Engineering Physics II

PHYS104
Spring 2024

Lecture 4

Asst. Prof. Dr. Yelda Doğan

 Chapter 23
Electric Potential
 Chapter 23
I. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
II. Relation between Electric Potential & Electric Field
III. Electric Potential Due to Point Charges
IV. * Potential Due to Any Charge Distribution
V. Equipotential Surfaces
VI. Electric Dipole Potential
VII. Electric Field Vector Determined from Potential
VIII. * Electrostatic Potential Energy; the Electron Volt
IX. * CRT: TV and Computer Monitors, Oscilloscope
X. * Electrocardiogram (not in Giancoli’s 4th Ed.)

The energy point of view gives us another way to view electrical phenomena.
I. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
The electric force (F ~ 1/r 2, just like the gravitational force) is conservative. Recall
that the work done by a conservative force in moving an object is independent of the
path taken. As with all conservative forces, we can define potential energy for the
electric force. The potential energy change between two points, a and b, equals the
negative of the work done by the conservative force as an object moves from a to b:
ΔU = –W.
A positive charge +q in a uniform electric field E,
E will experience an electric force F = qE. When
the charge moves a distance d, the work Wba
done by the electric field is

+q Wba = Fd = qEd .
d
a b Thus, in case of uniform electric field E, the
change in electric potential energy is
Ub – Ua = ΔU = –Wba = –qEd .

As the charge moves from a to b, its potential energy U decreases (ΔU = –Wba is
negative) and its kinetic energy K increases by an equal amount (ΔK = Wba = –ΔU is
positive). This is due to the law of conservation of energy (or work-energy theorem).
I. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
In Lecture 1 (Chapter 21), we found it useful to work with electric field (electric force
per unit charge) instead of the electric force itself. Similarly, it is useful to define the
electric potential (or simply potential) as the electric potential energy per unit charge.

We shall denote electric potential with the symbol V.

If a positive charge +q in an electric field has electric potential energy Ua at a point a,

the electric potential at this point is Va = Ua/q .

Remember from Physics-I that only differences in potential energy are physically
meaningful and experimentally measurable, since we can choose the zero of the
potential at any point as we please.
Thus, only the difference in potential (or the potential difference) between two points
is meaningful and measurable. Potential difference between two points a and b is

Vba = Vb – Va = ΔV = ΔU/q = (Ub – Ua)/q = –Wba/q

which equals –Ed for uniform electric field E.
Note that like the electric field, electric potential does not depend on the charge q.

We see that a positive charge moves naturally from a high potential to a low
potential, while a negative charge does the opposite.
I. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
Since electric potential is a potential energy per unit charge, the SI unit of electric
potential, and of potential difference, is J/C .
This unit has a special name, volt (V): 1 V = 1 J/C .
Potential difference, since measured in volts, is often referred as voltage.
I. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
If we wish to speak of the potential Va at some point a, we need to determine a
reference where electric potential energy is zero.
Often the ground (or an grounded/earthed conductor) is taken as zero potential.
In some other cases, we choose V → 0 at an infinite distance r → ∞.

We can draw analogies between electric and gravitational potentials. An object of

mass m has gravitational potential energy mgh relative to a zero height, hence a
gravitational potential of gh. An object of electric charge q has electric potential
energy qV at a point of electric potential V relative to a reference of zero potential.
I. Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
Example (electron in between parallel plates): Suppose
an electron in between oppositely charged parallel plates
is accelerated from rest through a potential difference
Vb – Va = Vba = +5000 V (see figure). (a) What is the
change in electric potential energy of the electron when it
leaves the parallel plates? (b) What is the speed of the
electron as a result of this acceleration? (An electron has
an electric charge of q = –e = –1.6 × 10–19 C and a mass
of m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg.)

