PLANT CLASSIFICATION

The process of placing or groping taxa into groups or categories, on the basis of observed
similarities and/or differences or according to a particular plan is known as classification. The
conformity with the rules of Nomenclature is essential for the process of classification to be
acceptable.
SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
Based on the number of characters used for classification and their evolutionary relationship
different systems of classification which have been proposed over time can be grouped into three
categories:
A. Artificial Systems of Classification;
B. Natural/Phenetic Systems of Classification;
C. Phylogenetic Systems of Classification
A. Artificial Systems of Classification
The earliest systems of classification were artificial systems and the system of this nature remained
dominant from 300 B. C. up to about 1830. Since very little information was available about the
plants, this system is more or less arbitrary as the plants are classified merely on the basis of one or
a few characters without taking into consideration the relationships or affinities with one another.
The artificial systems were propounded by early herbalists. In fact plants were classified for the sake
of convenience using one or at most a few easily observable characters. The aim of these systems
was to aid the process of identification and arrange the taxa in a manageable form.
These may be regarded as utilitarian systems, based on habit, color, form or characters of similar
nature. These systems provided limited applications, since they contained only a little amount of
information about its members.
Some well-known Artificial Systems of classifications were those proposed by:
1. Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.): A Greek naturalist, who is known as ‘Father of Botany’, was the
pupil of the great philosopher Pluto and Aristotle. He is accredited with more than 200 publications
with the most prominent being ‘Inquiry into plants’ and ‘Causes of plants’. History of Taxonomy
starts with the work of Theophrastus, which appeared in a monumental work entitled ‘Historia
Plantarum’ having description of approximately five hundred plants. This is the oldest botanical
work in existence. Because of wide use, his names received general recognition and some of them
still appear as generic names in modern classification, e.g., daukan (Daucas) and aspharagos
(Asparagus). He pointed out fundamental differences between Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons
and also recognised different types of insertion of floral appendages thus laying foundation for the
study of floral morphology. Theophrastus, was the first to describe plants on the basis of size/habit
and life span, like Trees/Shrubs/Undershrubs/Herbs; Annuals/Biennials/Perennials.
2. Parasara (250-120 B.C.): An Indian scholar who compiled Vrikshayurveda (Science of Plant
Life), one of earliest work dealing with plant life from a scientific stand point. Plants were classified
into numerous families (ganas) on the basis of morphological features not known to the Europeans
th
until 18 century.
3. Gasperd Bauhin (1560-1603): He classified plants on the basis of texture and form, and
published two books entitled, “Prodromus Theatri Botaniici” (1620) and “Ponax Theatri Botanici”
(1623), where he tried to distinguish between species and genus on the basis of nomenclature.
The Binomial Nomenclature (which is usually attributed to Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum)
was founded by Bauhin more than century before Linnaeus used it.
4. Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linne) [1707-1778]: A great Swedish naturalist is rightly known as
the “Father of Modern Botany” and the FATHER OF TAXONOMY. He gave many significant
publications namely, “Hortus Uplandicus” (1730), “Hortus Ciffortianus” (1737), “Genera
Plantarum” (1737), Classes Plantarum” (1738), “Philosphia Botanica” (1751) etc. The most
important contribution of Linnaeus is the publication of “Species Plantarum” (1753), which is
selected by modern botanists as the starting point of present day nomenclature. In this work, some
935 genera and 7,300 species are described and arranged according to his sexual system of
Classification. He introduced the consistent use of the binomial system of plant names. Taxonomic
Hierarchy was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. It is the arrangement of various taxonomic levels
like Kingdom, Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. Linnaeus’ Sexual System of
classification was Artificial in nature and did not show any natural relationship between plants.
Linnaeus recognized 24 classes in his sexual system of classification for all flowering plants on the
basis of number, arrangement and fusion of the sex organs (examples of Class Names Monandria,
Diandria, Tetradynamia, Monadelphia, Sygenesia Polygamia etc.)

