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UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
PART – A

1. What is meant by modular co-ordination? (AUC NOV/DEC 2012 & 2013)

Modular coordination is a concept for coordinating dimension and space for which building and
component are dimensionally it used and positioned in basic units (or) modules. The standard specify
that the module basic M = 100 mm. As the basic unit be used in a square of M.

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2. What are the production techniques? (AUC NOV/DEC 2013)

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 The term production techniques describe a series of operation directly concerned in the process
of making or more apply of molding precast units.

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 These techniques grouped into three basic methods of production.
 The stand system


The conveyor belt or production line system
The aggregate system ee
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3. List out the limitations of prefabrication. (AUC NOV/DEC 2012)
a. Extra reinforcement is required to take care of handling and erection stresses.
b. Temporary properties may be required in some cases before the un-site concrete joints
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achieve strength.
c. The cracks may develop at the joints between the precast in site concrete due to shrinkage
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and temperature stresses. To overcome them extra steel is required across joint.
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of prefabricated system (AUC MAY/JUNE 2012)
Advantages:
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o Self supporting readymade components are used, so the need for formwork, shuttering
and
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scaffolding is greatly reduced.

o
On-site construction and condition is minimized.
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o
Less waste may occur
Disadvantages:
o Careful handling of prefabricated components such as concrete panels (or) steel and glass
panels is reduced.
o Similarly leaks can form at joints is prefabricated component.

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5. List the system for prefabrication. (AUC MAY/JUNE 2012)

1. Large panel systems
2. Frame systems
3. Slab-column systems with walls
4. Mixed systems
6. What are the methods for Manufacture of precast concrete elements (or) types of
prefabrication? (AUC MAY/JUNE 2013)

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[Link]

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2. Site prefabrication

7. What are the classifications of prefabrication? (AUCMAY/JUNE2013)

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1. Small prefabrication 2. Medium prefabrication 3. Large prefabrication
[Link] in – site prefabrication [Link]-site (or) factory prefabrication 6. Open system of

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prefabrication 7. Closed system of prefabrication 8. Partial prefabrication
[Link] prefabrication
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8. Define prefabrication.
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other
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manufacturing site and transporting complete assembles to the construction site where the structure
is to be located.
9. Define the term Off-site fabrication.
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Off-site fabrication is the process that incorporates prefabrication and preassembles the
process involves the design and manufacture of units usually remote from the work site and the
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installation at the site to form the permanent work at the site.

10. Write Insulating concrete forms?
Insulating concrete forms (ICE) are a prefab construction material consisting of hollow EPS
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foam blocks that are stacked and glued together on-site, creating the form that is filled with
reinforcing bars and concrete.
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11. Define modular grid and its types?

A rectangular coordinate reference system in which the distance between consecutive lines
is the basic module or a multimodule. This multimodule may differ for each of the two
dimensions of the grid.

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Type of Modular Grid

 Elements in building design

 Continuous grid
 Superimposed grid
 Displacement of grid (or) Tartan grids
 Interrupted grids as neutral zones.

12. Define standardization

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Standardization is to the creation and use of guidelines for the production of uniform

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interchangeable components especially for use in mass production. It also refers to the establishment
and adoption of guidelines for conduct to global marketing the term is used in describes the

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simplification of procurement & production to achieve economy.

13. Define Tolerance

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It is the sum of acceptable positive and negative discrepancies of actual dimensions from the
theoretical one. The limits of tolerance are based on the manufacture and erection requirements.
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14. What are the two principles of prefabrication?

The theory behind the method is that time and cost is saved if similar construction tasks can
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be grouped and assembly line techniques can be employed in prefabrication at a location where
skilled labor is available while congestion at the assembly site which waste time can be reduced.
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The method find application particularly where the structure is composed of repeating units
or forms or where multiple copies of the same basic structure are being constructed.
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w.
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Transport of prefab elements inside the factory depends on the method of production
selected for the manufacture.

Transport of prefab elements from the factory to the site of action should be planned in
conformity with the trafficable rules and regulations as stipulated by the authouritic the size of
the elements is often restricted by the availability of suitable transport equipment, such as tractor-
am-tailor, to suits the load and dimension of the member in addition to the load carrying capacity of
the bridges on the way.

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While transporting the prefab elements in various systems, such as wages,trucks, bullock

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cards etc. care should be taken to avoid excessive cantilever actions and desired supports are
maintained. Special care should be taken in negotiating sharp beds uneven of slushy roads to avoid

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undesirable stresses in elements and in transport vehicles.

Before loading the elements in the transporting media, care should be taken to ensure the base

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packing for supporting the elements are located at specified portion only.
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[Link] the process of erection of prefabrication

ERECTION
En

It is the process of assembling the Prefabrication element in the find portion as per the drawing. In the
erection of prefab elements the following items of work are to be carried out.

1).Slinging of the prefab elements.

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2).Tying up of erection slopes connecting to the erection hooks.

