a temporary magnet.

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6.3 Permanent and Temporary Magnets

Permanent Magnets Temporary Magnets

Keep magnetism for a long time Lose magnetism easily

Difficult to magnetise Easy to magnetise

Difficult to demagnetise Easy to demagnetise

Made from hard magnetic materials Made from soft magnetic materials

Materials Used

Permanent Magnets

Used for magnets that must remain magnetic.

Examples:

●​ Steel
●​ Magnadur

Temporary Magnets

Used where magnetism is needed only briefly.

Examples:

●​ Soft iron
●​ Mumetal

Uses

Permanent Magnets

●​ Compass needles
●​ Refrigerator magnets
●​ Speakers

Temporary Magnets

●​ Electromagnets
●​ Transformers
●​ Relays

6.4 Poles of a Magnetic Dipole

 76

A magnet has two poles:

●​ North pole (N)

●​ South pole (S)

This pair of poles is called a magnetic dipole.

Identifying the Poles

Method:

Suspend the magnet freely using a string.

The magnet aligns itself with the Earth’s magnetic field:

●​ End pointing north → North pole

●​ Other end → South pole

6.5 Forces Between Magnetic Poles

Law of Magnetic Poles

●​ Like poles repel

●​ Unlike poles attract

Investigation

Using Two Magnets

Bring poles close together.

Observations:

●​ N and N → repel
●​ S and S → repel
●​ N and S → attract

Effect of Separation

The closer the magnets:

●​ the stronger the force.

The farther apart:

●​ the weaker the force.

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6.6 Magnetic Field

Definition

A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where magnetic forces can be detected.

Magnetic Field Lines

Properties:

1.​ Go from North to South outside the magnet.

2.​ Never cross.
3.​ Closer lines mean a stronger field.
4.​ Show direction of force on a north pole.

6.7 Mapping Magnetic Fields

Methods

1. Iron Filings Method

●​ Place paper over the magnet.

●​ Sprinkle iron filings.
●​ Tap gently.
●​ Filings align with the field.

2. Plotting Compass Method

●​ Place a compass near a magnet.

●​ Mark needle direction.
●​ Move the compass and repeat.
●​ Join marks to form field lines.

Magnetic Field Patterns

(a) Single Bar Magnet

Field lines curve from N to S.

(b) Two Magnets

Unlike Poles Facing

●​ Field lines join together.

●​ Strong attraction.

Like Poles Facing

●​ Field lines bend away.

●​ Repulsion occurs.
 78

7. ELECTROMAGNETISM

7.1 Magnetic Field Around Current-Carrying Conductors

Electric current produces a magnetic field.

(a) Straight Conductor

The field forms concentric circles around the wire.

(b) Flat Coil

Field lines combine to form a stronger magnetic field through the centre.

(c) Solenoid

A solenoid is a long coil of wire.

Its field resembles a bar magnet:

●​ one end becomes North

●​ other becomes South

7.2 Rules for Direction of Magnetic Field

Right-Hand Grip Rule

Grip wire with right hand:

●​ thumb → current direction

●​ curled fingers → magnetic field direction

Right-Hand Screw Rule

Imagine turning a screw:

●​ screw motion → current direction

●​ turning direction → magnetic field direction

7.3 Commercial Applications of Electromagnets

Electromagnet
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A coil carrying current with a soft iron core.

It becomes magnetic only when current flows.

Applications

Starter Motor

Used in cars to start engines.

Magnetic Relay

Used as electrically operated switches.

Electric Bells

Use electromagnets to move a striker.

Making a Simple Electromagnet

Materials:

●​ Nail
●​ Copper wire
●​ Battery

Method:

1.​ Wrap wire around nails.

2.​ Connect wire to battery.
3.​ The nail becomes magnetic.

7.4 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts on it.

This is called the motor effect.

Experiment

Place a wire between magnet poles.​

Pass current through wire.

Observation:

Wire moves.

Reason:​
Interaction between magnetic fields produces force.
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7.5 Resultant Magnetic Flux Pattern

When a current-carrying wire is perpendicular to a magnetic field:

●​ fields combine on one side,

●​ oppose the other.

This creates unequal forces causing movement.

7.6 Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule

Used to determine direction of force in motors.

Rule

Hold your left hand with your thumb, first finger and second finger at right angles.

