SEX AND HORMONES • adrenal glands also produce both

androgens and estrogens.

» females have two X-chromosomes. o These two types of hormones have
» males have an X and Y chromosome.
similar effects in some ways and
opposing effects in others.
Differentiation of Human Genitals • Sex hormones (steroid) hormones,
• Male and female mammals start with the same containing four carbon rings.
anatomy during an early stage of prenatal o Steroids exert their effects in three
development. ways.
o Müllerian ducts (precursors to 1. they bind to membrane receptors, like
female internal structures) neurotransmitters, exerting rapid effects.
o Wolffian ducts (precursors to male 2. they enter cells and activate certain
internal structures) kinds of proteins in the cytoplasm.
o undifferentiated gonads 3. they bind to receptors that bind to
• a gene on the male’s Y chromosome,
chromosomes, where they activate or
o the SRY gene (sex-determining region
inactivate certain genes.
on the Y chromosome), causes those • Androgens and estrogens are categories of
undifferentiated gonads to develop into
o testes, the sperm-producing organs. chemicals.
o widely known androgen is
o The testes produce androgens testosterone.
(hormones that are more abundant in o most prominent type of estrogen is
males) that increase the growth of the
estradiol.
testes, causing them to produce more
androgens. • Progesterone, another predominantly female
• Androgens also cause the Wolffian ducts to hormone, prepares the uterus for the
develop into seminal vesicles (saclike implantation of a fertilized ovum and promotes the
maintenance of pregnancy.
structures that store semen) and the vas
deferens (a duct from the testis into the penis). Organizing the Effects of Sex
• The testes also produce Müllerian- Hormones
inhibiting hormone (MIH) that causes • Organizing effects produce long-lasting
the Müllerian ducts to degenerate. structural effects during a sensitive period in early
• Because females do not have the SRY gene, their development.
gonads develop into ovaries instead of testes, and • Activating effects are more temporary,
their Wolffian ducts degenerate. males’ testes
produce more androgens than estrogens continuing only while a hormone is present or
shortly beyond.
(hormones that are more abundant in females), • The organizing effects set the stage for
whereas the females’ ovaries produce more
estrogens than androgens. activating effects.
• Differentiatio n of the external genitals depends
mainly on testosterone.
 o A high level of testosterone causes the Sex Difference in Play
external genitals to develop the male
• Children who show the greatest preference for
pattern, and a low level leads to the
boy-typical activities at age 3 usually show the
female pattern.
greatest amount of boy-typical activities at age 13,
o Estradiol and certain genes highly
and those with the greatest preference for girl-
activated in females have little effect on
typical activities at 3 usually show the greatest
the external genitals.
preference for girl-typical activities at age 13.
• As a male’s developing testes secrete
• A study suggests a predisposition for boys and
testosterone, certain enzymes convert it to
girls to prefer different types of toys, although
dihydrotestosterone, which is far more there is an alternative explanation to consider: Girls
effective at promoting the growth of the penis. mature faster than boys, and perhaps it was
• Depending on levels of testosterone and harder for boys at this age to show a
dihydrotestosterone, the embryo develops either a preference, whatever that preference may have
scrotum, characteristic of males, or labia, been.
characteristics of females. • Studies correlate chemicals in the mother’s blood
during pregnancy with their-children’s choices of
toys years later. Girls who had been exposed to
Male Development higher testosterone levels in prenatal life showed
» A male may develop the female -typical pattern of slightly elevated preferences for boys’ toys.
anatomy and behavior if he lacks androgens and • Boys with higher testosterone levels spent less
androgen receptors. time than other boys playing with dolls.
» That outcome could result from castration • Researchers measured phthalate levels in
pregnant women. Phthalates inhibit testosterone
(removal of testes), a genetic deficiency of production.
androgen receptors, or prenatal exposure to
drugs that interfere with androgen response. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
» Although estradiol does not significantly alter a
male’s external anatomy, estradiol and several » It is possible for girls to develop congenital adrenal
related compounds do produce abnormalities of the hyperplasia as a result of very high testosterone
prostate gland. levels before birth.