B. Natural Systems of Classification

A natural system of classification is based on a large number of characters. It reflects the situation as
it exists under natural conditions. It helps us to ascertain the relationship and affinities with other
plants. This system increases the amount of information available from the groupings. Natural
system is based not only on the characters of reproductive organs and structural relationship but all
the important characters are being considered and the plants are classified according to their related
characters, mostly in gross morphology. Some important natural systems were:
1. Michel Adanson (1727-1806): A French Botanist, who first rejected all artificial classifications
and emphasized the importance of equal weightage of characters. He proposed a “natural system” of
taxonomy distinct from the Linnaeus. Linnaeus’ system was the last among the artificial system of
classification.
2. de Jussieu (The de Jussieu family had four members-Antonie, 1686-1758; Bernard,
1699-1776; Joseph, 1704-1779; and Antonie Laurent, 1748-1836: They made noteworthy
contributions to botany. Bernard never published his system during his lifetime due to personal
dissatisfaction over perfection of his system. However, he rearranged the plants in a garden at La
Trianon, Versilles according to his own system. Antonie Laurent de Jussieu published his uncle’s
system with some improvements in ‘Genera Plantarum’ (1789). This is the first major work which
was natural in its approach. In this system the plants that looked alike were grouped together.
3. de Candolle: Three generations of de Candolle’s have contributed much to the science of
systematic botany. The first of this Swiss-French family is Augustin Pyramus de Candolle
(1778-1841). In 1813 A. P. de Candolle published a book entitled ‘Theorie Elementaire de la
Botanique’ in which he set forth the principles of a natural system of classification and further
developed morphological approach to classification.
4. GEORGE BENTHAM (1800-1883) AND JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER (1817-1911): Two
British Botanists, associated with Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, England, London. Their Natural
System of Classification was based on De Candolle’s and Lindley’s view and was published in three
volumes (1st Volume in 1862 and 3rd Volume in 1883in the form of book entitled GENERA
PLANTARUM).
In this publication they presented their outstanding system of classification. This was the greatest
taxonomic work ever produced in the United Kingdom. This monumental work which required
quarter of a century, comprised description of all of seed plants known to science at that time and
they were classified according to the system proposed by them. They have provided first rate
descriptions of the families and genera of seed plants then known. The geographical distribution of
each genus was also given. The order Ranales is placed in the beginning and Grasses (Poales) at the
end. Their treatment is in consistent with our present day understanding of these groups.
Outline of Bentham & Hooker System of Classification
SEED PLANTS (PHANEROGAMIA)
(202 Families, 7569 Genera & 97205 Species)
(Cohorts of B&H are now known as Orders and Natural Orders as Families)
Seed Plants or Phanerogams
3 CLASSES: DICOTYLEDONAE, GYMNOSPERMAE, MONOCOTYLEDONAE
A. Dicotyledonae- (Two cotyledons in seeds, Venation reticulate, flowers penta- or tetra-merous)
B. Gymnospermae- (Seeds are nor enclosed in the fruit)
C. Monocotyledonae-(One cotyledon in the seed, Venation parallel, Flowers tri-merous)

Class A. Dicotyledonae is divided into 3 Sub-Classes:

1. Polypetalae (Petals free)
2. Gamopetalae (Petals fused)
3. Monochlamydeae (Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or
none)
1. Sub-Class Polypetalae has 3 Series (84 Orders):
i. Thalamiflorae (Thalamus convex, Flowers hypogynous, ovary superior)
ii. Disciflorae (A disc is usually present below the superior ovary, flower
hypogynous)
iii. Calyciflorae (Thalamus cup shaped, ovary inferior).
2. Sub-Class Gamopetalae has 3 Series (45 Orders):
i. Inferae (Ovary inferior)
ii. Heteromerae (Ovary superior, carpels more than two)
iii. Bicarpellatae (Ovary usually superior, carpels two)
3. Sub-Class-Monochlamydeae is divided into 8 Series (36 Orders):
i. Curvembryeae ii. Multiovulateaquaticae iii. Multiovulate terrestris
iv. Microembryae v. Daphnales vi. Achlamydosporae
vii. Unisexuales viii. Ordines Anomali

