ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE

MODULE 2
AIR
Air is one of the most important constituents of our environment. Composition of air include:
Nitrogen – 78%,

Oxygen – 21%

Other gases – 1%

AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollution is defined as “the presence of any air pollutant in the atmosphere”.

• They tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or

property.

• Air pollution occurs when one or several air pollutants are present in such amounts for
such a long period in the outside air.

• Air pollution may be described as “the imbalance in quality of air so as to cause adverse
effects on the living organisms existing on earth”.

Indian Standards (IS-4167 (1996)) defines air pollution as:

“Air pollution is the presence of foreign matter in the ambient atmosphere, generally resulting
from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present for sufficient time and under
circumstances which interfere significantly with the comfort, health or welfare of person or
with the full use or enjoyment of property”

AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollutant’ has been defined as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the
atmosphere in such concentration. In other way, air pollutant is any substance in the air that
can harm human health, animals, plants, or the environment, or interfere with the comfort and
enjoyment of life. These substances can be in the form of gases, particles, or biological
molecules and can originate from both natural sources (like volcanic eruptions or wildfires)
and human activities (like burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, or agriculture).

CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

a) Based on Origin

1. Primary Pollutants

• The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants

• Important primary pollutants are:

• Carbon compounds, such as CO, CO2, CH4, and VOCs

• Nitrogen compounds, such as NO, NO2, and NH3

• Sulphur compounds, such as H2S and SO2

• Halogen compounds, such as chlorides, fluorides, and bromides

• Particulate Matter (PM or “aerosols”), either in solid or liquid form, categorized

based on the aerodynamic diameter, such as PM10, PM2.5 etc.
a. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Colorless, odorless and poisonous gas

• It is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel

and wood)

• It comes from the automobile industries, exhaust devices

• About 70% of CO emissions are from the transport sector

• When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of oxygen and
leads to coma and death

• CO has a strong affinity towards hemoglobin of blood stream & hence inhaled can be
toxic to human beings

• In mild dosages, it leads to headache

b. Oxides of Sulphur (SOx)

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

• SO2 is a colorless gas

• It can be easily dissolved in water

• SO2 is the most common air pollutant

• SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power plants
 • Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2

• SO2 along with other impurities in the air can often be seen as gray industrial smog
near industrial areas

• When water molecules in the atmosphere combine with SO2 and SO3 acid rain is
formed

• It is injurious not only to men and plants, but it also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as
limestone, marbles, electric contacts etc.

• This corrodes metals, damages buildings and monuments (Taj Mahal)

• Also sulphate particles are capable of penetrating deep into the lungs
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)

• This is more irritant than SO2 because it combines immediately with water to form
sulphuric acid

c. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is the most common air pollutant (which is reddish brown in
colour)

• Major sources of NOx, are automobile exhaust and nitric acid (HNO3)
manufacturing industries

• NO2 along with other impurities in the air can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer
called brown photo chemical smog) over many urban areas

• When water molecules in the atmosphere combines with NO2, acid rain is formed

• This corrodes metals, damages buildings and monuments

• At higher concentration NO2 may irritate the respiratory system leading to cough and
nasal congestions

d. Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFC’s)

• CFC’s (also known as Freon) are non- toxic

• They contain Carbon, Fluorine and Chlorine atoms

• The main CFCs are the following:

➢ CFC – 11 (Trichloro Fluoro Methane CFCl3 )

➢ CFC – 12 (Dichloro Fluoro Methane CF2Cl2 )

• The major uses of CFCs are as coolants in refrigerators and in air conditioners, as
solvents in cleaners particularly for electronic circuit boards etc.
 • CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion
2. Secondary Pollutants

• The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are
known as secondary pollutants

• Examples are Sulphuric acid, Ozone, Formaldehyde, Peroxy-acetyl-nitrate (PAN),

Photochemical smog etc.

a. Ground-level Ozone (GL O3)

• Ground-level Ozone is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at the ground level
it is created by a chemical reaction between NOx and VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds) in the presence of sunlight

• Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three oxygen atoms

• It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen
combines with oxygen radical (O) in the presence of sunlight

• Ground-level Ozone may irritate the respiratory system leading to nose and throat
infections and can penetrate much deep into the lungs

• In plants, it causes premature ageing and suppressed growth

b. Smog

• Smog is a combination of smoke and fog or various gases when react in the presence
of sunlight