Sex Difference in the Brain Activating Effects Of Sex Hormones

• Males and females differ on average in the • At any time of life, not just during a sensitive
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, parts of the spinal period, sex hormones (such as testosterone and
cord, and elsewhere. estradiol) exert activating effects and thus
• Within the hypothalamus, the differences trace temporarily alter behavior.
back to sex hormones, but the hormones act in • In addition to the sex hormones, the pituitary
different ways for different areas. hormone oxytocin is also important for
• The mechanisms for sexual differentiation vary reproductive behavior.
from one brain area to another. 1. Stimulates contractions of the uterus during
• People vary in the genes, as well as the giving birth.
epigenetics, that modify brain development in 2. Stimulates the mammary gland to release milk.
different brain areas. 3. Sexual pleasure releases oxytocin, especially
during orgasm, and leads to relaxation,
 calmness, and lack of anxiety after an Activating Effects Of Sex Hormones
orgasm.
In Females
• Testosterone that is essential for male sexual
• Female hypothalamus, pituitary and ovaries interact
arousal acts partly by increasing touch sensitivity in
to produce the menstrual cycle: periodic variation
the penis.
in hormones and fertility over the course of about
• It also binds the receptors that increases
28 days.
responses in parts of the hypothalamus. Including
• After menstruation/end of menstrual cycle , the
the ventromedial nucleus, the medial preoptic anterior pituitary releases follicle-stimulating
area (MPOA), and the anterior hypothalamus. hormone (FSH) that promotes the growth of a
follicle in the ovary.
• MPOA in the hypothalamus and other areas are
• The follicle nurtures the ovum (egg cell) and
thus primed to release dopamine. produces several types of estrogen, including
o Dopamine release is strong during sexual estradiol.
activity and even more dopamine leads to the • In the middle of the menstrual cycle, the follicle
male to copulate. builds up more and more receptors to FSH (FSH
• Neurotransmitter serotonin inhibits sexual generally declines in that stage) increasing amount
activity by blocking dopamine release of estradiol through the follicle increased release
antidepressant increase serotonin + side effect: of FSH + release of the pituitary luteinizing
decreased sexual arousal. hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary.
• Levels of testosterone correlate positively with • Then, FSH and LH combine to cause the follicle to
men’s sexual arousal and their drive to seek sexual release an ovum.
partners. • The remnant of the follicle (now called the corpus
• Married men have often lower testosterone levels luteum) releases the hormone progesterone
than single men because men with lower (preparation for pregnancy) and inhibits release of
testosterone level are more likely to get married LH.
and testosterone levels tend to drop after • Woman is pregnant: estradiol and progesterone
marriage because they don’t have to compete for levels further increase fluctuating activity at the
a sexual partner anymore. serotonin 3 receptor which is responsible for
o Decreases in testosterone levels decreases nausea.
in male’s sexual activity. • Woman is not pregnant: both hormones decline,
• For example, castration (removal of the testes). the lining of the uterus cast off (menstruation)
Testosterone reduction or anti-androgen drugs can and the cycle begins again.
help sex offenders reduce their sexual • Estradiol is highest during the middle of the
impulsiveness but also has many side effects such cycle, and lowest during and short after
as weight gain, diabetes, depression. menstruation.
• Low testosterone is NOT THE CAUSE for • Birth-control pills prevent pregnancy by
impotence: inability to have an erection; mainly
caused by an impaired blood circulation; treated interfering with this usual feedback cycle
with Viagra that increases mainly older men’s between the ovaries and the pituitary.
sexual ability by prolonging the effects of nitric • Most widely used combination pill (estrogen +
oxide (increases blood flow to the pain, next to to progesterone) prevents the surge (Welle) of FSH
the brain). and LH , thickens the mucus of the cervix, and
prevents and ovum from implanting.
• In rats, estradiol and progesterone is the most
effective for enhancing sexual behavior. -->
 increased sensitivity of tactile stimulation of vagina o Another key hormone is vasopressin
and cervix. which is produced by the hypothalamus
and secreted by the posterior pituitary
In humans it is more complex: gland; it’s important for social behavior.
» Sexual desire also correlates with estradiol. • Next to that, female changes her pattern of
» Sexual intercourse related with testosterone level hormone receptors.
produced at periovulatory period: days around the o late in pregnancy, female brain increases
middle of the menstrual cycle; fertility is highest. sensitivity to estradiol in areas
» Sexual interest is highest at the periovulatory responsible for maternal behavior and
period in which estradiol level is highest and attention to the young such as in the
influences behavior in many ways without medial preoptic area and anterior
consciousness of the women. hypothalamus (also important for
temperature regulation etc.)
o Next to these hormonal changes,
Effects Of Sex Hormones On
experience is also important. humans
Nonsexual Characteristics are not the only animals who can adopt
• Men and women differ in many ways other than young child without first going through
their sexual behavior. Nearly all those differences pregnancy --> no specific hormone
vary at least somewhat according to culture, and concentration relevant for caring.
it is easy to exaggerate the extent of difference • Infant rats release chemicals that stimulate the
(as in “Women are from Venus, Men are from mother’s organ (responds to pheromones) -->
Mars”). oddly, this pheromones normally stimulate
• Women tend to be better than men at recognizing aggressive behavior that interfere with maternal
facial expression of emotion. behavior --> women that went through pregnancy
• Testosterone interferes with attention to ignore this but a women without hormonal priming
emotional expressions. rejects the young until the smell becomes familiar
to her --> hormone and experience mechanism for
• Other studies found that testosterone decreased
women’s ability to infer people’s mood from maternal behavior are necessary because
watching their eyes, whereas estradiol increased hormones compensate for the mother’s lack of
familiarity with the young directly after birth.
men’s emotional responses to seeing a person in
distress. • In humans, hormones after birth does not seem
that important but may influence the quality of
parental care.
Parietal Behavior o women with a specific genetic variation in
• Hormonal changes in the mother during pregnancy their alpha estrogen receptors were more
prepare the women to provide milk and care much likely to treat their offspring more harshly.
about her child. o On average, a man’ s testosterone level
o after delivering the baby, secretion of decreases and his prolactin levels increase
estradiol and prolactin increases while after birth.
progesterone production is reduced o low testosterone level and high prolactin level
prolactin is necessary for milk care more for their child (correlational data).

