MODULE-3

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS

Cerebrum
The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises Gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and
white matter at its centre. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and
coordinates movement and regulates temperature.
Brainstem
The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the
back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem.
Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain
posture, balance and equilibrium.
Medulla
At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal
cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many
bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and
carbon dioxide levels.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough.
The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not
contain nerves or blood vessels.
The pia mater is a thin membrane.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that
circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the
meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out
waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.
Brain as a CPU System
The human brain can be thought of as a highly sophisticated and complex
information processing system, similar to a computer's Central Processing Unit
(CPU). Both the brain and CPU receive and process inputs, store information,
and perform calculations to produce outputs. The human brain can be thought of
as a highly sophisticated and complex information processing system, similar to
a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). Both the brain and CPU receive and
process inputs, store information, and perform calculations to produce outputs.
However, there are significant differences between the two, such as the way they
store and process information and the fact that the human brain has the ability to
learn and adapt, while a computer's CPU does not. Additionally, the human brain
is capable of performing tasks such as perception, thought, and emotion, which
are beyond the scope of a computer's CPU.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord and is
responsible for receiving, processing, and integrating sensory information and
transmitting commands to the rest of the body. The brain acts as the command
centre, receiving and processing sensory inputs and generating motor outputs,
while the spinal cord acts as a relay centre, transmitting formation between the
brain and peripheral nerves.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System, on the other hand, consists of all the nerves that
lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
It is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the periphery of the
body (such as the skin, muscles, and organs) to the CNS, and transmitting
commands from the CNS to the periphery.
The PNS can be further divided into the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
Signal Transmission
Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the firing of nerve cells, or
neurons.

A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its dendrites, integrates the
information, and then generates an electrical impulse, or action potential, that
travels down its axon to the synaptic terminals. At the synaptic terminals, the
neuron releases chemical neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and
bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to the initiation of another
action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. This process of transmitting
information from one neuron to another is known as synaptic transmission and
forms the basis of communication within the brain. Different types of
neurotransmitters have different effects on postsynaptic neurons, and the balance
of neurotransmitter levels can influence brain function, including mood, learning,
and memory Signal transmission in the brain is also influenced by various forms
of synaptic plasticity, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term
depression (LTD), which can modify the strength of synaptic connections and
contribute to learning and memory processes.
EEG-Electroencephalography
EEG stands for electroencephalography, which is a non-invasive method for
measuring the electrical activity of the brain. An EEG records the electrical
signals generated by the brain's neurons as they communicate with each other.
The signals are recorded through electrodes placed on the scalp and the resulting
EEG pattern provides information about the synchronized electrical activity of
large populations of neurons.

EEG Signals and Types of Brain Activity

EEG signals have unique features that correspond to different types of brain
activity.
Delta waves (0.5-4 Hz): Delta waves are low-frequency waves associated with
deep sleep, infancy, and brain disorders such as brain damage
Theta waves (4-8 Hz): Theta waves are also associated with sleep and relaxation,
as well as meditation and hypnosis. They are also present during memory
encoding and retrieval processes.
Alpha waves (8-12 Hz): Alpha waves are present when the brain is relaxed and
not focused on any particular task. They are also associated with meditation and
creativity.
Beta waves [12-30 Hz]: Beta waves are present when the brain is focused on a
task, such as problem-solving or decision-making. They are also associated with
anxiety and stress.
Gamma waves (30-100 Hz): Gamma waves are associated with high-level
cognitive processing ,such as attention, perception, and memory. They are also
involved in sensory processing and motor control.
 Applications of EEG
• Diagnosis of Epilepsy: EEG is a widely used tool to diagnose epilepsy and
other seizure disorders. It can detect abnormal electrical activity in the
brain, which can help to confirm the diagnosis and determine the location
of the seizure focus.
• Sleep Studies: EEG is often used in sleep studies to evaluate sleep patterns
and diagnose sleep disorders.
• Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI): EEG can be used to control external
devices such as prosthetic limbs or computer software. This is done by
detecting specific brain waves associated with a particular mental state,
such as concentration or relaxation.
• Research on Brain Function: EEG is used in research to study brain
function during various activities such as reading, problem-solving, and
decision-making. EEG can also be used to investigate how the brain
responds to stimuli such as light, sound, and touch.
• Diagnosis of Brain Disorders: EEG can be used to diagnose a wide range
of brain disorders including dementia, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic
brain injury.
• Anesthesia Monitoring: EEG can be used to monitor the depth of
anesthesia during surgery to ensure that the patient remains in a safe and
comfortable state.
• Monitoring Brain Activity during Coma: EEG is also used to monitor brain
activity in patients who are in a coma to determine the level of brain
function and assess the recovery.