• The effects of smog on human health cause for respiratory, irritation to the eyes,
diseases related to nose, throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, headache, nerves, liver, and
kidneys
Two types of smog:

a. Classical smog/London smog: It occurs in cool humid climate. It was first observed
in 1952 in London. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide. Chemically it
is a reducing mixture and so it is called as reducing smog

b. Photochemical smog/Los Angeles smog: It occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate.
It was first observed in 1940s in Los Angeles. The main components of the
photochemical smog result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons
& nitrogen oxides produced by automobiles and factories. It has high concentration
of oxidizing agents and is, therefore, called as oxidizing smog

c. Acid rain

• Acid rain has become one of the most important global environmental problems and
poses significant adverse impact on soils, rivers, lakes, forests and monuments
 • The phenomenon occurs when SOx and NOx from the burning of fossil fuels such as
Petrol, Diesel, Coat etc combine with water vapour in atmosphere and fall as rain or
snow or fog

• Natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires, etc also contribute SOx and Nox

• Increased urban and industrial activities cause air pollution resulting in the rise of
concentration of SOx and NOx

• Sulphur dioxide and NO2 combines with water vapour in the atmosphere produce
sulphuric acid and Nitric acid respectively and results acid rain

b) Based on Chemical Composition

1. ORGANIC

• Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen

• They may include carboxylic acids, ethers, esters, amines, etc.

• Natural organic of biological origin like pollen, bacteria etc

• Synthetic organic pollutant like manufactured products

2. INORGANIC

These include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides, hydrogen chloride etc.

c) Based on state of matter

▪ Gaseous air pollutants: These pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature
and pressure. Eg: carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc.

▪ Particulate air pollutants: These are not gaseous substances. Eg: suspended droplets,
solid particles or mixtures of the two.

Sources of Air Pollutants

[Link] source
• Volcanoes: Volcanic activity produces smoke, ash, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide etc.

• Dust: Wind-blown dust from areas with little or no vegetation such as desert areas.

• Forest fires: Forest fires created by natural causes, result in the formation and release
of smoke, ash, dust, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other air pollutants.

• Wetlands: Microbial action in wetlands result in significant amounts of methane being

formed and released to the atmosphere.

2. Anthropogenic sources
 • Stationary point sources: A stationary point source is a single, identifiable source of
air pollutant emissions. For example, the emissions from an industrial flue gas chimney
/ stack.

• Mobile sources: Mobile sources include the exhaust emissions from vehicles. A badly
maintained car emits more pollution (up to 20% more volatile organic compounds and
10% more nitrogen oxides) compared to that of a well maintained one

• Evaporative sources: Evaporative sources are volatile liquids that, when not
completely enclosed in a tank or other container, evaporate and release vapors over
time. For example, liquids such as paints, solvents, pesticides, perfumes, hair sprays
etc.

OUTDOOR & INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS
• The air pollutants which are generated from households are called indoor air pollutants.

• Indoor air pollutants are released by indoor activities such as smoking, cooking,
painting, cigarette smoke, cleaning agents, mosquito repellents, etc.

• Common pollutants include particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and biological contaminants like mold and pollen

• Poor ventilation exacerbates indoor air pollution, allowing harmful substances to

accumulate

• Prolonged exposure to indoor air pollution can lead to respiratory problems,

cardiovascular diseases, and other health issues, especially for vulnerable populations
like children and the elderly

Controlling indoor air pollution

 • Preventive measures for indoor air pollution in homes, apartments and offices involve
eliminating or controlling the sources of pollution, increasing ventilation and installing
air-conditioner

❖ Carefully choose building and furnishing materials (free from formaldehyde).

❖ Ensure effective ventilation in all the areas of the building (good air exchange rate)

• Install & use exhaust fans in kitchen and bathrooms

• Don’t smoke at home or permit others to do so

• Use pesticides in recommended amounts with proper dilution

• Get air conditioners cleaned regularly

• Ensure cleanliness in the entire house especially in kitchen and bathrooms

• Get evaporating trays in dehumidifiers, air conditioners & refrigerators cleaned

regularly

• In gas stoves, a prescient yellow tipped flame is generally an indicator of i adjustment

and increased pollutant emissions. Adjust the burner so that the flame tip is blue

• Use high quality plywood in furniture's

OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

• The air pollutants which are generated outside the building are called outdoor air
pollutants.

• Outdoor air pollution is primarily due to automobile exhaust, industrial emissions,

mining pollutants, natural emissions from decaying matter and animals, etc.

• As per United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA), the major outdoor
air pollutants are known as big six criteria air pollutants.

• The criteria pollutants are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,
particulate matter, and sulphur dioxide.