production and certain kinds of maternal

behaviors.
• Prolactin also inhibits sensitivity to leptin,
enabling the mother to eat more than usual.
VARIATIONS IN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR WHAT MEN AND WOMEN SEEK IN A MATE
Evolutionary Interpretation of • People seeking a romantic partner prefer
someone who is healthy, intelligent, honest, and
Mating Behavior
physically attractive.
» Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by • Women are more likely to prefer a mate who is
natural selection states that individuals likely to be a good provider (Buss,2000), and
women tend to be cautious during courtship and
whose genes help them survive will produce more wait before concluding that a man has a strong
offspring; therefore, the next generation will commitment to her (Buss, 2001).
resemble those with these favorable genes. • Women are more likely to reject a man because
» The second part of his theory is a sexual of his smell than a man is to reject a woman
selection: Genes that make an individual more because of her smell (Herz & Inzlicht, 2002), and a
possible reason is body odor relates to some of
appealing to the other sex will increase the
the same genes that control the immune system,
probability of reproduction, and therefore, the
known as the major histocompatibility complex
next generation will resemble those who have
(MHC).
these favorable genes.
» Some of the differences between men and • Men tend to have a stronger preference for a
women may be the results of sexual selection . To young partner because men can have more
children by pairing with a young woman.
some extent, women evolved based on what
appeals to men, and men evolved based on what
appeals to women. DIFFERENCES IN JEALOUSY
• Men have been more jealous of women’s
INTEREST OF MULTIPLE MATES infidelities than women have been of men’s
infidelities.
• Men seek opportunities for casual sexual
relationships with many partners more than • Men might be more jealous than women because a
women. This could be due to the evolutionary man needs to be sure that the children he
standpoint of spreading one's genes (Gangestad & supports are his own, and an unfaithful wife
threatens that certainty.
Simpson, 2000).
• Men can succeed in spreading their genes by • On the contrary, a woman doesn't have the same
either being loyal to one woman or mating with worry because she is certain that any children
many women. she bears are her own.
• Women can have no more than one pregnancy per • According to several studies dealing with
hypothetical questions, men say they would be
9 months, regardless of the number of sex
partners. more upset by sexual infideli ty, whereas women
would be more upset by emotional infidelity.
• However, women can also gain from having
multiple sex partners, such as reproducing with • However, both men and women who experience
another man if her husband is infertile, trading up unfaithful partners say they were more upset by
for a better mate, and receiving aid for her and their partner’s becoming emotionally close to
her children (Hrdy, 2000). someone else than by the sexual affair.
• Researchers have no direct evidence that genes
influence people’s preferences for one mate or EVOLVED OR LEARNED
many. • A behavior that is advantageous for survival and
reproduction and is similar across most or all
cultures is not enough to conclude that it's a result
 of evolution. In other words, cross-cultural normal levels. Some are also given surgery to alter
similarity is not necessarily good evidence for an their external genital appearance .
evolved tendency. • About 1 in 100 children in the US are born with
• To establish that we evolved a tendency to act in some degree of genital ambiguity, making their
some way, the that affect the relevant behaviors. male or female status uncertain . However,
• Overall, we need to be cautious about inferring accurate estimates are difficult to obtain due to
what is a product of our evolution and what is confidentia lity. This makes it hard for intersexed
learned. people to connect with others like themselves.