3).Cleaning the elements and the site of erection.

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4).Cleaning the steel inserts before incorporation in the joints lifting and setting the elements to
correct position.
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5).Adjustments to get the stipulated level line and plumb.

6).Welding of deats.
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7).Changing of the erection tackles.

8).Putting up and removing the necessary scaffolding or supports.

9).Welding the insorts laying the reinforced in joints.

The erection work in various construction jobs by using prefab elements differs with risk condition,
hence skilled foremen, and workers to be employed on the job.

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Equipments required for erection

Equipments required for the prefab elements in industry can be classified as.

1) Machinery required for quarrying of course and fine aggregates

2) Conveying equipment, such as but conveyor, chain conveyors etc.

3) Concrete mixers

4) Vibrators

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5) Erection equipment such as cranes, derricks, chain pulley etc.

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6) Transport machines

7) Work shop machinery for fabricating and repairing steel.

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8) Bar straitening, bending and welding machines

9) Minor tools and takes, such as wheel barreriour, concrete buckets etc…

10) Steam generation a plant for accelerated curing

Planning co-ordination ee
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It is important to have the precaster erector/installer and builder working together to achieve best
performance.
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Site Access and storage

• Check for site accessibility and precast panels delivery to site especially low bed trailers
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• Check whether adequate space for temporary storage before installation and ground conditions.
(firm ground & levelled)
• Uneven ground will cause overstress & crack panels.
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Planning crane Arrangement

• Plan the crane capacity and lifting gears based on

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• Heaviest weight of precast panels

• Lifting heights.
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• Working radius

• Position of crane in relation to final panel location

Plan other equipments

• Boom lift and scissor lift for unhooking installed panels.

• Lifting gears

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[Link] the structural system of prefabrication and material used?

SYSTEMS
The word system is referred to a particular method of construction of buildings
using prefabricated components which are inter-related in functions and are produced to a
set of instructions with certain constraints. Several plans are possible using the same
set of components. The degree of flexibility varies from system to system.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PREFABRICATION SYSTEM:-

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The following characteristics among others are to be consideration devising a system.

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1) Intensified usage of spaces.
2) Straight and simple walling scheme.

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3) Limited sizes and number of components.
4) Limited opening in bearing walls.
5) Regulated locations of partitions.
ee
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6) Standardized service and stair units.
7) Limited sizes of doors and windows with regulated positions.
8) Structural clarity and efficiency.
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9) Suitability for adoption in low rise and high rise blocks.

10) Ease of manufacturing, storing and transporting.
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11) Speed and ease of erection.

12) Simple jointing system.
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PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS:-

The system of prefabricated construction depends on the extent of the use of
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prefabricated components, their material, sizes and the technique adopted for their
manufacture and use in building. The various prefabrication systems are outlined below.
1) Small prefabrication
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2) Medium prefabrication
3) Large prefabrication
4) Open prefabrication system
a. Partial prefabrication open system
b. Full prefabrication open system
5) Large panel prefabrication system

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6) Wall system
a. Cross wall system
b. Longitudinal wall system
7) Floor system
8) Stair case system
9) Box type system
SMALL PREFABRICATION

n
g.i
The first 3 types are mainly classified according to their degree of precast elements
using in that construction. for eg:- brick is a small unit precasted and used in buildings.
This is called as small prefabrication. That the degree of precast element is very low.

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MEDIUM PREFABRICATION
Suppose the roofing systems and horizontal member are provided with precast

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[Link] constructions are known as medium prefabricated construction. Here the
degree of precast elements are moderate.
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LARGE PREFABRICATION
In large prefabrication most of the members like wall panels, roofing/flooring
systems, beams and columns are prefabricated. Here degree of precast elements are high.
En

OFF-SITE (FACTORY) PREFABRICATION

One of the main factors which affect the factory prefabrication is transport. The width
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of road walls mode of transport vehicles are the factors which factor the
prefabrications which is to be done on site or factory. Suppose the factory situated at a
long distance from the construction site and the vehicle have to cross a congested
traffic with heavy weighed elements the cost in-situ prefabrication is preferred
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even though the same condition are the cast in site prefabrication is preferred
only when number of houses are more for small elements the conveyance is easier
with normal type of lorry and trailors. Therefore we can adopt factory (or) OFF site
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prefabrication for this type of construction.

OPEN PREFABRICATION SYSTEM:-

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This system is based on the use of the basic structural elements to form whole or part of a
building. The standard prefabricated concrete components which can be used are,
1) Reinforced concrete channel units
2) Hollow core slabs
3) Hollow blocks and battens
4) Precast plank and battens

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UNIT II
PREFABRICATED COMPONENTS

1. What is Shear wall? (AUC Nov/Dec 2012 & 2013)

These are simple type and these shear walls under forces and horizontal shear along its
length are subjected to bending and shear. To resist these forces, the uniform distribution of
steel along its length is used in simple shear walls.
2. What are the types of prefabricated structural components?
(AUC Nov/Dec & May/June 2012)

n
o

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Based on the area (or) size of prefabricates.
o Based on weight of prefabricates.
o Based on the function.