●​ First finger → magnetic Field

●​ Second finger → Current
●​ Thumb → Motion (force)

7.7 Factors Affecting Force

The force on the conductor depends on:

1.​ Strength of magnetic field

2.​ Size of current
3.​ Length of conductor in field
4.​ Angle between conductor and field

Greater Force Occurs When:

●​ current increases
●​ magnetic field gets stronger

7.8 D.C. Motor

Principle

A current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect.

Main Parts
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●​ Coil
●​ Magnet
●​ Split-ring commutator
●​ Brushes
●​ Battery

How It Works

1.​ Current flows in the coil.

2.​ Forces act on opposite sides.
3.​ Coil rotates.
4.​ Split-ring reverses current every half turn.
5.​ Rotation continues.

Uses

●​ Fans
●​ Mixers
●​ Toys

7.9 Induced e.m.f.

Definition

An induced e.m.f. is produced when magnetic flux changes across a conductor.

This is called electromagnetic induction.

Activities Demonstrating Induced e.m.f.

(a) Coil and Magnet

Move magnet into coil.

Observation:​
Galvanometer deflects.

(b) Two Coils

Changing current in one coil induces current in a nearby coil.

7.10 Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f.

The magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends on:

1.​ Speed of motion

2.​ Strength of magnet
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3.​ Number of coil turns

Faster Motion → Larger e.m.f.

Because magnetic flux changes more quickly.

7.11 Direction of Induced Current

The induced current depends on:

●​ direction of motion,
●​ direction of magnetic field.

Use Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

●​ First finger → magnetic Field

●​ Thumb → Thust
●​ Second finger → induced Current

7.12 A.C. Generator

Function

Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Principle

Based on electromagnetic induction.

How It Works

1.​ The coil rotates in a magnetic field.

2.​ Magnetic flux changes continuously.
3.​ Induced current changes direction every half turn.
4.​ Alternating current is produced.

Features

●​ Uses slip rings

●​ Produces alternating current (AC)

Output Graph
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AC output is sinusoidal.

7.13 Transformer
Definition

A transformer changes the voltage of alternating current.

Principle of Operation

Works by electromagnetic induction.

Alternating current in the primary coil creates a changing magnetic field.​

This induces voltage in the secondary coil.

Parts

●​ Primary coil
●​ Secondary coil
●​ Soft iron core

Types

Step-Up Transformer

●​ Secondary turns are greater than primary turns.

●​ Voltage increases.

Step-Down Transformer

●​ Secondary turns fewer than primary turns.

●​ Voltage decreases.

7.14 Advantages of Using A.C.

1.​ Voltage can be changed easily using transformers.

2.​ Less energy lost during transmission.
3.​ Efficient for long-distance transmission.

Why High Voltage is Used

High voltage means lower current.

Lower current causes:

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●​ less heating,
●​ less power loss.

7.15 Ideal Transformer Formula

Voltage Equation

Where:

●​ Vp​= primary voltage

●​ Vs​= secondary voltage
●​ Np​= number of turns in primary coil
●​ Ns​= number of turns in secondary coil

Power Equation

For an ideal transformer:

Also:

Example Problem

A transformer has:

●​ Primary voltage = 240 V

●​ Primary turns = 600
●​ Secondary turns = 100

Find secondary voltage.

Using:
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Substitute:

Important CSEC Definitions

Magnetic Field

Region where magnetic force is experienced.

Electromagnet

Temporary magnet made by passing current through a coil.

Electromagnetic Induction

Production of e.m.f. due to changing magnetic flux.

Induced e.m.f.

Voltage produced by electromagnetic induction.

Transformer

Device used to increase or decrease AC voltage.

Solenoid

A long coil of wire producing a magnetic field when current flows

​
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Section E: THE PHYSICS OF THE ATOM

1. MODELS OF THE ATOM

1.1 Development of the Modern Atomic Model

Scientists carried out experiments over many years to develop the modern view of the atom.

(a) J. J. Thomson

Discovery of the Electron

●​ Thomson used a cathode ray tube experiment.

●​ He discovered that atoms contain tiny negatively charged particles called electrons.
●​ This showed that atoms were not indivisible.