Gender Identity and Gender INTERESTS AND PREFERENCES OF CAH GIRLS

Differentiated Behaviors • The policy of raising intersex individuals as girls for
» People differ naturally in their sexual development years assumed surgery would make them look like
normal girls, but their brains were exposed to
just as they do in anything else. Hence, being
higher testosterone levels.
“Different” does not mean “wrong.”
» Gender identity is how we identify sexually and
WAS THEIR BEHAVIOR MASCULINIZED?
what we call ourselves and it is a human • Prenatal levels of testosterone correlate with
characteristic . girls’ toy choices.
» Sex differences are the biological differences • Girls with CAH were observed in a room full of
between males and females, whereas the toys, including some that were girl-typical, some
differences that result from people’s thinking that were boy-typical, and some that were
about themselves as male or female are gender neutral.
• When the children tested with a parent present,
differences. again the girls with CAH were intermediate
» Psychologists have long assumed that gender between the other two groups.
depends mainly or entirely on the way people rear
their children. However, several kinds of evidence • Other studies have reported similar results and
suggest that biological factors, especially prenatal have found that the girls exposed to the largest
hormones, are important as well . amount of testosterone in early development
showed the largest preference for boys’ toys.
INTERSEXES • You might wonder whether the parents, knowing
• Individuals who appear to be a mixture of male and that these girls had been partly masculinized in
appearance, might have encouraged
female are referred to as hermaphrodites
“tomboyish” activities.
(from Hermes and Aphrodite in Greek mythology).
• These people whose sexual development is • Psychologists’ observations suggest the opposite:
The parents encouraged the girls with CAH any
intermediate are called intersexes.
time they played with girltypical toys.
• This can be developed because of an atypical • A study of CAH girls in adolescence found that, on
hormone pattern yet the most common cause of average, their interests are intermediate between
this condition is congenital adrenal typical male and female adolescents.
hyperplasia (CAH), meaning • In adulthood, they show more physical aggression
than most other women do and less interest in
overdevelopment of the adrenal glands from birth. infants.
• After birth, these cases are given medical
• If a genetic female is exposed to extra
treatments to bring their adrenal hormones to testosterone during prenatal development, what
behavioral effect is likely?
 o A girl who is exposed to extra • Girls with a CAH history also have a difficult
testosterone during prenatal adjustment, especially if they were subjected
development is more likely than most to clitoris-reduction surgery.
other girls to prefer boy typical toys
• Nearly all women with a history of CAH have
significant sexual difficultie s, including lack of
TESTICULAR FORMATION
orgasm.
• Certain individuals with an XY chromosome pattern • Many report no sexual partner ever, little or
have the genital appearance of a female. no interest in sex, and little or no romantic
• This condition is known as androgen attraction to men.
insensitivity or testicular feminization.
How should such a child be reared?
• Although such individuals produce normal amounts • Be completely honest with the intersexed
of androgens (including testosterone), they lack the person and the family and do nothing without
receptor that enables androgen to activate genes their informed consent.
in a cell’ s nucleus. • Identify the child as male or female based
mainly on the predominant external
What would cause a genetic male (XY) to develop a appearance.
partly feminized external anatomy? • Rear the child as consistently as possible.
• A genetic male with a gene that prevents • Do not perform surgery to reduce the
testosterone from binding to its receptors wil ambiguous penis/clitoris to the size of a
develop an appearance that partly or normal clitoris
completely resembles a female.