Robotic Arms for Prosthetics

Robotic arms for prosthetics are advanced prosthetic devices that use robotics
technology to restore functionality to individuals with upper limb amputations.
These devices typically use motors, actuators, and sensors to mimic the movements of
a human arm and hand, allowing the wearer to perform tasks such as reaching,
grasping, and manipulating objects.
Robotic arms for prosthetics can be controlled in a variety of ways, including direct
control through muscle signals (myoelectric control) or brain-machine interfaces,
which use electrodes implanted in the brain or placed on the scalp to detect and
interpret brain activity.
Robotic Arm Prosthetic Direct Control through Muscle Signals (myoelectric
control)
 Myoelectric control of a robotic arm prosthetic involves using the electrical
signals generated by the wearer's remaining muscles to control the
movement of the prosthetic.
 The system typically involves electrodes placed on the skin over the
remaining muscle that are used to detect and interpret the electrical signals
generated by the muscle contractions.
 When the wearer contracts their muscles, the electrodes detect the
electrical signals and send them to a control unit, which interprets the
signals and uses them to control the movement of the robotic arm.
  Depending on the specific design, the control unit may use pattern
recognition algorithms to determine which movement the wearer is
intending to perform, or the wearer may use a combination of muscle
signals to control specific degrees of freedom in the prosthetic arm.
 Myoelectric control has the advantage of being directly controlled by the
user, allowing for a more intuitive and natural interaction with the
prosthetic.
 It can also provide a high level of control and precision, as the electrical
signals generated by the muscles are unique to each individual and can be
used to perform a wide range of movements.
 However, myoelectric control systems can be complex and may require
extensive rehabilitation and training to use effectively, as well as ongoing
maintenance to ensure proper function.
 Additionally, the system may not be suitable for individuals with muscle
weakness or other conditions that affect the ability to generate strong
electrical signals.

Robotic Arm Prosthetic by Brain-Machine Interfaces

 Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) are a type of technology that allows a

user to control a robotic arm prosthetic directly with their brain activity.
 The system typically involves electrodes placed on the scalp or implanted
directly into the brain to detect and interpret the user's brain signals.
 When the user thinks about moving the prosthetic arm, the electrodes
detect the corresponding brain activity and send the signals to a control
 unit, which uses algorithms to interpret the signals and control the
movement of the prosthetic.
 The user can then control the movement of the prosthetic in real-time by
thinking about the desired movement.
Advantages & disadvantages of using BMI’s
 Providing a direct and intuitive connection between the user's brain and the
prosthetic, allowing for a high level of control and precision.
 Additionally, BMIs can be used to provide sensory feedback to the user,
allowing them to experience the sensation of touch through the prosthetic.
 BMIs can be complex and invasive systems, requiring surgical
implantation and ongoing maintenance to ensure proper function.
 Not suitable for individuals with conditions that affect brain activity or
who are unable to generate strong enough brain signals to control the
prosthetic effectively.
 R & D: Improving the performance and accessibility of BMIs, as well as
increasing their ease of use and reliability.

Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement and
motor function. Parkinson’s disease is a condition where a part of your brain
deteriorates, causing more severe symptoms over time. The best-known
symptoms of Parkinson’s disease involve loss of muscle control.
Engineering Solutions for Parkinson’s Disease
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS):
DBS involves the implantation of electrodes into specific regions of the brain to
deliver electrical stimulation, which can help to relieve symptoms such as
tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
Exoskeletons
Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for
individuals with mobility issues. Some exoskeletons have been developed
specifically for people with Parkinson's disease, and can help to improve balance,
reduce tremors, and increase overall mobility.
Telerehabilitation
Telerehabilitation involves the use of telecommunication technology to provide
physical therapy and rehabilitation services to individuals with Parkinson's
disease, without the need for in-person visits to a therapist.
Smartwatch Applications
Smartwatch applications can be used to monitor symptoms of Parkinson's
disease, such as tremors, and provide reminders and prompts for medication and
exercise.
Eye anatomy

Sclera: It is the outer covering, a protective tough white layer called the sclera
(white part of the eye).
Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is called the cornea. Light enters
the eye through the cornea.
Iris: A dark muscular tissue and ring-like structure behind the cornea is known
as the iris. The colour of the iris actually indicates the colour of the eye. The iris
also helps regulate or adjust exposure by adjusting the iris.
Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. Its size is controlled with
the help of iris. It controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
Lens: Behind the pupil, there is a transparent structure called a lens. By the action
of ciliary muscles, it changes its shape to focus light on the retina. It becomes
thinner to focus on distant objects and becomes thicker to focus on the nearby
objects.
Retina: It is a light-sensitive layer that consists of numerous nerve cells. It
converts images formed by the lens into electrical impulses. These electrical
impulses are then transmitted to the brain through optic nerves.
Choroid :The choroid lies between the retina and the sclera, which provides
blood supply to the eye.
Vitreous Humor: The vitreous humor is the gel located in the back of the eye
which helps it hold its shape.
Aqueous Humor: The aqueous humor is a watery substance that fills the eye
.These layers allow the eye to maintain its shape.
Conjunctiva Glands: These are layers of mucus which help keep the outside of
the eye moist. If the eye dries out it can become itchy and painful. It can also
become more susceptible to damage or infection. If the conjunctiva glands
become infected the patient will develop “pink eye.”
Ciliary Body : Ciliary body is a ring-shaped tissue which holds and controls the
movement of the eye lens, and thus, it helps to control the shape of the lens
Rod Cells
Rods are the optic nerve cells that are more sensitive to dim lights. They help in
peripheral vision.
They contain a protein called rhodopsin that absorbs light and triggers a chain of
events leading to the activation of neural signals.
Cone Cells
Cones are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to bright light. They help in
detailed central and colour vision
There are three types of cone cells, each containing a different photopigment
sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, and blue), which allow for
the perception of color.
Cones are less sensitive to light than rod cells but provide better visual acuity and
color discrimination

the human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera
capture light and convert it into an image.
The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:
• The Cornea: This transparent outer layer of the eye functions like a camera
lens, bending light to focus it onto the retina.
• The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera, controlling the
amount of light that enters the eye.
• The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the size
to control the amount of light entering the eye.
• The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the
light and converting it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
• The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the
camera to a computer, transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to the
brain.

Refractive errors
Refractive errors occur when light entering the eye is not properly focused on the
retina, leading to blurred vision. There are several types of refractive errors,
including:
• Myopia (near-sightedness): Light is focused in front of the retina, making
distant objects appear blurry.
• Hyperopia (farsightedness): Light is focused behind the retina, making near
objects appear blurry.
• Astigmatism: Light is not focused evenly on the retina, leading to blurred or
distorted vision
Cataract
A cataract is a clouding of the lens of the eye that affects vision. Symptoms of a
cataract blurred or hazy vision, increased sensitivity to glare and bright lights,
faded or yellowed colours, and double vision in one eye. Cataract surgery is a
common and safe procedure to remove the cloudy lens and replace it with an
artificial lens .The artificial lenses used in cataract surgery or for vision correction
can be made of a variety of
Materials:
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
Silicone
Acrylic
Hydrophobic acrylic
Hydrophilic acrylic