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Colorless, odorless and poisonous gas

• It is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels (coal, petrol, diesel

and wood)

• It comes from the automobile industries, exhaust devices

• About 70% of CO emissions are from the transport sector

• When the air is polluted with CO, human blood is likely to be deprived of oxygen and
leads to coma and death
 • CO has a strong affinity towards heamoglobin of blood stream & hence inhaled can be
toxic to human beings

• In mild dosages, it leads to headache.

2. Ground-level Ozone (GL O3)

• Ground-level Ozone is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at the ground level
it is created by a chemical reaction between NOx and VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds) in the presence of sunlight

• Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three oxygen atoms

• It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen
combines with oxygen radical (O) in the presence of sunlight

• Ground-level Ozone may irritate the respiratory system leading to nose and throat
infections and can penetrate much deep into the lungs.

• In plants, it causes premature ageing and suppressed growth.

[Link] (Pb)

• Lead is a toxic material which is emitted into the atmosphere from leaded gasoline,
leaded paint, lead smelters etc

• Lead is a cumulative poison and is more dangerous to children under the age of six

• Lead accumulation in the body affects the brain, causes mental retardation liver and
kidney damage as well

4. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

• SO2 is a colorless gas

• It can be easily dissolved in water

• SO2 is the most common air pollutant

• SO2 is a gas produced from burning of coal, mainly in thermal power plants

• Some industries such as paper mills produce SO2

• SO2 along with other impurities in the air can often be seen as gray industrial smog
near industrial areas

• When water molecules in the atmosphere combine with SO2 acid rain is formed

• It is injurious not only to men and plants, but it also attacks rapidly a few rocks such as
limestone, marbles, electric contacts etc.

• This corrodes metals, damages buildings and monuments

• Also, sulphate particles are capable of penetrating deep into the lungs
5. Particulate Matter (PM)

• PM is general term used for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found
suspended in air

• They include dust, smoke, flyash, fumes, mist, fog, aerosol etc.

• Among these particles those which are less than 10 µm in size remain suspended in
the atmosphere for a long period of time and are of a major concern as they can cause
harmful health effects on humans

• Thus, the most harmful ones are PM10 (coarser particles) and PM2.5 (finer particles)

6. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is the most common air pollutant (which is reddish brown in
colour)

• Major sources of NOx, are automobile exhaust and nitric acid (HNO3) manufacturing
industries

• NO2 along with other impurities in the air can often be seen as a reddish-brown layer
called brown photo chemical smog) over many urban areas

• When water molecules in the atmosphere combines with NO2, acid rain is formed

• This corrodes metals, damages buildings and monuments.

• At higher concentration NO2 may irritate the respiratory system leading to cough and
nasal congestions

Impact of Air Pollutants

Air pollution is a major environmental problem that affects not only living things
but also our material and property. In general, the effects of air pollution can be
classified as follows:
[Link] on human health
• The effects of air pollution on human health generally occur as a result of contact
between the pollutants and the body.

• The health depends on the concentration of contaminant present, time of exposure

to the contaminant and the vulnerability of the person

• Some of the common health effects are:

❖ Eye irritation
❖ Nose and throat irritation
❖ Increase in mortality rate
 ❖ Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma [generally known as Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)]

❖ Carbon monoxide readily combines with hemoglobin in blood thus replacing oxygen
from blood

❖ Carcinogenic agents cause cancer

[Link] on plants
Some of the common effects on plants due to air pollutants are given below.

• Suppressed growth and premature ageing in plants

• Causes leaf bleaching which results in Chlorosis (Photosynthesis is affected due to

loss of Chlorophyll)

• Premature falling of leaves (known as abscission)

• Causes necrosis (dead spots on the leaf structure)

[Link] on animals & birds

Some of the common effects on animals due to air pollutants are given below:

• Affects the mucous lining of the respiratory tract

• Causes bronchitis and asthma

• Lack of appetite in pet animals

• Acid deposition cause aquatic life damage

• Migration of seasonal birds are hampered due to severe air pollution

[Link] on materials and property

Various economic losses occur because of material damage due to air pollutants.
Some of the common effects on material and property due to air pollutants are
given below.
• Acid deposition can corrode metals, eat away stone on statues and
monuments
• Discolor buildings, cloth fabrics
[Link] on environment
• Severe air pollution reduces the visibility due to smog formation (In the presence of
light, smoke from vehicles and industries react with fog to form smog)

• Air pollutants can travel long distances (i.e. air pollutants are carried away to distant
places by the blowing wind) which results in global (transboundary") pollution.
 • Some of the common examples are climate change, acid rain, global warming etc.