ISSUES OF GENDER ASSIGNMENT AND DISCREPANCIES OF SEXUAL APPEARANCE

REARING ▪ The evidence from intersexes does not indisputably
» Many girls with CAH and related conditions are resolve the roles of rearing and hormones in
born with a nearly normal appearance, but some determining gender identity.
look as much male as female and presumably were ▪ From a scientific viewpoint, the most decisive way
exposed to high levels of prenatal to settle the issue would be to raise a normal male
baby as a female or to raise a normal female baby
testosterone. as a male.
» Some genetic males are born with a very small ▪ If the process succeeded in producing an adult
penis because of a condition called cloacal who was fully satisfied in the assigned role, we
would know that upbringing determines gender
exstrophy, a defect of pelvis development.
identity.
» Despite their genital anatomy, they had typical male ▪ Certain genetic males fail to produce 5a-
levels of testosterone in prenatal development.
reductase 2, an enzyme that converts
testosterone to dihydrotestosterone.
How should children with either of these conditions be ▪ Dihydrotestosterone is an androgen that is
reared?
more effective than testosterone for
• Beginning in the 1950s, medical doctors began masculinizing the external genitals.
recommending that all intersexed people be
▪ At birth, some of these individuals look almost like
reared as girls, using surgery if necessary to
a typical female, while others have a swollen
make their genitals look more feminine.
clitoris and somewhat “lumpy” labia .
▪ At puberty, the testosterone levels increase GENETICS
sharply. Early studies of genetics of human sexual orientation
▪ The body makes increased amounts of a different
began by advertising in gay or lesbian publications for
enzyme that converts testosterone to homosexual people with twins.
dihydrotestosterone, and the result is the growth
of a penis and scrotum.
RESEARCH 1:
- Advertising in gay or lesbian publications for
▪ Initial reports claimed that the child reared as
homosexual people with twins. Questionnaires
a girl had a female gender identity, though consists of diverse items to conceal the fact
she also had strong tomboyish that the real interest was sexual orientatio n.
tendencies. - Results showed a stronger concordance for
monozygotic than dizygotic twins.
RESEARCH 2:
Sexual Orientation
- Later study conducted in Sweden examined
If “natural” means “occurs in nature,” then the data from all the twins between ages 20
homosexuality is natural. and 47
- Homosexual behavior occurs in many animal - Researchers asked whether someone had
species (Bagemihl, 1999). ever had a samesex partner.
- What accounts for differences in sexual
orientation? Several studies reported a higher incidence of
o Genetics homosexuality among the maternal than paternal
o Prenatal Environment relatives of homosexual men.
o As-yet unidentified aspects of
experience PRENATAL INFLUENCES
• Most men discover their sexual orientation early,
• Adult hormone levels do not explain sexual
many women are slower.
orientation.
• Feminine-type behaviors in childhood and
• It is possible that sexual orientation depends
adolescence correlate strongly with homosexual
on testosterone levels during a sensitive
orientation in adulthood for men, but masculine-
period of brain development.
type behavior are poor predictors of sexual
orientation in women. • External anatomy develops at a different time
from brain anatomy, and so it is possible for
• Bisexuality is more common in women than in
hormones to alter the brain without changing
men, and more common in younger people than in external anatomy.
older people. • The mother’s immune system may exert
prenatal effects.
BEHAVIORAL AND ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES • Stress on the mother during pregnancy -
Research has shown that prenatal stress
• Heterosexual men are SLIGHTLY taller and alters sexual development in laboratory
heavier than homosexual men (Bogaert, 2010). animals.
• More men than women give directions in terms of • Most males that were subjected to either
distances and North, South, East, or West. Women prenatal stress or alcohol developed male
are more likely to describe landmarks. sexual behavior in addition to these female
• Gay men also tend to use landmarks and are sexual behaviors, but those that were
better than heterosexual men at remembering subjected to both stress and alcohol had
landmarks. decreased male sexual behaviors.
 • Prenatal stress and alcohol may alter brain Study By Simon Levay (1991)
development through several routes: • Examined INAH-3 in 41 people who had died
o Stress releases endorphins, between the ages of 26 and 59. 16 were
which can antagonize the effects heterosexual men, 6 were heterosexual
of testosterone on the women, and 19 were homosexual men.
hypothalamus. • All of homosexual men, 6 of the 16
o Stress elevates levels of adrenal heterosexual men, and 1 of the 6 women died
hormone corticosterone (for of AIDS.
• LeVay found that the mean volume of INAH-3
rats) or cortisol (for
was larger in Heterosexual men than in
human), which decreases Heterosexual women or Homosexual men, who
testosterone release. were about equal in this regard.
• The long-term effects of either prenatal • Difference between heterosexual men and
stress or alcohol include several changes in the other two groups is fairly large, on
the structure of the nervous system, making average, and that the cause of death (AIDS
the affected males’ anatomy closer to that versus other) has no clear relationship to the
of females. results.