(a) The electron’s potential energy will decrease by

ΔU = qVba = (–1.6 × 10–19 C) (+5000 V) = –8.0 × 10–16 J

(b) Conservation of energy dictates ΔK + ΔU = 0 and thus ΔK = –ΔU

–ΔU = ΔK = ½ m v2 – 0
v = [–2ΔU/m]1/2 = [–2 (–8.0 × 10–16 J)/(9.1 × 10–31 kg)]1/2
v = 4.2 × 107 m/s
II. Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field
Working with electric potential (a scalar) is often easier than working with electric
field (a vector). Now we will see the connection between them.
Recall from Physics-I that the difference Uba = Ub – Ua in potential energy between
two points a and b in space is related to the conservative force F associated with that
potential energy:

where dl is an infinitesimal displacement vector and the integral is taken along any
path in space from point a to point b.
For the electrical case, we are interested in the potential difference Vba = Uba/q
(potential energy difference per unit charge) and the electric field E = F/q (force per
unit charge). Plugging these two relations into the above equation gives us the
general relation between electric field and potential difference:

Previously, we saw that units for electric field is newtons per coulomb (N/C). Here,
we see that units for electric field can be written as volts per meter (V/m) as well.
These are equivalent, since 1 N/C = 1 N·m/C·m = 1 J/C·m = 1 V/m.
II. Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field

So, in finding potential difference from electric

field, we integrate (along a path in space) the
component of E parallel to the path.

A simple case is a uniform electric field. In this case, we divide the path between a
and b into a part parallel to the electric field and another part perpendicular to it.
E
Along the path perpendicular to the electric field, since
a
d
c we have E·dl = 0, there is no potential difference.
Along the path parallel to the electric field, we have
E · dl = E dl, and this part of the integral is the only
b
nonzero contribution to Vba. Hence, we write

for uniform E.
II. Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field
Example (electric field obtained from voltage): Two parallel plates are
charged to produce a potential difference of 50 V. If the separation
between the plates is 0.050 m, calculate the magnitude of the electric
field in the space between the plates (see figure).

Neglecting the edge effects, the electric field between the plates is
almost uniform. Therefore, we can use Vba = –Ed .

Magnitude of electric field: E = Vba/d = (50 V) / (0.050 m) = 1000 V/m

II. Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field
Example (charged conducting sphere): Determine the potential at a distance r from
the center of a charged conducting sphere of total charge Q and radius r0 for
(a) r > r0 , (b) r = r0 , (c) r < r0 .

(a) Electric field outside a conducting sphere points radially outward with magnitude

We choose the zero of the potential at an infinite distance

to the sphere: V → 0 as r → ∞ .
We integrate E along a radial line between two points
ra = r and rb → ∞.
II. Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field
Example (charged conducting sphere): Determine the potential at a distance r from
the center of a charged conducting sphere of total charge Q and radius r0 for
(a) r > r0 , (b) r = r0 , (c) r < r0 .

(a) continued: Therefore, electric potential outside the sphere is

(b) This result also holds for r = r0 , where we have

(c) Electric field inside any conductor is zero: E(r < r0) = 0 .
Thus the integral, ∫ E·dl , between r = r0 and any point inside the sphere gives
zero change in potential.
Hence, V is constant within the conductor:
III. Electric Potential Due to Point Charges
Recall from Lecture 2 that the electric field outside a charged sphere is the same as
if all the charge were concentrated at the center of the sphere (as a point charge).
In another point of view, we can think a point charge as a charged sphere of zero
radius, r0 = 0 . So, we can use the result (a) of the previous example to find the
electric potential that a point charge produces.
Since all points in space are outside the point charge, electric potential due to a
single point charge is

To obtain this result, we chose V = 0 at r → ∞ , as we will often do in similar problems.

III. Electric Potential Due to Point Charges
Ex. (work required to bring two positive charges close together): What minimum work
must be done by an external force to bring a charge q = 3.00 μC from a great
distance away (ri → ∞) to a point rf = 0.500 m from a charge Q = 20.0 μC ?

Although force and displacement are antiparallel to each other, we cannot just
multiply the force by distance to find the work, since force is not constant in this
situation. As the charges come together, the distance between them decreases and
the force between them increases.
We should either integrate the force along the path, or in a much easier way, we
should equate the (positive of the) work done by the external force to the change in
potential energy. Also note that we cannot use V = –Ed, since E is not uniform here.
W = Uf – Ui = q (Vf – Vi)
Here, V is the potential due to charge Q. We choose Vi = V(ri) = 0 at ri → ∞ as usual.
Therefore, we have Vf = V(rf) = [1/(4πϵ0)] Q/rf , and thus
W = qVf = [1/(4πϵ0)] qQ/rf
= [8.99 × 109 N·m2/C2] (3.00 × 10–6 C) (2.00 × 10–5 C) / (0.500 m)
= 1.08 J
III. Electric Potential Due to Point Charges
In working with more than one point charges, we can use the superposition principle.
As it means that we can do vector addition for electric fields, we can do scalar
addition for electric potentials (which is much easier than vector addition).