Optical Corrections
Optical corrections refer to devices or techniques used to improve or correct
vision problems caused by a refractive error in the eye.
• Eyeglasses: Glasses with corrective lenses can be used to refocus light onto the
retina, improving vision.
• Contact lenses: Corrective lenses in the form of contacts sit directly on the
cornea and work similarly to eyeglasses.
• Refractive surgery: Surgical procedures, such as LASIK and PRK, can reshape
the cornea to correct refractive errors.
Bionic Eye or Artificial Eye
A bionic eye, also known as a retinal implant, is a type of prosthetic device that
is surgically implanted into the eye to help restore vision to people who have lost
their sight due to certain conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related
macular degeneration.
The device typically consists of a camera, a processor, and an electrode array that
is attached to the retina.
The camera captures images and sends signals to the processor, which then
transmits electrical stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the
remaining healthy cells and restore vision.
Materials Used in Bionic Eye
Silicon or other semiconducting materials for the camera and the electrode array.
•Biocompatible materials for the casing of the device and the electrode array, such
as titanium or titanium alloys, to minimize the risk of infection and rejection by
the body.
• Conductive materials, such as platinum, iridium, or gold, for the electrodes in
the array to provide efficient electrical stimulation to the retina.
• Polymers, such as silicone or polyimide, for insulation and protection of the
electrodes and other components.
• Optical materials, such as glass or acrylic, for the lens of the camera.
• Biocompatible and flexible materials for the electrical connections between the
camera and the processing unit and between the processing unit and the electrode
array
Working of Bionic Eye
Working of Bionic eye

Heart as a Pump System

The parts of your heart are like the parts of a building.
Heart Walls
Your heart walls are the muscles that contract (squeeze) and relax to send blood
throughout your body
Heart chambers
Your heart has four separate chambers. You have two chambers on the top
(atrium, plural atria) and two on the bottom (ventricles), one on each side of your
heart.
Heart valves
Your heart valves are like doors between your heart chambers. They open and
close to allow blood to flow through.
Blood vessels
Your heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels

Electrical conduction system

Your heart’s conduction system is like the electrical wiring of a building. It
controls the rhythm and pace of your heartbeat. Signals start at the top of your
heart and move down to the bottom.
circulation of blood
Blood comes into the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle
and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen,
the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left
atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta.
Flow chart on circulation of blood

Electrical Signalling – ECG Monitoring

The heart's pumping action is controlled by electrical signalling, which generates
the rhythm of the heartbeat. This electrical signalling can be monitored using an
electrocardiogram (ECG), which records the electrical activity of the heart and
provides important information about the heart's function. An ECG measures the
electrical signals produced by the heart as it beats and generates a trace or
waveform that reflects the electrical activity of the heart. This trace can be used
to diagnose heart conditions and monitor the heart's function.
Heart-related issues
• Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected
using an ECG.
• Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the
presence of heart disease, such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks.
• Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting
changes in the heart's electrical activity that indicate a lack of blood flow
to the heart.

Reasons for Blockages of Blood Vessels

High cholesterol levels: Excessive amounts of low density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol in the blood can lead to the formation of plaque in the blood vessels,
which can narrow or block them.
High blood pressure: Over time, high blood pressure can cause damage to the
blood vessels, leading to the formation of plaque and blockages.
Smoking: Smoking can damage the inner walls of blood vessels and promote the
buildup of plaque, leading to blockages.
Diabetes: People with uncontrolled diabetes are at a higher risk of developing
blockages in their blood vessels, due to damage to the blood vessels from high
levels of glucose.
Age: As people age, the blood vessels can become stiff and less flexible,
increasing the risk of blockages.
Poor diet: A diet high in saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol can increase
the risk of developing blockages in the blood vessels.
Design of Stents
Stents are small, metal mesh devices that are used to treat blockages in blood
vessels.
They are typically used in procedures such as angioplasty, where a balloon
catheter is used to open up a blocked blood vessel and a stent is placed to keep it
open.
Some common design features of stents include:
Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical,
helical, and spiralled, to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate
support.
Material: Stents can be made of different materials, including stainless steel,
cobalt chromium (a type of metal that is flexible and can return to its original
shape after being expanded).
Coating: Stents can be coated with different materials to prevent blood clots from
forming and reduce the risk of restenosis (recurrent blockage of the blood
vessel).polyethylene co-vinyl acetate and poly-n-butyl methacrylate.
Pace Makers
A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the chest to regulate
the heartbeat. It is used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as bradycardia (a
slow heartbeat) or arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms), by delivering electrical
impulses to the heart to regulate its rhythm.
The basic design of a pacemaker consists of:
• Generator: The generator is the main component of the pacemaker and contains
a battery and electronic circuitry to generate and control the electrical impulses.
• Leads: Leads are thin wires that connect the generator to the heart and carry the
electrical impulses from the generator to the heart.
• Electrodes: The electrodes are located at the end of the leads and are used to
deliver the electrical impulses to the heart.