(Pollutants that enter the environment at one place having its effects hundreds of
thousands of kilometers away from the source is known as transboundary
pollution).
CLEAN AIR ACT (CAA)
The Clean Air Act (CAA) is a comprehensive federal law in the United States that was enacted
to regulate air pollution and protect public health and the environment from harmful emissions.
Initially passed in 1963 and significantly amended in 1970, 1977, and 1990, the CAA provides
the framework for controlling air quality and reducing pollution at a national level.

Key Objectives of the Clean Air Act

1. Improve Air Quality

• Set and enforce standards to reduce air pollution.

• Protect against harmful effects of air pollutants on human health and the
environment
2. Regulate Emissions

• Address emissions from both stationary sources (e.g., factories, power plants)
and mobile sources (e.g., vehicles, airplanes)

3. Protect Public Health

• Establish limits for pollutants that can harm health, particularly for vulnerable
populations like children, the elderly, and those with preexisting health
conditions

4. Preserve the Environment

• Reduce pollutants that cause environmental issues such as acid rain, smog, and
damage to ecosystems

NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are standards for air quality that are set by
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) that are applicable all over the country. NAAQS
stands for National Ambient Air Quality Standards, which are the maximum levels of certain
pollutants that are allowed in the air. The standards are set to protect public health, property,
and vegetation.
The objectives of air quality standards are:

• To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to
protect the public health, vegetation and property
 • To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant level

• To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level

• To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme

AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI)

• Air Quality Index (AQI) is a number used by air quality monitoring agency to
characterize the quality of air at a given location.

• The main objective of AQI is to inform the public about the quality of air in their
vicinity.

• The National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in New Delhi on September 17,
2014 under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

• The Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution Control Boards has
been operating National Air Monitoring Program (NAMP) covering 240 cities of the
country having more than 342 monitoring stations
 • There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, moderately polluted,
Poor, Very Poor, and Severe

• The proposed AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3,
Pb and NH3) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly averaging period) National
Ambient Air Quality Standards are prescribed

AQI Associated Health Impacts

Good (0–50) Minimal impact

Satisfactory (51–
May cause minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people.
100)

Moderately May cause breathing discomfort to people with lung disease such as
polluted (101– asthma, and discomfort to people with heart disease, children and older
200) adults.

May cause breathing discomfort to people on prolonged exposure, and

Poor (201–300)
discomfort to people with heart disease.

Very poor (301– May cause respiratory illness to the people on prolonged exposure.
400) Effect may be more pronounced in people with lung and heart diseases.

May cause respiratory impact even on healthy people, and serious

Severe (401–
health impacts on people with lung/heart disease. The health impacts
500)
may be experienced even during light physical activity.
Emission reduction strategies
Some of the control/ remedial measures to reduce air pollution are:

• Determine the priority air pollutants- based on health effect and the severity of the air
quality problem

• Stacks, gets diluted and dispersed at a higher altitude itself. This results in reduced
concentration of pollutants at the ground-level)

• Promotion of public transport, cycling & walking for local travel

• Stop excessive idling of vehicles

• Incorporate the control measures into a plan with implementation dates

• Improving infrastructure on public transport as a Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission

reduction measure (decreases traffic congestion and travel time which results in fuel
saving)

• Involve the public (by consulting) in air quality management activities as a part of the
strategy development process (This early consultation reduces later challenges and
streamlines the process of implementation)

• Afforestation programme (plants absorb CO₂ during photosynthesis and releases O₂)

• Periodic air quality monitoring

• Adoption of stringent pollution control measures

• Reduction in the use of conventional fuels

• Promotion of use of renewable energy sources.

• Use of Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) in vehicular exhaust system will not allow
emission of PM 2.5 into the environment.

• The most effective method to control air pollution is to prevent the formation of air
pollutants or to reduce the emission of air pollutants at the source itself

For this, the following strategies can be adopted:

 1. Catalytic convertors are to be provided to the automobile exhaust to control emissions

2. Adoption of low sulphur fuels in vehicles

3. Use of Electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and scrubbers (to remove particulate
matter from waste gas streams)

4. Use of sorption technique (either adsorption of impurity onto a solid surface or

absorption of the impurity in a liquid) to remove gaseous pollutants

GROUND-LEVEL OZONE
Ground-level Ozone is not usually emitted directly into the air, but at the ground level it is
created by a chemical reaction between NOx and VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) in the
presence of sunlight. Ozone consists of oxygen molecules which contain three oxygen atoms.
It is not emitted directly into the air but produced in the atmosphere when oxygen combines
with oxygen radical (O) in the presence of sunlight. Groundlevel Ozone may irritate the
respiratory system leading to nose and throat infections and can penetrate much deep into the
lungs. In plants, it causes premature ageing and suppressed growth.

Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog also known as Los Angeles smog. It occurs in warm, dry and sunny
climate. It was first observed in 1940s in Los Angeles. The main components of the
photochemical smog result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons &
nitrogen oxides produced by automobiles and factories. Photochemical smog contains
pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and sunlight. It has
high concentration of oxidizing agents and is, therefore, called as oxidizing smog. They can
cause respiratory issues and eye discomfort.
Formation of Photochemical Smog

When NOx and VOCs are released into the environment from a variety of sources,
photochemical smog starts to develop. Ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), two secondary
pollutants, are created when sunlight interacts with these pollutants and sets off a sequence of
chemical reactions.
GLOBAL WARMING
• About 75% of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed on the earth’s surface
which increases its temperature

• Global warming is the increase of average world temperatures as a result of what is

known as the greenhouse effect. Certain gases in the atmosphere act like glass in a
greenhouse, allowing sunlight through to heat the earth's surface but trapping the heat
as it radiates back into space. As the greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere the
Earth gets hotter. This process is leading to a rapid change in climate, also known as
climate change.

• Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other
pollutants

• Global warming, the gradual heating of Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere, is
caused by human activity, primarily the burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Causes of Global warming

A. Natural causes of global warming
[Link]
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke
emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

[Link] Vapour
Water Vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth's temperature more
water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global
warming.

[Link] Permafrost
Permafrost is there where glaciers are present. It is a frozen soil that has environmental gases
trapped in it for several years. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the
atmosphere increasing the earth's temperature.

[Link] Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are
released into the atmosphere and increase the earth's temperature resulting in global warming.

B. Man made causes of Global Warming

[Link]
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby
maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and
commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global
warming.

[Link] of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions.
Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into
the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

[Link]
The excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into
the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth
surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs has led to ozone layer
depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

[Link] Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly.
The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.

[Link]
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.

[Link]
Increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of
carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.

Effects of Global warming

Global warming effects on:

1. Humans

2. Ecosystem

3. Environment

4. Economy

1. On Humans
Spread of Diseases - Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity.
Allergies, asthma, and infectious disease outbreaks will become more common due to
increased growth of pollen-producing ragweed, higher levels of air pollution, and the spread of
conditions favourable to pathogens and mosquitoes.

High Mortality Rates - Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities,
the average death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases
that can hamper human life.
Conflicts and War - Declining amounts of quality food, water and land may be leading to an
increase in global security threats, conflict and war.

2. On ecosystem:
Threats to the Ecosystem - Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the
loss of plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral
reefs even worse.

Loss of biodiversity - A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants
and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of
them even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.
Increased drought - Global warming exacerbates water shortages in already water-stressed
regions and is leading to an increased risk of agricultural droughts affecting crops, and
ecological droughts increasing the vulnerability of ecosystems

3. On environment:
Rise in Temperature - Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature.
Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by 1 degree. This has resulted in an increase
in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have
devastating effects on coastal regions.
Shrinking glaciers and rising sea level - Disappearing glaciers, early snowmelt, and severe
droughts will cause more dramatic water shortages and continue to increase the risk of
wildfires, rising sea levels will lead to even more coastal flooding.

Climate Change - Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are
droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global
warming.

More severe storms and floods - As temperatures rise, more moisture evaporates which worse
extreme rainfall and flooding, causing more destructive storms. The frequency and extent of
tropical storms is also affected by the warming ocean.

4. On economy:
Economic Consequences - Considers the cost associated with climate change rise along with
the temperatures. Severe storms and floods combined with agricultural losses cause huge
amount in damages, and money is needed to treat and control the spread of disease.

Extreme weather can create extreme financial setbacks. For eg. Hurricanes, floods etc.

Consumers face rising food and energy costs along with increased insurance premiums for
health and home. Governments suffer the consequences of diminished tourism and industrial
profits, soaring energy, food and water demands, disaster cleanup and border tensions.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone (O3)
Earth’s atmosphere is divided into three regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere. The stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from the Earth’s surface. This region
is concentrated with slightly pungent smelling, light bluish ozone gas. The ozone gas is made
up of molecules each containing three atoms of oxygen; its chemical formula is O3. The ozone
layer, in the stratosphere acts as an efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B (UV-B) rays.
Ozone is produced and destroyed naturally in the atmosphere and until recently, this resulted
in a well-balanced equilibrium.