Class B. Gymnospermae is divided into 3 Natural Orders or Families:

i. Gnetaceae ii. Coniferae iii. Cycadaceae

Class C. Monocotyledonae is divided into 7 Series (34 Orders):

i. Microspermae ii. Epigynae iii. Coronarieae
iv. Calycinae v. Nudiflorae vi. Apocarpae
vii. Glumaceae

C. Phylogenetic/Evolutionary System of Classification

The publication of “Origin of Species” by Darwin in 1859 changed the outlook of taxonomy, and
paved way for next level of classification systems which took into account evolutionary insights
also. These systems classify organisms according to their evolutionary (phylogenetic) and genetic
relationships in addition to several constant characters. They enable us to find out the ancestors or
derivatives of any taxa. Phylogenetic classification is not only based on the data available at any one
time but it also relies on the presumed ancestry. In such a system, organisms belonging to the same
group are believed to have a common ancestry and may be represented in the form of a family tree,
the cladogram. Two broad ideologies or schools exist for phylogenetic systems:
1. The Englerian School or EnglerianThought (places monocots before dicots, i.e. monocots are
considered primitive), supported by Eichler, Rendle etc.
2. The Ranalian School or Thought (places dicots before monocots, i.e. dicots are considered
primitive). The supporters of this thought include Bessey, Hutchinson, Cronquist, Takhtajan etc.
One of the earliest and popular phylogenetic systems was the one proposed by Engler and Prantl.

D. Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG IV CLASSIFICATION)

With the advancements of molecular techniques and generation of large amount of data, it was clear
that the earlier classifications suggested conflicting relationships and did not discuss about the
evolution of plants. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) is an informal international group of
systematic botanists who collaborated to establish a consensus on the taxonomy of flowering plants
(angiosperms) that reflects new knowledge about plant relationship discovered through phylogenetic
studies.
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) system is an updated classification that is established by
taking information from recent molecular studies. It is not a complete formal classification but
provides a stable grouping of flowering plants in families and orders. Here phylogenetic
synapomorphies {i.e., the characters shared by a group of organisms due to common ancestry} were
also taken into consideration during the process of grouping.
A team of botanists viz., K. Bremer, MW Chase, B. Briggs, MHG Gustafsson, FA Kellogg, PF
Stevens and their co-workers compiled very useful molecular data for establishment of phylogenetic
relationships amongst plant groups, which led to the development of Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
(APG) classification, in 1998.
Large number of systematic botanists got involved and an unprecedented collaboration developed,
mainly based on their findings on single gene rbcL. As a result, rather than naming all the individual
contributors a decision was made to adopt the name Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification
(APG).