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o Based on the shape.
o Based on the material.

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3. What is the classification of precast large panel? (AUC May /June2013)
 Cross wall system
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 Longitudinal wall system
 Two-way system
4. What are types of Cross wall system?
En

 Longitudinal wall system

 Homogeneous walls
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 Non-Homogeneous walls
5. What are the prefabricated structural units?
 Walls and columns
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 Lintels
 Doors and window frames
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 Roofing and flooring elements

 Stairs
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6. What is meant by box type construction?

In this system room size units are prefabricated and site. Toilet and kitchen blocks could
also be similarly prefabricated and erected at site.
This system derives its stability and stiffness from the box units which are formed by
four adjacent walls. Walls are jointed to make rigid connections among themselves. The box units
rest on plinth foundation which be of conventional type or precast.

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7. Write briefly about Types of Wall Panels?

The single way of classification of precast wall panel is based on their size or the
materials of which they are made. They can be classified. According to size, as small and large,
or as narrow vertical stirrups or as broad horizontal bands.
The material that are used for precast wall panel are bricks, hollow clay blocks, normal
density concrete, light – weight metal, gypsum, plastic, and timber.
8. What is the classification of precast concrete walls?

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1. Based on size

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2. Based on materials used
3. Based on function
4. Based on location

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5. Based on cross section
6. Based on stressing
9. What are the types of precast floors?
ee
1. Depending up on the composition of units, precast flooring units could be homogeneous
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or non-homogeneous.
2. Homogeneous floors could be solid slabs, ribbed or waffle slabs.
3. Non homogeneous floors could be multi layered ones with combinations of light weight
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concrete or reinforced / prestressed concrete with filler blocks.

10. Write about Prefabricated Roofing and flooring elements.
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1. Prefabricated reinforced concrete battens and plain concrete tiles can be used for roofing
and flooring for flat, instead of wooden section and brick tiles.
2. For sloping roof, precast reinforced and prestressed concrete triangulation trusses can be
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used.
3. Plain concrete or lightly reinforced concrete can be used in the form of precast shells for
roofing.
w.

11. Define Long Wall System?

The main beam (or) load bearing wall are placed to the long axis of building. It is
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applied to the building with large prefabricated and similar to traditional brickwork. The
longitudinal wall crosses the floor load must possess not only thermal.
12. How are roofing members in prefabricates classified?
1. Small roofing members.
2. Large roofing members.
3. Reinforced planks (or) ties.
4. Light weight concrete roofing members.
5. Small reinforced concrete roofing members.

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Trapezon panel roofing:

• Typical precast RC trapezon panel has trapezium section in orthogonal directions.
• The components are sound and can be manually handled with ease.
• These components are placed in position to from roof and haunch filling is done with in
situ concrete to make a monolithic surface.
Unreinforced pyramidal brick roof:
• Unreinforced pyramidal brick roof construction system is suitable for low cost houses
in cyclone affected and other coastal areas.

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• Corrosion of reinforcement was found to be the major cause of failure of RCC structure
in coastal area and a pyramidal roof with brick and cement concrete without reinforcement was therefore

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developed.
• The roofing is provided with peripheral RCC ring beam.

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4. What is the necessity of providing shear walls in the precast structures? Also discuss the
different types of shear walls. (AUC May/June 2013)
Necessity of shear wall:
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• When shear walls are designed and constructed properly, and they will have the
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strength and stiffness to resist the horizontal forces.
• In building construction, a rigid vertical diaphragm capable of transferring lateral forces
from exterior walls, floors, and roofs to the ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes.
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• Lateral forces caused by wind, earthquake and uneven settlement loads in addition to
the weight of structure and occupants; create powerful twisting forces.
• These forces can literally tear a building apart reinforcing a frame by attaching or
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placing a rigid wall inside it maintains the shape of the frame and prevents rotation at the joints.
• Shear walls are especially important in high rise building subjected to lateral wind and
seismic forces.
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• Shear wall buildings are usually regular in plan and in elevation, in some building,
lower floor are used for commercial purposes and the building are characterized with larger plan.
Types of shear walls based on materials:
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• RC shear wall
• Plywood shear wall
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• RC hollow concrete brick masonry wall

• Steel plate shear wall
RC shear wall:
• It consists of reinforced concrete wall and reinforced concrete slabs.
• Wall thickness varies from 140mm to 150mm, depending on the number of stories,
building age, and thermal requirement.
• In general these walls are continuous throughout the building height however, some

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walls are discontinuous as the street front or basement level to allow for commercial or parking spaces.
Plywood shear wall:
1. Plywood is the traditional material used in the construction of shear walls.
2. The creation of prefabricated shear panels have made it possible to inject strong shear
assemblies into small walls the fall at either side of a opening in a shear wall plywood shear wall consists
of
• Plywood to transfer shear force
• Chords to resists tension / compression generated by the over turning moments.

