RESEARCH WRITING
Complete Study Notes
Topics Covered
Prefatory Parts | Results | Discussion | Conclusion | Recommendations
Sources: Writing Technical Reports (Slides) + Course PDF (8–11)
PART 1: WRITING TECHNICAL REPORTS — PREFATORY PARTS
A technical report is a document that describes the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific research.
It is written to communicate factual, objective information to a well-defined audience for an important, specific
purpose.
1.1 Components / Elements of a Report
A standard report is organized into three main zones:
A. COVER MATERIALS
• Cover and Title Page
• Cover letter or memo (optional)
• Invoice (optional)
• Letter of Transmittal
• Abstract
• Acknowledgements
• Executive Summary
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures or Illustrations
• List of Tables
B. BODY OF THE REPORT
• Introduction (Background, Problem Statement, Objectives, Scope)
• Literature Review / Historical Background
• Methodology
• Results & Analysis
• Discussion
C. ENDING OF THE REPORT
• Conclusions
• Recommendations (optional)
• References / Bibliography
• Appendix (raw data, questionnaires, tables, etc.)
1.2 Cover and Title Page
• Must be neat and organized.
• Upper half: Subject title (clearly identifies both the report's function AND subject).
• Lower half: Name of the person/organization writing the report, name of the receiving
person/organization, and date of submittal.
Example: FEASIBILITY STUDY OF OFFICE EXPANSION FOR UNITED COMPUTER TECHNOLOGIES,
INC. — Prepared for Joanne R. Galloway, Senior Vice President | By William D. Santiago, Senior Partner |
March 3, 1999
1.3 Letter of Transmittal
The official acknowledgement of completion of the report. It is addressed to the official who authorized the report
and signed by the official authorized to produce it.
1. States the title and subject of the report
2. May include a very brief summary of the report
3. Can acknowledge those who assisted in preparing the report
4. Written in a formal tone
1.4 Abstract
A brief summarizing statement (typically 75–250 words) that tells the reader the contents of the report. Sufficient
detail for the reader to decide whether the report is relevant to their interests.
Four Elements of an Abstract
5. Problem — what is being investigated and why
6. Method — how the research was conducted
7. Result — what was found
8. Conclusion — what it means
Two Types of Abstract
Descriptive Abstract Informative Abstract
Written BEFORE the project is completed Written AFTER the project is completed
Emphasis on the problem and the method Emphasis on results and conclusions
Tells what the report covers without giving Gives actual findings and conclusions
findings
1.5 Executive Summary
Written for busy administrators and decision makers who will not have time to read the entire report. It is a
document in miniature that may be read in place of the longer document.
Key Characteristics
• Placed immediately after the title page
• Typically 10–25% of the original document length
• Structure mirrors the abstract: Problem → Method → Results → Recommendations
• About 25% devoted to problem and method; 75% to results and recommendations
Guidelines for Writing an Executive Summary
9. Read the entire report first to grasp its full content
10. Summary should be approximately one-quarter of the original text
11. Write persuasively to motivate the reader
12. Use headings to facilitate navigation
13. Be simple and formal in language
Structure of Executive Summary
1. Problem / Terms of Reference
What the report was commissioned to examine; background to the problem.
2. Method
How the research was conducted or data was gathered.
3. Key Findings (summarized)
The most important results in concise form. Formal language appropriate to report writing.
4. Conclusions
What the findings show or imply.
5. Recommendations (summarized)
What actions are suggested based on findings. May also list limitations.
Common Pitfall: An executive summary is NOT simply an introduction. It must include findings, conclusions, and
recommendations — not just background and aims.
1.6 Table of Contents / List of Figures / Tables
An excellent way for the reader to get an overview of the document. Shows the organization and location of all
sections.
Numbering Systems
Traditional Format Multiple Decimal Format
I. 1.0
I.A 1.1
I.A.1 1.1.1
I.A.1.a 1.1.2
II. 1.2
II.A 1.2.1
PART 2: RESULTS SECTION
The Results section contains statements of what was found during the research. It refers to the data shown in
visuals such as figures and tables.
2.1 What to Include in Results
• Statements of what was found — factual, objective reporting only
• References to visuals: figures, charts, tables, graphs
• Do NOT include information that would need to be referenced (e.g., comparisons with other studies —
that belongs in the Discussion)
• Do NOT include interpretation — that also belongs in the Discussion
2.2 Results vs. Discussion
Results Section Discussion Section
States what was found Explains why it was found
Objective and factual Interpretive and analytical
References own data/visuals References other studies/literature
No opinions or inferences Inferences, implications, and evaluation
2.3 Presenting Results in Visuals
Visuals — especially figure and table titles — are key indicators of the author's main points. Experts often read
title → visuals → rest of the paper.