Brain Anatomy Study #2 By Simon Levay (1993)

On average, homosexual male are shifted partly in the • Examined the hypothalamus of a homosexual
femaletypical direction for some brain structures but man who died of lung cancer– he had a small
not others. Similarly, homosexual women’s brains are INAH-3, like homosexual men who died of
slightly shifted in the male direction in some ways but AIDS.
not others.
LATER STUDIES
CAUTIONS: • Researchers found that the INAH-3 nucleus
- First, we don’t know whether these brain was slightly larger in heterosexual than
differences are causes or effects of sexual homosexual men, although in this study the
orientation. homosexual men’s INAH-3 nucleus was larger
- Second, it is relatively easy to publish results than heterosexual women.
showing a difference between two groups, • Found INAH-3 to be larger in heterosexual
such as homosexual and heterosexual people, males than in male-to-female transsexuals –
even if the difference was unpredicted, people who are born as male who changed
small, and hard to explain. their identities to female.

Third Interstitial Nucleus of the Anterior

Hypothalamus (INAH-3)
- Generally, more than twice as large in
heterosexual men as in women.
- Has more cells with androgen receptors
in men than in women and probably plays a
role in sexual behavior.
WHAT IS EMOTION? According to the James-Lange Event theory,
if our reactions are weak, we feel less emotion. But if
• Emotion, according to Plutchik, involves thinking,
our Appraisal (the cognitive aspect) reactions are
changes in feelings, body responses, and urges to strong, we feel more Action (the behavioral aspect
act. including physiology) emotion.
• Motivation is an inner process that changes
how we react to things around us. Is Physiological Arousal Necessary for
• Emotion and motivation are closely related Emotions?
and sometimes hard to separate. o People with spinal cord injuries, who can't move,
• Emotion usually involves thoughts, feelings, and say they still feel emotions like before. This means
actions, with feelings being the most important . emotions might not need muscle movement. But,
Studying emotions, what causes them, and their since their automatic body responses still work,
roles is a big part of psychology. emotions might depend on these responses.
o In pure autonomic failure, the body's automatic
responses don't work. People with this condition
James-Lange Theory
don't show physical signs of stress like changes in
Emotions activate our nervous system, which has heart rate or sweating. They still experience
sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. emotions in their thoughts, but they feel them less
strongly. This supports the James-Lange theory.
Emotions, Autonomic Arousal, and the o BOTOX, a substance used by doctors to stop
James-Lange Theory frowning muscles, can make people read sad
sentences slower. This suggests that frowning
Walter Cannon was the first to understand that the helps us understand sad things. People who get
sympathetic system gets us ready for a ‘fight or BOTOX feel less emotional when watching videos.
flight’ response, and the parasympathetic system helps o Also, people who can't move their faces due to
us save energy. Different emotions can trigger brain damage have a hard time understanding
different reactions in these systems. other people's emotions, especially fear. So,
changes in our body might be important for feeling
How does the autonomic nervous system emotions.
relate to emotions? o A study found that people with certain types of
brain damage reacted differently to emotional
The James-Lange theory says that our body's reactions
music. Some with damage to the right
come before we feel emotions. So, we label our
somatosensory cortex had normal physical
emotions based on our body's responses. This is
reactions but didn't feel much. Others with
different from the usual idea that our emotions cause
damage to part of the prefrontal cortex had
our body to react.
weak physical reactions but felt normal. But it's
unclear if their reports of their feelings were
How would I know to run away before I was
accurate.
scared?
First, we think about a situation. William James said that Mobius Syndrome
emotions Then, we act based on our have three parts: o However, although smiles and frowns slightly alter
thoughts, actions, thoughts. Finally, we feel emotions happiness, smiles are not necessary for happiness.
and feelings based on our actions and arousal. o People with a rare condition called Mobius
syndrome cannot move their facial muscles to
make a smile.
o They nevertheless experience happiness and o People with greater right-hemisphere activity tend
amusement , although they have trouble making to be socially withdrawn, less satisfied with life,
friends because other people react to the lack of and prone to unpleasant emotions.
smiling. o The right hemisphere appears to be more
responsive to emotional stimuli than the left .
Is Physiological Arousal Sufficient for o Activation of the right hemisphere is associated