Ozone Depletion Process

Ozone is highly reactive and easily broken down by man-made chlorine and bromine
compounds. These compounds are found to be most responsible for most of ozone layer
depletion. The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (used in refrigerator and air
conditioners) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere.
Winds efficiently mix and evenly distribute the ODS in the troposphere. These ODS
compounds do not dissolve in rain, are extremely stable, and have a long-life span. After several
years, they reach the stratosphere by diffusion. Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS
molecules. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform release chlorine atoms, and
halons and methyl bromide release bromine atoms. It is the chlorine and bromine atom that
actually destroys ozone, not the intact ODS molecule. It is estimated that one chlorine atom
can destroy from 10,000 to 100,000 ozone molecules before it is finally removed from the
stratosphere.

Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC (CFCl3) molecules in the upper atmosphere, a
carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The chlorine atom then reacts
with an ozone (O3) molecule breaking it apart and so destroying the ozone. This forms an
ordinary oxygen molecule (O2) and a chlorine monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen
atom breaks up the chlorine monoxide. The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying
more ozone molecules. A single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

1) Effects on Human and Animal Health: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is
likely to have high impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer
and infectious diseases.

2) Effects on Terrestrial Plants: In forests and grasslands, increased radiation is likely to

change species composition thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems. It could also
may affect the plant community.

3) Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: High levels of radiation exposure in tropics and subtropics
may affect the distribution of Phytoplankton’s, which form the foundation of aquatic food
webs. It can also cause damage to early development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians
and other animals, the most severe effects being decreased reproductive capacity and impaired
larval development.

4) Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: Increased solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial

and aquatic bio-geo-chemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and
important trace gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulphide
(COS), etc. These changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks responsible
for the atmosphere build-up of these greenhouse gases.

5) Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-
B radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical
reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and
related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on human
health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL
• Montreal Protocol is an international treaty signed by 46 countries in September 16,
1987 to limit the production of substances harmful to the stratospheric ozone layer
 • The Protocol sets out a mandatory timetable for the phase out of Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODS such as CFC, halons, and HCFCs).

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an important
Multilateral Agreement regulating the production, consumption, and emissions of
ozone-depleting substances (ODSs).

• It is an important part of international environmental conventions and protocols.

• The Protocol was signed in 1987 and entered into force in January 1989. The
protocol gives provisions to reduce the production and consumption of ODSs to
protect the ozone layer

• The Montreal Protocol controls both consumption and production of ODS in order
to protect the interests of producers and importers, who otherwise would have had to
sustain high price inflation or overproduction during the phase out period of the targeted
gases

• The compounds are divided into groups: Group I (certain CFCs) and Group II (specific
halons)

• The protocol also distinguishes between two groups of countries, the more developed
with relatively high levels of consumption of the contoured ozone depleting substances
and the developing countries with relatively low levels of consumption

NOISE
• "The word noise comes from the Latin word ‘noxia’ meaning "injury" or "hurt“

• Noise is an unwanted, unpleasant and annoying sound caused by vibration of the matter

• Vibrations impinge on the ear drum of a human or animal and setup a nervous
disturbance, which we call sound

• When the effects of sound are undesirable that it may be termed as Noise

• The audible sound range for humans is typically between 20 and 20,000 Hertz (Hz)

• The unit of sound is the decibel (dB)

Sources of noise
Noise is an unwanted sound and noise pollution occurs through different sources:

1. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution

2. Automobile industry is another source of noise pollution

3. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for
factories making more noise

(1) Stationary sources

a) Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly relevant to
the study of noise are the following: Product fabrication, Product assembly, Power generation
by means of generators, Combusting process in furnaces (burning of gases)

b) Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise pollution is
emitted by construction equipment. The sources of noise are dozers excavators, front end
loaders, soil compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete vibrators, riveting steel structure
during the casting, dismantling of construction materials etc.

c) Noise from other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs, ambulances,
Police vehicles, Fire engines etc.

(2) Mobile sources

a) Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent and perhaps
the most source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise from motor vehicles and
the noise depends on various factors such as Road location, Road design, Vehicle standards,
Driver behaviours, horns, traffic density.
b) Railway traffic: Noise from railway traffic is not serious nuisance as compared to the road
traffic noise. The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of engine, the
speed of the train, track type and condition. The majority of noise emitted by trains is produced
by the engine or by the interaction of wheels with the tracks, horns, warning signals at crossings
etc.

c) Air traffic: The noise of air craft is different from that of road traffic in the sense it is
intermittent. Noise is maximum during take-off and landing. Noise made by jet planes is more
disturbance than that of propeller driven air craft. Supersonic air craft produce noise at high
levels due to its intensity

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Types of noise
[Link] Noise – It is an uninterrupted sound level that varies less than 5 dB during entire
period of observation. Example: running fan.