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• Base connections to transfer shear to foundation.

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RC hollow concrete block masonry walls:
• This walls are constructed by reinforced the hollow concrete block masonry, by taking

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advantage of hollow spaces and shape of the hollow blocks.
• It requires continuous steel rods both in the vertical and horizontal directions at
structurally critical locations of the wall panels.

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• RHCBM element are designing both as load bearing walls for gravity loads and also
shear walls for lateral seismic loads to safety withstand earthquakes.
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Steel plate shear wall:
• Steel plate shear wall system consists of a steel plate wall, boundary columns and
horizontal floor beams.
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• Together the steel plate girder, the column act as a vertical plate girder and steel plate
wall act as its web.
• The horizontal floor beams act more or less as transverse stiffeners in a plate girder.
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• The steel plate shear wall systems have been used in recent year in highly seismic
areas to resists lateral loads.
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5. Differentiate the behavior of frame in precast structures.(AUC Nov/Dec 2012)

Roof and floor slabs:
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• The roofing / flooring system consist of RC planks and joists.

• The planks are casted to a standard size and they are connected with RCC joists
which are provided at a regular interval.
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• The loads from planks are transmitted to RCC joists and then to main beams.
• The main beams are provided with channel sections 10cm projections on the
necessary side with the spacing of joist.
• The joists are seated in the channel and bolted together.
• The loads from slabs to the main beam will come as point loads.
• The roofing / flooring slabs system consists of planks which are supported over
RCC joist.

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• The planks can be made in any one of the following form with or without
prestressing. According to the span and loads.
• The usual widths of these of slabs are 0.5m and spanning to the requirement upto a
maximum limit of 5m without prestressing.
• The thicknesses of planks are casted in two steps with different mould to access
monolithic action with adjacent slab by putting necessary reinforcement and concreting.
Beams:
• All the main and secondary beams are the same size of 300 mm x 300 mm varies

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reinforcement are provided at various conditions according to the moments.

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• The beams are casted for the clear distance between the columns.
• A square of 10 cm x 10 cm hole for a depth of 10 cm are provided on either sides to
achieve the connection with other beam reinforcement or column reinforcement by proper welding.

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• After welding the concrete has to be done at the column and beams, it is necessary
to put site concreting.
• For the purpose the top ends of the beams are tapered so that it will give access to

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site concrete and for needle vibrators to get proper compaction.
Wall panels:
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• The wall panels are casted with all fixing like door, ventilator, and window frames.
• These wall panel are non load bearing wall. Therefore neglect solid rectangular
cross section wall panel with RCC from the view of thermal effects and safety the minimum of 150 mm
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is provided as wall thickness.

• This wall is a sandwich type that is cellular concrete blocks of 75 mm thick is
sandwiched by RCC.
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• M25 grade concrete to a thickness of 37.5 mm on either face with minimum

reinforcement.
• Since, the walls are in steel moulds there will be no need for plastering on either
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face of wall. This is one of the advantages of precast wall panels.

• The main design factor is handling stresses in wall panels.
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Columns:
• Many types of columns available in prefabricated system. Grooves are provided on
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the required faces to keeps the walls in position.

• This groove will act as a part of columns, and since the area of column has been
increased due to tibs, will give addition moment carrying as well as load carrying capacity of columns.
• At the same time this grooves give a mild ornamental look to our building.

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UNIT III

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

PART A

[Link] Disuniting of structures?

The girder or heavier or longer prefabricated member is separated into smaller member. Then
joined as a single element.

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Example:

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Large prefabrication member is converted into several members and joined together as large
prefabrication member at the site or joined and form as a single structure. It is called Disuniting of
structures.

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[Link] are the methods of disuniting of structures?

ee
 System consisting linear members disunited at joints
 System for prefabrication of disuniting of entire rigid frame
 Straight members disunited at points of minimum moments.
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 Two hinged and three hinged arches

[Link] are the advantages of disuniting of structures?

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 Easy handling
 Scaffolding work is not necessary
 Easy erection
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 Easy transportation because of longer member is splitted

 Easy hoisting process

[Link] the need of r prefabrication of structures?

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 Easy handling
 Avoid heavy tone capacity cranes
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 Easy transportation
 Easy hoisting and fixing
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[Link] are the types of joints?

 Rigid joint
 Hinge-like joint
 Shod joint

[Link] joint Flexibility?

The joint flexibility means that when disuniting structures the member is designed as rigid or
semi-rigid in which the columns and beams are connected together in such a way there is flexibility at the

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joint. It is called joint flexibility. The joint which holds two parts hence that one can swing relative to
another part.

[Link] short notes on joint deformation?

The joint deformation is occurred when the joints are in disuniting structure. The joints are
flexible then some deformation is occurred at the joints. The joint deformation refers to how the joint
behaves in regard to the far field stresses.