TYPES OF PACEMAKERS Single-chamber pacemaker: A single-chamber

pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to either the right atrium or the right
ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
• Dual-chamber pacemaker: A dual-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical
impulses to both the right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its
rhythm.
• Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker delivers electrical
impulses to both ventricles of the heart to coordinate their contractions and
improve heart function in people with heart failure.
Construction of a Pacemaker
• Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are used
to construct the exterior of the device and to provide insulation and protection for
the internal components.
• Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction
of the leads and electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting
performance.
• Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors,
batteries, and capacitors, are used to control the delivery of the electrical impulses
and to provide power to the device.
• Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the
components of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal
components.
Defibrillators
A defibrillator is a medical device that delivers an electric shock to the heart to
restore its normal rhythm in cases of cardiac arrest or other life-threatening heart
rhythm disorders.
Defibrillators can be external (placed on the chest)
The basic design of a defibrillator consists of:
• Power source: The power source, typically a battery, provides energy to deliver
the electric shock to the heart.
• Electrodes: The electrodes are placed on the chest and deliver the electric shock
to the heart.
• Circuitry: The circuitry in the defibrillator controls the delivery of the electric
shock, including the timing, strength, and duration of the shock.
• Display: A display on the defibrillator provides information about the heart
rhythm, battery life, and other relevant information.
Materials used in the construction of defibrillators include:
• Medical-grade plastics: Medical-grade plastics, such as polycarbonate, are
used to construct the exterior of the device and to provide insulation and
protection for the internal components.
• Metals: Metals, such as stainless steel and titanium, are used in the construction
of the leads and electrodes to ensure their durability and long-lasting
performance.
• Electronic components: Electronic components, such as microprocessors,
batteries, capacitors, and high-voltage transformers, are used to control the
delivery of the electrical impulses and to provide power to the device.
• Adhesives: Adhesives, such as cyanoacrylate and epoxy, are used to secure the
components of the device and to provide insulation and protection for the internal
components.
Lung as purification system
The lung purifies air by removing harmful substances and adding oxygen to the
Bloodstream
Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful
substances in the air, such as dust, dirt, and bacteria.
Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of
the respiratory tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them
from drying out.
Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs
where oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the
bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the
bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled.
Architecture of Lungs as Purification System
Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box)
to the lungs. It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter
out harmful substances and trap them in the mucus.
Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi, one for each lung. The
bronchi are larger airways that continue to branch into smaller airways called
bronchioles.
Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the
alveoli. They are surrounded by tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are the sites of
gas exchange.
Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries.
This close proximity of the alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion
of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and the bloodstream.

Spirometry
Spirometry is a diagnostic test that measures the function of the lungs by
measuring the amount and flow rate of air that can be exhaled. The test is
commonly used to diagnose lung conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung
diseases that cause breathing difficulties.
In COPD, the airways and small air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs become damaged
or blocked, leading to difficulty in exhaling air. This results in a decrease in lung
function, leading to shortness of breath, wheezing, and coughing.