2. Intermittent Noise – It is a noise which continues for more than 1 second and is then
interrupted for more than 1 second. Example: drilling machine used by a dentist.
3. Impulse Noise – It is characterized by a change of sound pressure of at least 40 dB within
0.5 second with a duration of less than one second. Example: firing of a weapon.
4. Traffic Noise

The main source of noise pollution is in urban areas. It includes air, road, rail, sea-shore &
inland water traffic. Amount and type of noise produced by traffic is largely dependent upon
type of traffic. As a rule, larger & heavier vehicles emit more noise than smaller & lighter
vehicles (Exceptions would include helicopters and 2 & 3-wheeled road vehicles). Noise of
road vehicles is mainly generated from engine & from frictional contact between vehicle & the
ground and air. Railway noise depends on the speed of the train, the type of engine, wagons,
and rails and their foundations, as well as the roughness of wheels and rails. Aircraft take-offs
are known to produce intense noise, including vibration and rattle

5. Industrial noise
Noise is the essential by-product of industry. Intensity and nature depend on type of industry.
Causes both indoor & outdoor noise pollution. Industrial noises are usually produced by
rotating, reciprocating or any other types of machinery, or by high pressure high velocity gases,
liquids or vapour (for example, fans, steam pressure relief valves) involved in the industrial
processes. The usual noise level of the industries is of the order of 60 to 95 decibels. Machinery
should preferably be silenced at the source.

6. Domestic Noise

In residential areas, noise may come from mechanical devices (e.g. heat pumps, ventilation
systems and traffic), as well as voices, music and other kinds of sounds generated by
neighbours (e.g. lawn mowers, vacuum cleaners and other household equipment, music
reproduction and noisy parties). Includes movement of utensils, cutting and peeling of
fruits/vegetables etc. Activities like plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, fans,
and vacuum cleaners add to the existing noise pollution

7. Construction noise

Construction of building highways, and streets cause a lot of noise due to the usage of air
compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks, and pavement breakers. A variety of
sounds come from cranes, cement mixers, welding, hammering, boring and other work
processes. Construction equipment is often poorly silenced and maintained, and building
operations are sometimes carried out without considering the environmental noise
consequences.
8. Noise from other miscellaneous sources

Several other human activities, such as blaring of loud-speakers and sirens, shouting of
hawkers, playing of children, general life and activity, ringing of temple and
church bells, etc. do produce noises of different levels, tones and spectra.

Levels of Noise
• Faintest sound by human ear - 20 μPa

• Loudest sound by human ear – 200 Pa

• Sound pressure represented on a scale based on the log of the ratio of the measured
sound pressure and a reference standard pressure

• Measurements on this scale are called levels

• Since the unit of sound level turns out to be larger unit, a smaller unit of decibels
(dB) is used:

1dB = (1/10) B

B – Bel

Effects of noise
• Exposure to loud noise is one of the major causes, apart from ageing
• Hearing loss is the second most common disability among humans
• Prevalence of hearing loss increases with age
Effects of noise are categorized into two:

a) Auditory Health Effects

• Acoustic trauma - Sudden hearing damage caused by short burst of extremely loud
noise such as a gun shot

• Tinnitus - Characterized by a ringing/buzzing sound in the ears

 • Temporary hearing loss - Caused due to exposure to very loud noises. Gradual
recovery when the affected person spends time in a quiet place

• Noise-induced hearing loss - Caused due to a one-time exposure to extremely loud

noise or steady long-term exposure to noise levels exceeding 75-85 dB. Characterized
by loss of auditory sensory cells in the cochlea. Hearing loss is permanent because the
cochlear cells cannot regenerate. Prevention of noise-induced hearing loss is the only
option to preserve hearing.

b) Non-auditory Health Effects

• Annoyance - A general feeling of displeasure or adverse reaction triggered by the noise.
The degree of annoyance depends on the characteristics of noise & personal/situational
factors
• Sleep disturbance - Night time noise can cause frequent awakenings, reduced sleep
quality, increased drowsiness, tiredness, decreased performance, & insomnia
• Impaired cognitive functioning - Leads to difficulty in concentrating, poor reading
and writing skills, difficulty in remembering, affects speech intelligibility, poor overall
performance in school

• Cardiovascular disease - Changes in blood pressure and increased risk of various

types of heart disease

• Mental illness - Noise may well accelerate and intensify the development of latent
mental disorder

Noise pollution control measures

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled:

• Reduce noise at the source

• Block the path of noise

• Increase the path length

• Protect the recipient

In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the source. Noise pollution could
be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by preventing its transmission. The
first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise at source itself. The first
step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise at source itself

➢ For eg: Lubrication of machines reduces the noise produced, Tightening the loose nuts,
Reducing the vibrations produced by machines etc.