[Link] a short notes on dimensional tolerance .

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In the prefabricated structure the major work is joining the members . The dimensions are varied

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while fixing the elements hence the limits of deviation of the positioning in assembly of prefabricates. It
is called dimensional tolerance or dimensional deviation.

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[Link] is stiffness of a diaphragm?

The floor slab act as a diaphragm and distributes the lateral forces from their origin to the
components that resist them. It can be treated as horizontal deep beam. The diaphragm which subjected to

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shear, bending moment, direct forces and deformations. It should act as an unit. The additional
reinforcement to suit the deformation pattern of the diaphragm should be provided. The opening in
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diaphragms shall be provided very carefully.

[Link] does the material used in construction affect the design of elements?
En

 The production of prefabricated elements which posses good quality, hence it can be
utilized with minimum factor of safety.
 In the plant there is considered economical design. However the design allowance should
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be provided for the erection stresses and handling stresses.

 These stresses are occurred while hoisting and erection process
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w.
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One can find no real reason for this aversion partly because the cracking of tension chord has no
significance and partly because the possibility of cracking can be reduced by stressing the tensioned
bars before there concreting.

Fibster welder used to stress the tensioned bar after the load had been applied vierendeel columns
are excellent for the stanchions of frames and the columns of other reinforced concrete structures while
trusses are fairly suitable for use in any kind of that structure .

They are particularly applicable for industrial buildings.

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Trusses and vierendeel columns in addition to making the smallest demand in material open up
new possibilities for the aesthetic forming of the interior of the building.

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The structure manufactures in a horizontal position requires less material for shuttering their
reinforcement and concreting is also simple.

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An additional advantage of these type of columns is that tube pipes and other lines can be easily
be attached to and led through the shaft.

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This means that forms the standard point of operation, lost and unutilized area decrease to a
minimum inside the building itself.
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The problem of vierendeel column connecting to a truss is solved by using a hinge.

In comparison with a structure with moment-bearing joints the above solution is connected with
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greater force effect.

If vierendeel columns and trusses are used the bearing of latter requires only a slight surplus in
material.
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Arched structure can be produced in the trussed form.

The spread of reinforcement concrete trusses, trussed arches and vierendeel columns has been
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impeded by their difficult monolithic execution complicated reinforcement as well as by the difficult
calculation of secondary stresses.
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[Link] with neat sketch of disuniting structures.

Methods of disuniting of structures :

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 Systems consisting of linear members disunited at joints.

 System for the prefabrication of entire rigid frames.
 Straight members disunited at points of minimum moments.
 Two hinged and three hinged arches.

System consisting of linear member disunited at joints :

Disunity at joints which gives linear member, this means a great advantages and facility from
the point of view both manufacture and assembly ,using this system, auxiliary scaffolding are not
necessary and the hoisting process is, as a rule, very simple. In the system is that the joints are

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 Scaffolding work is not necessary.

 Easy handling
 The design process are very simple.
 Easy and very simple molding at the plants.
 In the production process standard system only needed
 Simple hoisting machines only required
 Hoisting process is very simple.
 Rapid hoisting work
 Simple technique are followed


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The member are less weight

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Precaution taken during disuniting of prefabricated structures

 All material stored in tires shall be stacked , racked, blocked, interlocked or otherwise

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secured safely to prevent sliding , falling or collapse and in an orderly manner to avoid
obstruction of any passage way at the place of work.
 Maximum safe load limits of floor within building and structures in kg/cm2 shall be

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conspicuously posted in all storage areas except for floor or slab on gradient.
 Ailes and passage ways shall be kept clear to provide for the free and safe movement of
material handling equipment or per-sons. such areas shall be kept in good repair.
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 When a difference in road or working levels exist means such a ramp blocking or
grading shall be used to ensure the safe movement of vehicles (cranes) between two
levels.
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 Materials stored inside the buildings under construction shall not be placed with in two m
of any hoist way or inside floor openings nor with in 3.2m of exterior wall which does
not extend above the top of material stored.
 Persons employed require to work on stored material in silos , hoppers and similar
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storage areas shall be equipped with life lines and safety belts.
 Non compatible materials shall be segregated in storages.
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[Link] with neat sketches the organization of a prefabrication plant for manufacture of small
element

 The organization of a prefabrication plant in general which involves many tasks, such as
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site investigation before construction process starts, material delivery (plant elements)
and procurement management, keeping better site records, keeping good site
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communication and high level of information level flow, monitoring performance

regularly, establishing a well co-ordination system among different parts, and performing
a good site layout planning.
 The problems are in the plant of operational inefficiency, and can increase the small
elements, the following problems may occur,
 Material stacks wrongly located
 Plant and equipment wrongly located
 The mixer is in accessible for the delivery of materials, not enough room for the storage
of aggregates
 Fixed cranes and unable to reach all parts of works

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 Hoists have insufficient capacity or height to handle the loads or badly located in relation
to the floor layout
 Inadequate space allowed
 Site huts wrongly located in relation to their effective use