• Every figure and table must be labeled and referenced in the text
• The text should guide the reader through what the visual shows
• Do not repeat what is already obvious from the visual — add context instead
PART 3: DISCUSSION SECTION
The Discussion section is the most important section of a research report. It provides answers to research
questions and solutions to problems that justify the research. It looks at the issue from different angles, examines
causes of findings, assesses relationships between contributory factors, and acknowledges any gaps in
understanding.
3.1 Purpose and Role of the Discussion
• Provide a clear answer to the question posed in the Introduction
• Explain how the results support the conclusions
• Place the work in the context of the broader field
• Discuss possible causes of findings based on underlying theory
• Acknowledge what remains unexplained or unclear
3.2 Four Strategies for Writing the Discussion
Strategy 1: Explain the Results / Findings
Give reasons for the findings. This may involve three sub-approaches:
a) Give reasons for the findings
Explain why the results turned out the way they did based on context, background knowledge, or
theory.
b) Explain the scenario / circumstances during data collection
Describe any situational factors (financial, environmental, social, etc.) during data collection that may
have influenced results.
c) Explain results based on limitations / constraints of the research
If a finding is unexpected or weak, explain how the study's limitations (e.g., sample demographics,
geographic scope) may account for this.
Example: Based on Figure 3, most students preferred the prepaid plan. This was anticipated, as respondents
were all students who paid only for what they used. While some came from wealthy families, the majority could
not afford a postpaid plan.
Strategy 2: Compare the Findings
Link your findings with existing research from the literature review and relate different findings within your own
study.
a) Compare with findings of other research in the same field
Show similarities or differences between your results and those found in literature reviewed earlier in
the report. Cite the relevant study.
b) Compare and relate different findings within the same research
Cross-reference different findings within your own study to highlight significant patterns or
relationships.
Example: This was similar to the findings of a study by Parem et al. (2003) at University XYZ, which found that
SMS was the primary reason why students owned a handset.
Strategy 3: Evaluate the Findings
Assess the findings — decide whether results are as expected, successful, unexpected, unsatisfactory, or
insignificant. Since you know the context of the problem, you can make informed judgments about the quality and
credibility of the results.
Example: One service provider claimed wider coverage. This seemed credible among students. However,
there was no way to verify this claim as no independent studies on network coverage had been conducted.
Thus, students' responses appeared to be based on hearsay.
Strategy 4: Infer from the Findings
Inference means developing your viewpoints and ideas based on facts accumulated through surveys or
interviews. If findings are left in statistical form, no one can understand them. Be creative and do not be afraid to
speculate (with reason).
Example: Traffic information was the least attractive peripheral service. This was expected as the university
was far from the metropolitan area and most students lived on campus, making traffic information irrelevant to
them.
3.3 Key Language for the Discussion
Function Useful Phrases
Explain results The results clearly show that... | This was anticipated because...
Give reasons This could be due to... | The most obvious factor was...
Compare with literature This was similar to the findings of... | In contrast to...
Evaluate This claim seemed to have found credibility... | There was no way of
verifying...
Infer This was expected as... | As such, it may be inferred that...
Acknowledge gaps Since no studies have been conducted on... | For various reasons, this
remains unclear...
PART 4: CONCLUSION SECTION
The conclusion ties together all the various issues covered in the research. It allows the writer to draw logical
deductions based on research findings. It must relate to the objectives and results. It should NOT introduce any
new material.
4.1 Five Elements of a Conclusion
Element 1: Overview of the Study
Begin by briefly summarizing what the research is about — the why and how in a nutshell.
Phrases to use: — This study investigated... | This research gave an account of... | This study/project has
examined...
Element 2: Restatement of the Objectives
Begin with the most significant objective. Do NOT copy word-for-word from the Introduction. Rephrase.
Phrases to use: — As mentioned earlier in the introduction, the purpose of this study was to... | To reiterate,
this study set out to... | Returning to the research questions at the beginning of this study, it is now possible to
state that...
Element 3: Review of the Findings
State whether or not objectives were achieved and whether results were as expected. Start with the most
important finding, then proceed to less important ones.
Phrases to use: — This study has shown that... | The findings of this study indicate that... | One of the
significant findings that emerges from this study is... | The major finding of the research is that...
Element 4: Implications of the Findings
Implications are the conclusions or deductions arrived at based on your findings. They form the basis for
recommendations on what course of action to take.