Thomson’s Atomic Model (“Plum Pudding Model”)

●​ Atom was thought to be:

○​ a sphere of positive charge
○​ with negative electrons scattered throughout.

(b) Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford’s Contribution

●​ Rutherford performed the Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.

●​ He discovered:
○​ atoms are mostly empty space
○​ A positive charge is concentrated in a tiny nucleus.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

●​ Dense positive nucleus at the centre.

●​ Electrons move around the nucleus.

(c) Niels Bohr

Bohr’s Contribution

●​ Suggested electrons move in fixed energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
●​ Electrons can:
○​ absorb energy and move to higher shells
○​ lose energy and fall to lower shells.

Importance

●​ Explained atomic stability better than Rutherford’s model.

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(d) James Chadwick

Discovery of the Neutron

●​ Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932.

●​ Neutrons:
○​ have no charge
○​ are found in the nucleus.

Importance

●​ Explained why nuclei could have extra mass without extra charge.
●​ Helped explain isotopes.

1.2 The Geiger–Marsden Experiment

Also called the gold foil experiment.

Apparatus

●​ Alpha particle source

●​ Thin gold foil
●​ Fluorescent screen detector

Observations

1.​ Most alpha particles passed straight through.

2.​ Some were slightly deflected.
3.​ A few bounced straight back.

Conclusions

●​ Atoms are mostly empty space.

●​ Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in a small dense nucleus.
●​ Nucleus contains:
○​ protons
○​ neutrons (later discovered).

2. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Particles in the Atom

2.1 Structure of Simple Atoms

Atom Contains:
Particle Charge Position

Proton +1 Nucleus
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Neutron 0 Nucleus

Electron –1 Shells around nucleus

Distribution of Charge

●​ Positive charge concentrated in the nucleus.

●​ Negative electrons surround the nucleus.
●​ Total positive charge = total negative charge in a neutral atom.

2.2 Comparing the Proton and Electron

Property Proton Electron

Charge +1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C –1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Mass 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg

Key Points

●​ Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges.

●​ Protons are about 1836 times heavier than electrons.

2.3 Why Atoms are Neutral and Stable

Neutral

●​ Number of protons = number of electrons.

●​ Positive and negative charges cancel.

Stable

●​ Electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus.

●​ Electrons remain in fixed energy levels.

2.4 Relationship: A = Z + N

A=Z+N

Where:

●​ A = mass number
●​ Z = atomic number
●​ N = number of neutrons

Definitions

●​ Atomic number (Z) = number of protons.

●​ Mass number (A) = protons + neutrons.
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Example

For Carbon-14:

●​ Atomic number = 6
●​ Mass number = 14
●​ Neutrons = 14 – 6 = 8

2.5 Isotopes

Definition

Isotopes are:

atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.

Example

●​ Carbon-12
●​ Carbon-14

Both have:

●​ 6 protons

But different numbers of neutrons.

Uses of Isotopes

●​ Medical tracers
●​ Carbon dating
●​ Cancer treatment

2.6 Shell Model and the Periodic Table

Shell Model

Electrons occupy shells:

●​ 1st shell → max 2 electrons

●​ 2nd shell → max 8 electrons
●​ 3rd shell → max 8 electrons (CSEC level)

Relation to Periodic Table

●​ Elements in the same group have the same number of outer electrons.
●​ Elements in the same period have the same number of occupied shells.
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Important Fact

Each element has:

one more proton than the element before it in the periodic table.

3. RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactive Emissions
3.1 Marie Curie and Radioactivity

Contributions

●​ Investigated radioactive substances.

●​ Discovered:
○​ polonium
○​ radium.
●​ Coined the term radioactivity.

Importance

●​ Advanced medical treatment using radiation.

●​ Improved understanding of the atom.

3.2 Three Types of Radioactive Emissions

Radiation Nature Charge Speed Penetration

Alpha (α) Helium nucleus +2 Slow Low

Beta (β) Fast electron –1 Very fast Medium

Gamma (γ) Electromagnetic wave 0 Speed of light Very high

Nuclear Instability

●​ Unstable nuclei emit radiation to become more stable.

3.3 Comparing the Range of α, β and γ

Alpha

●​ Stopped by paper.
●​ Travels a few cm in air.

Beta

●​ Stopped by thin aluminium.

●​ Travels several metres in air.
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Gamma

●​ Reduced by thick lead or concrete.