Organization of prefabricated plants:

 A well planned plant which including all temporary facilities and utilities lead to
 Increasing productivity and safety
 Reducing area needed for temporary construction
 Maximizing utilization

n
The following points should be considered in good site layout

g.i
 Safety
 Fire prevention: fire is a major cause of damage on construction sites. So that, fire

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extinguishers are basic requirements on a plant.
 Medical services: on plant, a first aid kit is a must. In remote areas a well equipped
medical room with a doctor and nurse
 Safety wear: safety shoes, hard hats, gloves and goggles must be used
 Site accessibility:

ee
 Easy accessibility will keep the morale of the equipment and vehicle drivers high,
minimize the chance of accidents and save time to arrive and done the small element
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 Lighting: It is necessary to have a stand by generator to maintain plant lighting
 Water supply and sanitation: It is necessary to have water and toilet facilities in
convenient locations to accommodate the work force.
 Material handling:
En

 All plants operations can be classified as material handling. The use of proper equipment
for material handling and advance planning for minimizing multiple handling will result
in direct cost and time savings.
 Storage and plant cleaning:
arn

 It is necessary to plan and reserve storage areas for materials so that multiple movement
of material is avoided
 Batch plant and fabrication shops:
 Batch plants are provided on projects where it is more economical to produce concrete on
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plant than to buy a ready mix. Aggregate storage piles, cement silos and admixture tanks
will accompany of plant. Also laboratories are necessary at the plants.
w.

Criticism of existing site layout:

 Both hoists have separate scaffold staging, causing increased costs

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 Materials are not stockpiled near hoists

 Entrance to the site is too narrow for truck to pass
 Stores are left behind the batching plant so obscuring store man’s view and check point is
separated from the stores.
 Concrete and mortar mixers are located too far from the hoists
 Stockpiles are dispersed are hinder unloading
 Temporary roads are long and narrow
 Some stores are difficult to reach

Suggested improved layout:

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UNIT – IV
JOINTS IN STRUCTURAL MEMEBERS
TWO MARKS
1. What are the types of joints?
 Jointing of a column to footing
 Jointing of a column to beam on top of column
 Jointing of a column to beam at an intermediate junction
 Lengthening of column

n
 Jointing of beam

g.i
 Forming of joints of arched structures
 Jointing of post tensioned structures

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 Jointing of precast to monolithic reinforced concrete structures
2. What is the importance of joints in precast structures when compared to cast in-situ
structures? (May/Jun 2009)
ee
gin
It is highly importance that the construction of joints should be easy that unavoidable smaller
inaccuracies and deviations within dimensional tolerances should neither influence the designed
stresses in a detrimental manner nor cause is admissible changes in the stress distribution of the
En

structures.

In the prefabricated structures, the joints are very important when compared to conventional
arn

construction method, because all the elements are joined with each other, hence stresses are
developed at the joints. The stresses may be very harmful. Therefore the joints should be designed
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very carefully.

3. What is the significance of connections in precast structure? (May/Jun 2014, Apr/May

w.

2011)
In the prefabricated structures, all members or elements are fixed by using dry joints or wet joints,
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therefore the joint should be very strong. If the joints are loosen, then the structure may be
collapsed. Hence the joints must be designed with all type of considerations.
4. Describe the ductility of joint. (May/Jun 2013)
The joint which carries two or more elements fixed together. The joint should be designed to
carry the loads such as dead load, live load, wind load etc. When the joint should take heavier
load which is greater than the ultimate load, then the joint gets more elongated. It is called
ductility of joints.

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5. State post tensioned connection. (Nov/Dec 2013)

The post tensioned connection is one of the prestressed concrete structures. The members
are prepared in the plants, then the member is erected at the site. Here the methods like Magnal
Blaton Giffard Udal are used to connect the members. The tendons are tensioned after fixing the
members which is commonly called as post tensioned connection.

6. Give the formula for design temperature change. (May/Jun 2014, Apr/May 2016)

n
tc = 5 (tf – 32)

g.i
9
Where

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tc = Temperature change
tf = Final temperature
7. What is meant by expansion joint? (May/Jun 2013)
ee
gin
The expansion joint is provided to accommodate movements due to thermal effects.
These are also provided to take care of the differential thermal deformation and to avoid the
formation of cracks in the structure. The gaps are provided to permit unrestrained movement. The
En

maximum spacing of expansion joints in a prefabricated building depends on the type of

construction under consideration.
arn

8. Write the use of expansion joints. (Nov/Dec 2012)

 It allows the movements due to the thermal expansion.
 It avoids the cracks
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 It controls contraction and expansion due to summer and winter season.

9. What is meant by tolerance?
w.

Tolerance is the limiting value of the admissible deviation in the size or shape of the
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finished prefabricate from the design requirements. In practice, it is impossible to make products
which will have the exact design dimensions. The maximum tolerance values which will
guarantee the correct assembly and the efficient functioning of the individual prefabricates.