with withdrawal from events and social contact.
Emotions?
The right hemisphere is also more specialized than
• The study shows that our body's actions can the left for interpreting other people’s
affect how we feel, just like the James-Lange expressions of emotions.
theory says.
• This is why emotions are often called "embodied". The Functions of Emotions
But this doesn’t mean we can tell different • Emotions prepare us for behavior. When triggered,
emotions apart just by our body's reactions. emotions orchestrate systems such as perception,
attention, inference, learning, memory, goal choice,
Brain Areas Associated with motivational priorities, physiological reactions, motor
Emotions behaviors, and behavioral decision making.
• For certain emotions, the answer is clear. Fear
o The limbic system, the forebrain areas surrounding alerts us to escape from danger. Anger directs us
the thalamus has been regarded as critical for to attack an intruder. Disgust tells us to avoid
emotion. something that might cause illness.
o The insular cortex, or insula, associated • Also, emotions provide a useful guide when we
with the feeling of disgust, is strongly activated if need to make a quick decision. Sometimes, your
you see a disgusting picture or the facial “gut feeling is useful.
expression of someone who is feeling disgusted.
o Locating disgust in the insula is interesting because Moral Dilemmas:
that is the primary taste cortex. Disgust is literally 1. The Trolley Dilemma
disgust, or bad taste. 2. The Footbridge Dilemma’
o Activity of the left hemisphere, Increased activity 3. The Lifeboat Dilemma
of the frontal especially its frontal and temporal 4. The Hospital Dilemma
lobes of the right temporal lobes called the
hemisphere is associated with. Amygdala
o Behavioral Activation System the The amygdala's name refers to its almond-like shape.
Behavioral Inhibition System (BAS), Located right next to the hippocampus, the left and
right amygdalae play a central role in our emotional
marked by low to (BIS), which increases attention
responses, including feelings like pleasure, fear, anxiety
moderate autonomic arousal and arousal, inhibits
and anger.
action, and a tendency to approach, which
stimulates emotions such as fear could
characterize either and disgust , happiness or Decision Making After Brain Damage that
anger. Impairs Emotions
o The difference between the hemispheres relates o Damage to parts of the prefrontal cortex blunts
to personality.
people’s emotions in most regards, except for an
o On average, people with greater activity in the occasional outburst of anger.
frontal cortex of the left hemis phere tend to be o It also impairs decision making. People with such
happier, more outgoing, and more fun-loving. damage often make impulsive decisions without
 pausing to consider the consequences, including
how they will feel after a possible mistake.
o You might think of impulsive decisions as emotional,
but these people’s decisions often seem
unemotional.
o The most famous case of a person with
prefrontal damage is that of Phineas Gage. In
1848, an explosion sent an iron rod through Gages
prefrontal cortex. Amazingly, he survived. During
the next few months, his behavior was impulsive,
and he made poor decisions. These are common
symptoms of prefrontal damage.
o After damage to a particular part of the
prefrontal cortex—the ventromedial prefrontal
cortex—people seem deficient in their sense of
guilt, both in everyday life and in laboratory
situations.
 Amygdala
ATTACK AND ESCAPE BEHAVIOR
• The amygdala is a complex structure in the brain that
Attack Behavior is the use of force or violence plays a key role in emotional processing and memory
against an adversary, usually with intent to harm, or kill. • One of the main areas for regulating anxiety.
Attack Behavior often occurs when signal of • Amygdala is important for enhancing the startle reflex.
Many cells in the amygdala, especially in the basolateral
warning have been issued and ignored. Animals, and and central nuclei get input from pain fibers as well as
some human beings, may use attack as a form of vision or hearing, so the circuitry is well suited to
defense, for example, in defensive aggression establishing conditioned fears
• Output from the amygdala to the hypothalamus
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN VIOLENCE controls autonomic fear responses, such as increased
blood pressure.
1. Heredity
- The passing on of physical or mental STARTLE REFLEX
characteristics genetically from one generation to
another. Startle reflex is extremely fast during the unlearned fears:
Information reaches the pons within 3 to 8 ms after a loud
2. Environment noise, and the full startle reflex occurs in less than two
- Surrounding or condition in which person, animal, tenths of a second.
plants lives or operates.
3. Violence
THE BED NUCLEUS OF STRIA TERMINALIS
- Behavior involving physical force intended to hurt,
damage, or kill someone or something. • The bed nucleus is critical for long-term adjustments of
anxiety.
• The amygdala is responsible for fear of individual items.