●​ Travels very far.

3.4 Tracks in a Cloud Chamber

Radiation Appearance

Alpha Thick straight tracks

Beta Thin irregular tracks

Gamma Very faint tracks

3.5 Effect of Magnetic and Electric Fields

Radiation Deflection

Alpha Slightly toward negative plate

Beta Strongly toward positive plate

Gamma Not deflected

Reason

●​ Alpha is positively charged.

●​ Beta is negatively charged.
●​ Gamma has no charge.

3.6 Nuclear Reactions

Alpha Decay Example

Beta Decay Example

Balancing Rules

●​ Total mass numbers must balance.

●​ Total atomic numbers must balance.
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3.7 Random Nature of Radioactive Decay

Important Idea

Radioactive decay is random:

●​ impossible to predict exactly when one nucleus will decay.

Demonstrations

●​ Tossing coins
●​ Throwing dice

These activities produce decay curves similar to radioactive decay.

3.8 Decay Independent of External Conditions

Decay Rate Does NOT Depend On:

●​ temperature
●​ pressure
●​ chemical state
●​ magnetic fields.

Decay depends only on the nucleus itself.

Half-Life
3.9 Half-Life from Graphs

Definition

Half-life:

the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.

Characteristics

●​ Constant for a particular isotope.

●​ Obtained from decay graphs.

3.10 Solving Half-Life Problems

Formula Idea

After each half-life:

●​ amount remaining halves.

Example
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A sample has mass 80 g and half-life 5 years.

Time Mass Remaining

0 years 80 g

5 years 40 g

10 years 20 g

15 years 10 g

Radioisotopes
3.11 Uses of Radioisotopes

(a) Medical Uses

●​ Cancer treatment (radiotherapy)

●​ Tracers in body organs

(b) Industrial Uses

●​ Detect leaks in pipelines

●​ Measure thickness of paper or metal

(c) Carbon Dating

●​ Carbon-14 used to determine the age of fossils and artifacts.

Nuclear Energy
3.12 Mass–Energy Relationship

Where:

●​ E = energy
●​ m = mass
●​ c = speed of light

Meaning

A small amount of mass can be converted into a huge amount of energy.

Nuclear Fission
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Definition

Splitting of a large nucleus into smaller nuclei.

Example

●​ Uranium nucleus splits.

●​ Releases:
○​ energy
○​ neutrons.

Uses

●​ Nuclear power stations.

Nuclear Fusion

Definition

Joining of small nuclei to form a larger nucleus.

Example

●​ Hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium.

Occurs In

●​ The Sun and stars.

Comparison
Fission Fusion

Splits nuclei Joins nuclei

Used in reactors Powers stars

Easier to achieve Requires extremely high temperatures

3.13 Arguments For and Against Nuclear Energy

Advantages Disadvantages

Produces large amounts of energy Radioactive waste disposal problem

Low greenhouse gas emissions Risk of accidents

Reduces use of fossil fuels Expensive to build plants

Reliable energy source Environmental contamination risk

Safety Concerns
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●​ Radiation leaks
●​ Disposal of nuclear waste
●​ Long-term environmental effects.
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CSEC Physics Laws You Need To Know

Mechanics

1.​ Principle of moments

2.​ Newton’s First Law of Motion
3.​ Newton’s Second Law of Motion
4.​ Newton’s Third Law of Motion
5.​ Law of Conservation of Momentum
6.​ Principle of Moments
7.​ Hooke’s Law
8.​ Law of Conservation of Energy
9.​ Archimedes’ Principle​

Thermal Physics & Gas Laws

9.​ Boyle’s Law​

Charles’ Law​
Pressure Law​
General Gas Law​

Waves & Optics

13.​Laws of Reflection (2)

14.​Laws of refraction (2)

Electricity & Magnetism

15. Ohm’s Law​

Current through a conductor is directly proportional to voltage if temperature remains constant. V=IR

16. Joule’s Law (Heating Effect)​

Electrical energy converted to heat:​
E=VIt

17. Electromagnetic Induction (Faraday’s Idea)​

A changing magnetic field induces an emf/current.

Atomic Physics

[Link] Decay Law​

Radioactive substances decay randomly and spontaneously.

FORMULAS
[Link]