Till 2016, four superseding versions of this classification system have resulted from collaboration,
in 1998 (APG I), 2003 (APG II), 2009 (APG III) and 2016 (APG IV).
Although APG System gives a more reliable representation of the phylogenetic relationships, it has
practical limitations. However, the usage of this system is becoming popular, as you can see from
following examples:
 A significant number of major herbaria, including Kew, are changing the order of their
collections according to APG.
 The influential World Checklist of Selected Plant Families including Kew is being updated
as per the APG III system.
 In USA and Canada in 2006, a photographic survey of the plants is organized according to
the APG III system.
 In the UK, the 2010 edition of the standard flora of the British Isles is based on the APG III
system.
OUTLINE OF APG SYSTEM
Starting with data from rbcL genes, further progress was made by the use of large banks of genes,
including those of plastid, mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal origin. The fourth version was
finally published in 2016, after an International Conference at Royal Botanical Gardens (2015) and
also an online survey of botanists and other users. From 1998 to 2016, the broad outline of the
system remained unchanged but several new orders are included [Boraginales, Dilleniales,
Icacinales, Metteniusales, and Vahliales], some new families are recognised [Kewaceae,
Macarthuriaceae, Maundiaceae, Mazaceae, Micrteaceae, Nyssaceae, Peraceae, Petenaeaceae and
Petiveriaceae] and some previously recognised families are lumped [Aristolochiaceae now includes
Lactoridacea and Hydnoraceae; Restionaceae now includes Anarthriaceae and Centrolepidaceae;
and Buxaceae now includes Haptanthaceae] an some nomenclatural changes have been done to
family names.
This system recognizes 64 orders and 416 families using the linear approach (LAPG – Linear
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) as advocated by Haston et al. (2009). The brief outline of the APG
System Classification (1998 to 2016) is as follows:
Flowering plants (Angiosperms) are a CLADE consisting of several early-diverging lineages (the
ANA Grade) and a massive core group called the Mesangiosperms. Mesangiosperms are divided
into 5 monophyletic clades (Monocots, Eudicots, Magnoliids, Chloranthales, and Ceratophyllales).
While Monocots are a single, consistent group, the traditional 'Dicots' are split up. Most former
dicots belong to a massive group called Eudicots. The remainder consist of the Magnoliids and a
small collection of ancient lineages known as Basal Angiosperms (such as water lilies). Thus,
monocots are monophyletic group (clade) whereas dicots are paraphyletic [a group of organisms
which includes the most recent common ancestor but not all of the descendants are of that most
recent common ancestor].
 Angiosperms (The Clade)
1. Basal Angiosperms (the ANA grade): The earliest-diverging lineages (e.g., water lilies,
Amborella).
2. Core Angiosperms or Mesangiosperms (5 Clades):
a. Magnoliids: A large, ancient lineage including magnolias, laurels, and black pepper etc.
b. Chloranthales: A small, distinct clade of woody plants with very simple flowers.
c. Monocots: A monophyletic clade (e.g., grasses, lilies, orchids).
d. Ceratophyllales: A specialized clade of rootless aquatic plants that is the sister group to the
Eudicots.
e. Eudicots: The "true" dicots defined by having tricolpate (three-grooved) pollen, forming a
massive monophyletic clade (e.g. roses, oaks, sunflowers).
"Basal Angiosperms" are included in ANA grade, and the acronym stands for the three orders that
represent the earliest diverging branches of the flowering plant tree:
Amborellales (represented by a single species, Amborella trichopoda)
Nymphaeales (water lilies and their relatives)
Austrobaileyales (star anise and woody vines)
The Core Angiosperms are also known as Mesangiosperms and they form more than 99% of total
flowering plants.
The Monocots are Monophyletic, and all monocots can be traced back to a single common ancestor,
forming a true clade. However, the “Dicots” cannot be included in a single group, thus they are
Paraphyletic, thus, are divided into monophyletic clades. Eudicots are monophyletic, with a
common ancestor of all descendants, thus forming a largest group of “Dicots” (as they were earlier
called).
This system established the basic phylogenetic framework (a DNA phylogeny based) of angiosperm
classification system at the order and familial levels.
MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS OF APG SYSTEM (SUMMARY)
 APG IV system of classification is the collaborative effort of Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
(Botanical Journal of Linnean Society, 2016), developed by using information from recent
molecular studies.
 It is a phylogenetic system of classification and not useful for identification purpose but provides
a stable grouping.
 This system follows the rules of ICN.
 Basal angiosperms are placed before monocots.
 About 462 families are recognized.
 According to this classification Amborella trichopoda is the most basal angiosperm.
 The basal angiosperms are represented as the ANA grade (Amborella, Nymphaeales and
Austrobaileya) representing the major radiation of angiosperms.
 The monocots divided into three major clades viz., Commelinids, Lilioid and Alismatid.
 Asterids consists of a large group of angiosperms having iridoid compounds, sympelalous corolla
and unitegmic, tenuinucellate ovules.
 Asclepiadaceae merged within the family Apocynaceae, similarly Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae
and Tiliaceae merged within the family Malvaceae.
 Ceratophyllaceae is treated as the most probable relative to monocots.