[Link] are the functions of joints?

The joints between internal and external wall panels should be designed to resist all the forces
such as lateral force , vertical forces etc . The joints should be capable of resisting of forces , and avoin
excess deflection and cracking.

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1. Explain the Joints for different structural connections

Joints for different structural connections:

 Jointing of column to footing

 Jointing of column to beam on top of column.

 Jointing of column to beam at an intermediate functions.

 Lengthening of columns.

n
 Jointing of beams.

g.i
 Forming of joints of arched structure.

 Joining of joints of post tensioned structures.

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 Joining of precast to monolithic reinforced concrete structures.

(a) JOININNG COLUMNS TO FOOTING:

ee
This joint is usually rigid but also can be hinge. A rigid joint can be made by
placing the column into a calyx of the footing or by using a welded joint. The figure shows
the three variations of this method. Can be used for smaller, For average, For large footings
gin
En
arn
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w.
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The depth of the calyx is dimensioned according to the long or side length of the [Link]

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depth of the calyx should be equal to 12.5% of the length of the column.

The opening of the calyx is 6-10 cm greater in all direction than the class of the column.
This is enabling the vibrator to be operated while concreting at the bottom of the calyx
of checked by leveling before concreting.

A similar steel plate is also put on the lower end of the column when positioning the
column. These two steel plates must be on each other. The dimensions of these steel
plates are frame 100x100x10 to 150x150x10 mm a chord into the concrete after the
column is put in placed properly plumbed two advantages of the calyx joint should be

n
mentioned.

g.i
1. The placing plumbing and fixing of the column as well as the subsequent filling

rin
of the calyx with concrete is for simpler and requires less time than in the case of

a welded joint.

ee
2. The method is least sensitive to inaccuracies occurring during the construction.
The disadvantages of the calyx joint are more suitable for small columns. In the
gin
case of large columns requiring a calyx depth of which is greater than 1 m.

(b) JOINING OF COLUMN TO BEAM AT AN INTERMEDIATE UNCTION:

En

One method of forming a hinge like joint consists either or placing to

beam on to a small cantilever protracting fram the column or of putting it on the bottom of
arn

an adequately shaped opening left out of the column shaft.

One method of forming a hinge like joint consists either or placing to

beam on to a small cantilever protracting fram the column or of putting it on the bottom of
Le

an adequately shaped opening left out of the column shaft.

w.

.
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(f) DESIGN OF JOINTS FOR POST TENSIONED STRUCTURES:

Post tensioned structure can generally be joined for more simply then the usual
reinforced concrete structures, by using post tensioning it can be ensured that in the entire
structure. The joints included only compressive can develop consequently the problem of
joining can be solved in a very easy manner namely by placing plane surfaces side by
side and then filling the gaps with cement mortar by so doing longer beams can also be
produced from shorter precast member. Thus is post tensioned structures the forming of
joints does not cause difficulties.

Sketches on solution of principles relating to the joining of post tensioned

n
structure are to be illustrated in the fig. all these joints are of course rigid and moment

g.i
bearing. It is not permissible for the mortar which is to be poured into the ducts of the
stressing cables to avoid this cable ducts are joined by placing a shore piece of tube or
rubber ring into the duct itself.

rin
A rigid point of these kind established between a column two girders supported by
the former after the casting of the gaps and hardening of the mortar, the short inserted

ee
cables and stressed and so rigid joint is established.

(g) JOINING OF PRECAST TO MONOLITHIC REINFORCED

gin
CONCRETE STRUCTURES:
It frequently occurs that a monolithic beam has to be joined to a precast column.
In this case the function can be established in the same way as already been described in
En

the previous paragraph an joining namely by placing the end of the beam either on to a
cantilever protruding from the column or into an opening formed into the columns shaft.
arn

When making the joint, first of all a 2.5 cm deep cavity is chiseled out of the
sole of the precast column. The bottom of this cavity should be roughened so as to attain a
belter band between the concrete of the monolithic beam and the precast column.
Le

[Link] the types of structural joints and also the requirements of joints?

Types of Joints in Concrete Constructions

w.

Types of joints in concrete constructions are:

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1. Construction Joints
2. Expansion Joints
3. Contraction Joints
4. Isolation Joints

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 Isolation joints are formed by placing preformed joint material next to the column or wall or
standpipe prior to pouring the slab. Isolation joint material is typically asphalt-impregnated
fiberboard, although plastic, cork, rubber, and neoprene are also available.
 Isolation joint material should go all the way through the slab, starting at the subbase, but should
not extend above the top.
 For a cleaner looking isolation joint, the top part of the preformed filler can be cut off and the
space filled with elastomeric sealant. Some proprietary joints come with removable caps to form
this sealant reservoir.
 Joint materials range from inexpensive asphalt-impregnated fiberboard to cork to closed cell
neoprene. Cork can expand and contract with the joint, does not extrude, and seals out water.
Scott Whitelam with APS Cork says that the required performance is what determines the choice

n
of joint materials. How much motion is expect, exposure to salts or chemicals, and the value of

g.i
the structure would all come into play—and of course the cost.