Phrases to use: — The evidence from this research suggests that... | The results of this study indicate that... |
The results of this study support the idea that... | In general, it seems that...
Element 5: Limitations of the Research (Optional)
Identify weaknesses in the study — sample size, scope, data constraints, generalizability, etc.
Phrases to use: — One of the limitations of the research is... | However, the findings cannot be generalized to
other populations... | The present study was limited by... | The research was limited in several ways. First...
4.2 Dos and Don'ts of Conclusions
✔ DOS ✘ DON'TS
Draw conclusions for each major issue raised in Do NOT introduce new ideas or facts not covered
the study in the study
State findings and give specific explanations if Do NOT focus on minor results
necessary
Use discourse markers to ensure cohesion Do NOT exaggerate the implications of your
(furthermore, however, in addition...) findings
Select verb tense correctly: past for findings, Do NOT generalize findings beyond the study's
modal for implications scope
Be objective and honest, including about Do NOT apologize (e.g., 'I may not be an expert')
limitations
4.3 Verb Tense Guide for Conclusions
Function Tense / Form Example
Stating purpose Simple past The purpose of this study was...
Reporting results Simple past It was found that...
Giving explanations Modal (could, may) This could be due to...
Stating implications Modal / present The results suggest that...
Recommendations Modal (should, ought to) It is recommended that...
4.4 Three-Component Structure of the Conclusion
Component 1 — Meeting of Objectives (Looks BACK)
State whether objectives were met, to what extent, and give reasons for any changes to the original
objectives.
Component 2 — Design Improvements / Recommendations (Looks FORWARD)
Propose improvements to the project in terms of cost, efficiency, or design. Use the subjunctive form
for formal recommendations: 'It is recommended that the base be attached...' rather than 'should be
attached'.
Component 3 — New Lines of Study (Looks BEYOND)
Suggest how the ideas in this work could be applied elsewhere, giving rise to new assignments,
projects, or areas of study. Demonstrate awareness of the field beyond this project.
Recommendations vs. Suggestions: Recommendations say what should be done. Suggestions say what
could be done. Formal recommendations often use the subjunctive: 'It is recommended that the system be
tested...' (not 'should be').
PART 5: RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations are the section of the report where you give suggestions or propose actions to be taken based
on your findings. They are the practical output of the research.
5.1 Key Rules for Writing Recommendations
• Written as action statements using clear, specific language
• Written in order of importance (most important first)
• Must be directly related to the conclusions of the study
• Should NOT include any new facts or ideas not already in the report
• Must NOT be based on personal beliefs or biases unsupported by data
5.2 Two Types of Recommendations
Type 1: Actions to Be Taken Based on Findings
Direct, practical actions that stakeholders should implement.
Example: Other service providers ought to improve their network coverage and promotional strategy if they
want to compete with Simax.
Example: Students should opt for the postpaid plan if their monthly talk time exceeds 267 minutes, as it is
more economical.
Type 2: Recommendations for Future Research (Suggestions)
Suggestions for extending or expanding the study.
Example: Since this study focused only on Permata University students, it is recommended that further studies
be carried out at other universities to identify similarities or differences in findings.
Example: Further research could explore the different promotional strategies used by service providers and
their effectiveness in attracting customers.
5.3 Language of Recommendations
Strength Modal / Structure
Strong obligation should, must, ought to — 'Service providers should improve coverage.'
Formal recommendation It is recommended that... be — 'It is recommended that the system be
(subjunctive) tested.'
Suggestion (weaker) could, might — 'The sharpener could be made in different colours.'
Future research it is recommended that further studies be conducted on...
Conditional action If X, then Y should... — 'If talk time exceeds 267 minutes, students
should opt for postpaid.'
PART 6: QUICK REFERENCE — FULL REPORT FLOW
Section Purpose Key Rule
Title Page Identify subject, author, recipient, Upper half: subject/title; Lower half:
date parties and date
Letter of Transmittal Officially submit the report Formal tone; include title, brief
summary, acknowledgements
Abstract (Descriptive) Outline scope before project done Focus on problem and method only
Abstract (Informative) Summarize completed research All four: problem, method, results,
conclusion
Executive Summary Stand-in document for decision 25% problem/method, 75%
makers results/recommendations
Table of Contents Navigation guide Traditional (I., I.A) or decimal (1.0,
1.1.1) numbering
Results Report what was found Factual only; no interpretation;
reference visuals
Discussion Explain, compare, evaluate, infer 4 strategies; connect to literature;
acknowledge gaps
Conclusion Tie everything together 5 elements; no new info; correct
tense use
Recommendations Propose action Action statements; ordered by
importance; data-based