Example (potential above two charges): Calculate

the electric potential due to the two charges at points
(a) A and (b) B (see figure).

We do not have to worry about directions because

electric potential is a scalar. Also, we do not have to
keep track of the signs of charges.
(a) We add the potentials VA1 and VA2 due to charges Q1 and Q2 at point A.

Here, rA1 = 0.60 m and rA2 = 0.30 m are distances from charges Q1 and Q2 to point A.

(b) Do a similar calculation as an exercise to find VB = 0. Did you really have to do

the calculation? Wouldn’t you expect to get zero potential at B due to symmetry?
IV. * Potential Due to Any Charge Distribution
As we did in the previous example, we can use superposition principle to calculate
the potential Va (at a point a in space) due to n point charges as

Here, Vi is the potential due to i th charge (Qi) and ria is the distance from it to point a.

To calculate potential due to a continuous charge distribution, we can take an

infinitesimal portion of the charge as a point particle and calculate the above sum in
the limit Qi → 0.

In such a case, the sum over all point charges becomes an integral over the whole
continuous charge distribution:

Here, r is the distance from an infinitesimal element of charge, dq, to the point where
V is being calculated.
IV. * Potential Due to Any Charge Distribution
Example (potential due to a ring of charge): A thin
circular ring of radius R has a uniformly distributed
charge Q. Determine the electric potential at a point P on
the axis of the ring a distance x from its center (see
figure).

Consider an infinitesimal charge dq on the ring. Distance from this charge to point P
is r = (x2 + R2)1/2, independent of where on ring the infinitesimal charge is, see figure.
Therefore, each infinitesimal charge on the ring contributes equally to the potential at
point P by an amount

To find the whole contribution of the ring, we integrate over it and find

As an exercise, show that for points far away from the ring (x >> R) the above result
reduces to the potential due to a point charge.
IV. * Potential Due to Any Charge Distribution
Example (potential due to a charged disk): A thin flat
disk of radius R0 has a uniformly distributed charge Q.
Determine the electric potential at a point P on the axis
of the disk a distance x from its center (see figure).
We divide the disk into thin rings of radius R, thickness
dR and charge dq. We know the potential due to a ring
from the previous example. Here, we integrate that
result throughout the whole disk. Since charge Q is
uniformly distributed on the disk, charge on a ring is
proportional to its area:

Exercise: Show that for x >> R0, the result reduces to V due to a point charge.
V. Equipotential Surfaces
We can map the electric potential in space, like we map the topography of a place.

Images from [Link]

In a topographic map, contour lines join points of same altitude h. So, along a
contour line, gravitation potential gh is constant. If you walk along such a contour
line, you remain at the same height, neither going up nor going down, and thus,
neither you do work against gravity nor does gravity work on you. If you cross
contour lines you change your height. The more the contour lines are closer
together, the more rapidly the gravitational potential changes there.
V. Equipotential Surfaces
Like in a topographic map, we use equipotential surfaces to map electric potential.
Note that in topography, we use lines to denote gravitational potential. But electric
potential changes in three-dimensions. So we use surfaces to denote constant
electric potential.
An equipotential surface is one on which all points are at the same electric potential.
So, no work is required to move a charge from one point to another on the same
equipotential surface.