Ventilators
Ventilators are medical devices used to assist or control breathing in individuals
who are unable to breathe adequately on their own.
They are commonly used in the treatment of acute respiratory failure, which can
occur as a result of a variety of conditions such as pneumonia, severe asthma, and
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
Heart-Lung Machine
A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, is a
device used in cardiovascular surgery to temporarily take over the functions of
the heart and lungs. The heart-lung machine is used during open-heart surgery,
such as coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery and valve replacement
surgery, to support the patient's circulatory and respiratory functions while the
heart is stopped.
The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body through
a series of tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body, oxygenated, and then
returned to the body. This allows the heart to be stopped during the surgery
without causing any harm to the patient.

Anatomy of Kidney
Kidney capsule (renal capsule)
The renal capsule consists of three layers of connective tissue or fat that cover
your kidneys. It protects your kidneys from injury, increases their stability and
connects your kidneys to surrounding tissues.
Renal artery
The renal artery is a large blood vessel that controls blood flow into your kidneys.
For most people the renal kidneys pump a little over 5 cups (1.2 liters) of blood
to your kidneys each minute.
Renal cortex
The outer layer of your kidney, where the nephrons (blood-filtering units) begin.
The renal cortex also creates the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), which helps
make red blood cells in your bone marrow.
Renal medulla
The renal medulla is the inner part of your kidney. It contains most of the
nephrons with their glomeruli and renal tubules. The renal tubules carry urine to
the renal pelvis.
Renal papilla
These pyramid-shaped structures transfer urine to the ureters. Dehydration and
certain medications — especially nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) — may damage your renal papilla.
Renal pelvis
This funnel-shaped structure collects urine and passes it down two ureters. Urine
travels from the ureters to the bladder, where it’s stored.
Renal vein
This vein is the main blood vessel that carries filtered blood out of your kidneys
and back to your heart. Each of your kidneys has a renal vein.

Nephrons
The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which are the basic
structural
and functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contain approximately one
million nephrons, and each nephron performs the functions of filtration,
reabsorption and secretion.
The nephron is comprised of several key structures:
• Bowman's capsule: This is a cup-shaped structure that surrounds the
glomerulus and filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream into the renal
tubule.
• Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule that
filters waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream.
• Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs
important substances, such as glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into
the bloodstream.
• Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the
reabsorption of ions and water.
• Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels
of electrolytes and other important substances in the bloodstream.
• Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules
and transport it to the renal pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually
into the bladder.
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY
The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. It
removes waste and excess fluid from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate
balance of electrolytes, hormones, and other substances that are critical for the
body's normal functioning.
The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by secreting
the hormone renin, which helps control the balance of fluid and electrolytes in
the body.
It also regulates red blood cell production and the levels of various minerals in
the blood, such as calcium and phosphorus.
Without the kidney, waste and excess fluid would accumulate in the body, leading
to serious health problems.
Chronic Kidney Disease [CKD]
CKD stands for Chronic Kidney Disease. It is a long-term condition in which the
kidneys gradually become less able to function properly. It can be caused by a
variety of factors, including diabetes, high blood pressure, and other health
problems that damage the kidneys.
Symptoms of CKD include:
fatigue, swelling in the legs and feet, trouble sleeping, anemia, nerve damage,
heart disease, stroke.
Treatment for CKD may include lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet
and exercising regularly, as well as medications to manage symptoms and
underlying health conditions. In severe cases, kidney transplant or dialysis may
be necessary.

Dialysis Systems
Dialysis is a medical treatment that helps to filter waste and excess fluids from
the blood when the kidneys are unable to function properly.
There are two main types of dialysis systems: haemodialysis and peritoneal
dialysis. Haemodialysis is a procedure that uses a machine to clean the blood.
During haemodialysis, blood is removed from the body, passed through a dialysis
machine that filters out waste and excess fluids, and then returned to the body
typically performed three times a week for three to four hours at a time.
During peritoneal dialysis a cleaning fluid flows through a tube into part of the
stomach area also called as abdomen the inner lining of the abdomen known as
the peritoneum act as filter and removes wastes from blood.