Hormones
• The stria terminalis is a set of axons connecting its bed
o Most fighting in the animal kingdon is by males nucleus to the amygdala.
competing for mates or female defending their young.
Similarly to us people, men fight more often than
KLAVERBUCY SYNDROME
woman, commit more violent crimes, shout more insults
at one another. • The effect of amygdala damage in monkeys described
o It is because of their "testosterone or male hormones" in classic studies early in the 1900s.
some the higher the testosterone are the higher the • Monkeys showing this syndrome are tame and placid.
aggression behavior. They attempt to pick up lighted matches and other
o Testosterone affects aggression by influencing the objects that they ordinarily avoid. They display less than
the normal fear of snakes or of larger, more dominant
development of various ares of the brain that control monkeys.
aggressive behavior
• The most prominent effect is an alteration of
o Serotonin and aggressive behavior:
monkeys’ social behaviors, although the exact results
» Serotonin is an essential hormone and
vary depending on the age of the monkeys, the social
neurotransmitter. It plays a role in a wide range
situation, and the exact location of the damage.
of bodily functions, including sleep, appetite, mood,
• Some monkeys with damage to the amygdala are
and thinking.
withdrawn and fearful, but others are friendly and
» What causes low serotonin?
fearless.
1. Stress
• Monkeys with a more vigorously reactive amygdala tend
2. Nutrional Deficiencies
to show the greatest fear in response to a noise or an
3. Medication and drug abuse.
intruder.
• How to boost serotonin?
• The amygdala responds more strongly to the
1. Get 15 mins of sunlight
expression that is harder to interpret. Presumably the
2. Get enough sleep
arousal indicates that it is working harder to make
3. Manage your stress level
sense of the stimulus.
DAMAGE TO HUMAN AMYGDALA
• With laboratory animals, researchers can intentionally PHARMACOLOGICAL RELIEF FROM ANXIETY
damage the amygdala to see the effects. With humans, • A variety of studies indicate that anxiety is
they have to rely on damage that occurs spontaneously. increased by the transmitters orexin and CCK
• When they examine emotional pictures, they can (cholecystoki nin) in the amygdala or hippocampus.
classify them as pleasant vs. unpleasant as well as • The most common anti-anxiety drugs (“anxiolytic
anyone else. However, they experience little arousal
drugs”) are the benzodiazepines (BEN-zo-die-AZ-
from viewing unpleasant pictures That is, they continue
to experience the cognitive aspect of unpleasant
uh-peens), such as diazepam (trade name Valium),
emotions, but not the feeling aspect. chlordiazepoxide (Lib rium), and alprazolam (Xanax).
• Benzodiazepines bind to the GABAA receptor and
DAMAGE TO HUMAN AMYGDALA – make it more sensitive to GABA. They reduce
anxiety-related behaviors and responses in various
URBACH-WIETHEDISEASE
brain regions and situations.
• It is possible to study damage limited to the amygdala
only in people with the rare genetic disorder They
ALCOHOL AS AN ANXIETY REDUCER
suffer skin lesions, and many also accumulate calcium in
the amygdala until it wastes away. • Alcohol promotes the flow of chloride ions through
• People with Urbach-Wiethe disease often fail to the GABAA receptor complex by binding strongly
recognize the emotional expressions in faces, especially at a special site found on only certain kinds of
expressions of fear or disgust. GABAA receptors.
• At first, the assumption was that someone with • Besides affecting the GABAA receptor complex,
amygdala damage doesn’t feel fear and therefore Ro15-4513 blocks the effects of alcohol on motor
can’t understand it in others. But then Ralph Adolphs
coordination, its depressant action on the brain,
and his colleagues observed that SM focuses almost
entirely on the nose and mouth of each photograph.
and its ability to reduce anxiety.
Also, in everyday life, she seldom makes eye contact, • Hoffman-LaRoche, the company that discovered it,
looking at the mouth instead. concluded that the drug would be too risky.
• Ro15-4513 reduces but does not eliminate alcohol’s
Anxiety Disorder effects, especially with large amounts of alcohol
• Most psychological disorders include increased anxiety
as one of the symptoms. In generalized anxiety
disorder, phobia, and panic disorder, the only major
symptom is increased anxiety.

Panic disorder is characterized by frequent periods

of anxiety and occasional attacks of rapid breathing,
increased heart rate, sweating, and trembling—that is,
extreme arousal of the sym pathetic nervous system.
• It is more common in women than in men and far more
common in adolescents and young adults than in older
adults
• Panic disorder occurs in about 15% of people with
joint laxity, commonly known as being “double
jointed” (able to bend the fingers backward farther
than usual).
• Panic disorder is associated with decreased activity of
the neurotransmitter GABA and increased levels of
orexin.