Recall that ΔV = ∫E·dl along a path. On an equipotential surface, V is constant, so

ΔV = 0 . For E ≠ 0, this requires E and dl to be perpendicular to each other.
So, an equipotential surface must be perpendicular to the electric field at any point. If
it were not so, it would require work to move a charge along an equipotential surface,
and also, the potential would not be constant along the equipotential surface (both of
which contradict with the definition of equipotential surfaces).
V. Equipotential Surfaces
In a normal two-dimensional drawing, we show equipotential lines, which are the
intersections of equipotential surfaces with the plane of the drawing.
We draw equipotential lines so that the potential difference between two consecutive
lines is the same (like in a topographic map).
In the examples shown below, solid red lines indicate electric field lines, while
dashed greed lines indicate equipotential lines:

parallel plates isolated point charge isolated electric dipole

VI. Electric Dipole Potential
The potential due to an electric dipole at an arbitrary point P is the sum of the
potentials due to each individual charge, and can be calculated exactly.
For the geometry defined in the figure,

where p = Ql is the dipole moment (see Lecture 2).

At distances far away from the dipole for r >> l, we get

VII. Electric Field Vector Determined from Electric Potential
In Section II, we learned how to calculate V from E: .

Note that the left-hand-side of this equation can be written as .

Hence we can write the above equation as ,

or in differential form as ,
where El is the component of the electric field in the direction of the displacement dl .

We can then write .

Thus, the component of electric field in any direction is equal to the negative of the
rate of change of the electric potential with distance in that direction.

If we let l refer to the x, y, and z axes, then the above equation becomes

Here, ∂V/∂x is the partial derivative of V with respect to x, with y and z held constant.
VII. Electric Field Vector Determined from Electric Potential
Example: Calculate E from the potential V(x,y,z) = (2 V/m2) x2 + (8 V/m3) y2 z.

Ex = –∂V/∂x = (–4 V/m2) x

Ey = –∂V/∂y = (–16 V/m3) y z
Ey = –∂V/∂y = (–8 V/m3) y2

In vector form: E = (–4 V/m2) x î + (–16 V/m3) y z ĵ + (–8 V/m3) y2 k

Example (E for ring and disk): Use electric potential to determine the electric field at
a point P on the axis of (a) a circular ring of charge and (b) a uniformly charged disk.
From the example in Section IV, we know the potential due to a ring and a disk.

(a)

(b)

We obtained the same results previously in Lecture 1.

Note that it is much easier to calculate V first and then calculate E from V.
VIII. * Electrostatic Potential Energy; the Electron Volt
In an example in Section III, we saw that to keep two charges Q1 and Q2 together at
a distance r12 a work needs to be done, which equals the potential energy of the
system of two charges:

Likewise, for three charges Q1, Q2 and Q3, with distances r12, r13, and r23 between
them, the system has the potential energy of

The joule is a very large unit for dealing with energies of electrons, atoms, or
molecules, and for this purpose, the electron volt (eV) is used.
One electron volt is defined as the energy acquired by a particle carrying a charge
whose magnitude equals that on the electron (q = e) as a result of moving through a
potential difference of 1 V.

For e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, 1 eV is equal to (1.6 × 10–19 C) (1 V), so 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J.

VIII. * Electrostatic Potential Energy; the Electron Volt
Example (disassembling a hydrogen atom): Calculate the work needed to separate
the electron in a hydrogen atom from its nucleus. Average radius of the hydrogen
atom at ground state is r = 0.529 × 10–10 m.
Electric potential energy of the hydrogen atom is

The speed v of the electron revolving around the proton can be calculated from
Newton’s 2nd law, F = ma, where the force is the electric force between the proton
and the electron, and centripetal acceleration is a = v2/r.

Therefore, kinetic energy of the electron is

Total energy of the hydrogen atom is E = U + K = U – U/2 = U/2 = – 13.6 eV .

To separate a stable hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron at rest very far
apart, requires an ionization energy of +13.6 eV.
IX. * CRT: TV and Computer Monitors, Oscilloscope
A cathode ray tube (CRT) contains a wire cathode that, when
heated, emits electrons. A voltage source causes the
electrons to travel to the anode.

The electrons can be steered using electric or magnetic fields.

IX. * CRT: TV and Computer Monitors, Oscilloscope
CRT monitors have a large cathode ray tube as their display. Variations in the field
steer the electrons on their way to the screen.
Similarly, an oscilloscope displays an electrical signal on a screen, using it to deflect
the beam vertically while it sweeps horizontally.
X. * Electrocardiogram
The electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) detects heart defects by measuring changes
in potential on the surface of the heart.
Reference

Physics
for
Scientists & Engineers
with Modern Physics
4th edition
Giancoli