Failing to control the noise at its source, the second step is to prevent its transmission
 ➢ For eg: keeping the noise machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not
escape and reach the receivers

If the noise levels are not able to bring down to the desired levels in some cases, the only
alternative is to follow:

❖ Avoiding horns except in emergency situations

❖ Sound proof or eco-generators and turning down the volume of stereos
❖ Conducting the awareness programs

a) Control at Source
[Link] the noise levels from domestic sectors

• By their selective and judicious operation

• By usage of carpets or any absorbing materials inside houses

[Link] of automobiles

• Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the noise levels

• Fixing of silencers to automobiles & two wheelers, etc.

[Link] over vibrations

• The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper foundations, rubber padding
etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations

[Link] on usage of loudspeakers

• By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in the habitant zones except for important
meetings / functions
5. Selection of machinery

• Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces excess noise levels.

[Link] of machines

• Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles etc. will reduce noise levels

[Link] electric vehicles

• At low speeds produce very low levels of noise

• Silent and unnoticeable

• Difference between noise of electric vehicle & IC engine vehicle > 6 dBA at 10 km/h
[Link] traffic management

• Centrally controlled traffic signals and sensors regulate the flow of traffic through the
city in compliance with the current state on the roads in the city
[Link] road surfaces

• Thin surface layers, two-layer porous asphalt & cast asphalt can be used as road surface
layers to reduce the noise levels by 4 dB, 7 dB & 1.5 dB respectively

10. Production of quiet car tires

• Smaller tire represents a smaller surface that adheres to road - produces less noise

• Softer types of rubber - make less noise.

11. Efficient traffic management

• Reducing traffic density

• Reducing the percentage of heavy goods vehicles

12. Change in driving behavior

• Speed reduction / traffic calming measures

• Promoting environmentally friendly means of transport, e.g. walking and cycling

b)Control in Transmission Path

1. Installation of barriers - Installation of barriers between noise source and receiver can
attenuate the noise levels

2. Green belt development

• Green belt development can attenuate the sound levels

• The degree of attenuation varies with species of greenbelt

[Link] of building

• The design of the building incorporating the use of suitable noise absorbing material
for wall / door / window/ceiling will reduce the noise levels

[Link] of panels or enclosures

• A sound source may be enclosed within a panelled structure such as room as a means
of reducing the noise levels at the receiver

c) Control at Receiver
[Link] hearing protection equipment

• Equipment like earmuffs & ear plugs are commonly used devices for hearing protection

• Average noise attenuation up to 32 dB can be achieved using earmuffs

[Link] reduction
 • Schedule of workers should be planned in such a way that they should not be
overexposed to the high noise levels

[Link] rotation

• By rotating the job between the workers working at a particular noise source or isolating
a person, the adverse impacts can be reduced

Quantification of noise pollution

Leq

• Stands for "equivalent noise level" or "equivalent continuous sound level".

• It's the average sound level over a given period of time

• It is calculated as the constant noise level that would produce the same total sound
energy as the fluctuating sounds

• Leq is a fundamental measurement parameter used in environmental noise standards

and other regulations.

• Leq is a better indicator of potential hearing damage or the likelihood of complaints

than a simple instantaneous sound level

• It's also easier to read accurately than a simple instantaneous sound level.

• A sound level meter that measures Leq is called an integrating sound level meter
LAeq

• Stands for "A-weighted, equivalent continuous sound level”

• It's the Leq measurement that's frequency weighted

• LAeq is widely used in environmental noise assessments, workplace noise regulation

and urban planning to understand long-term exposure to varying noise levels

NOISE REGULATION RULES IN INDIA

THE NOISE POLLUTION (REGULATION AND CONTROL) RULES, 2000

The increasing ambient noise levels in public places from various sources, inter-alia, industrial
activity, construction activity, generator sets, loud speakers, public address terms, music
systems, vehicular horns and other mechanical devices have mysterious effects on human
health and the psychological well being of the people; it is considered necessary to regulate
and control noise producing and venerating sources with the objective of maintaining the
ambient air quality standards in respect of noise.
Ambient Air Quality standards in respect of Noise

• Day time shall mean from 6.00 am. to 10.00 pm

• Night time shall mean from 10.00 pm. to 6.00 am

• Silence zone is defined as an area comprising not less than 100 meters around hospitals,
educational institutions and courts

• The silence zones are zones, which are declared as such by the competent authority

• Mixed categories of areas may be declared as one of the four mentioned categories by
the competent authority