 At columns, contraction joints should approach from all four directions ending at the isolation
joint, which should have a circular or a diamond shaped configuration around the column. For an

rin
I-beam type steel column, a pinwheel configuration can work. Always place the slab concrete
first and do not install the isolation joint material and fill around the column until the column is
carrying its full dead load.

Requirements of joints
ee
gin
a. The joints should be leveled
b. The joints should be perfectly rigid
c. The joints should posses sufficient strength and fitness
d. The joints should get sufficient yield strength
En

e. The joints should be provided rich mortar (or) concrete compared with joining
member
f. The joints should be plumb checking
arn

g. The module of the joint should be checked

h. The dowel rod must be welded with main members
i. Sufficient stirrups should be provided for beam members
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j. Sufficient lateral ties should be provided for beam members

w.

[Link] the various types of Beam to Column Connection

Various Types Of Connections

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• Beam To Column Connection With Steel Plate Corbel

• Beam To Column Connection With Angle Corbel

• Beam To Column Connection With Built Up Steel Corbel

• Beam To Column Connection With Steel Joist Corbel, Encased In The Beam

• Beam To Column Connections With Vertical Steel Bearing Plates

• Beam To Column Connection With Concrete Corbel

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UNIT V

ABNORMAL LOADS

[Link] progressive collapse?

The damage to small area of a structure or failure of single element which may lead to collapse of
major parts of the structure. It is called progressive collapse.

The progressive collapse is a a structural failure that initiated by localized structure damage and
subsequently develops as a chain reaction into a failure that involves a major portion of the structural

n
system.

g.i
[Link] equivalent design loads ?

The equivalent design load when the lateral resisting elements are oriented orthogonal horizontal

rin
direction the structure shall be designed for the effect due to full design earthquake load in the one
horizontal direction at the otherwise add 30 percentage of design earthquake load in other direction.

ee
[Link] prefabrication in multistory buildings or frames?

The prefabrication structures are formed multistory frames by several stages such as scaffolding,
gin
cranes, joints mechanism and erection. In this structures which includes the shear wall.

[Link] the codal provision used for the design of earthquake loads?
En

According to IS 1893-1984 four methods representing different levels of refinement in analysis

are available to estimate the design forces produced by earth quake in multistory building. They are
arn

 Seismic co-efficient method

 Model analysis method
 Detai-ted dynamic method
 Dynamic in elastic time-history analysis
Le

According to IS 1893 -2002, two methods are available to estimate the design seismic forees
w.

 Response spectrum method

 Dynamic analysis method
ww

[Link] the possible abnormal effects prefabricated buildings?

Abnormal Loads are

 Earthquake Load
 Cyclone
 Tsunami
 Blast Load
 Land slides

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[Link] the important and response reduction factor used in static analysis for the calculation of
design seismic force?

I=Important factor depends on functions

For hospital, railway station, radio station, telephone exchange =1.5

All other buildings =1.0

R = response reduction factor

n
Steel moment resisting frame =5.0

g.i
Load bearing masonry =1.5

Ductile shear wall =4.0

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7. What are the different types of seismic waves ?

The earthquakes relies elastic energy Which travels in the rock medium in the form of waves.

Classification of seismic waves:

ee
gin
 Body waves
 Surface waves
En

In the body waves which travel through the body of stratum.

The surface waves which travel along the surface of a boundary or along a discontinuity in the
stratum.
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The body waves are two types

 Primary waves (P – waves)

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 Secondary waves (S – waves)

The surface waves are also two types

w.

 Rayleigh waves
 Love waves
ww

8. What are the causes of earthquakes ?

 Tectonic activity
 Volcanic eruption
 Land slides
 Nuclear explosions
 Rock bursting in a mine

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avoided or at least reduced in scale, at fairly small additional cost if structural components
had been interconnect more effectively. This is the basis of the structural integrity
requirement in the ACI 318 specification (ACI 2002)

3. How are explosive loads different from loads typically used in building design

(April / May 2011 / May/ June 2014)

Explosive loads :

n
 It is also called uncontrolled demolition.


g.i
Explosive loads are used to blow up the structures.
 As the chord was ignited, the fuse got set off, starting explosion in a controlled
progressive way at different intervals

rin
 The rubble from the lowest section got spread out in beams across the floor.
Implosive loads :

1. A very small amount of dynamic load is used at strategic points in the structure to
make it and allow it to fall by its own weight.
ee
2. It is delicate art of detonating explosives in just the right places to make a building
gin
collapse about nearly into its footprint.
3. It is also called controlled demolition.
4. Demolition means there is no need to save any part of the concrete structures.
En

5. Demolition is mandatory for all RCC works which have completed its life period.
6. The permission will be provided from building department.
7. If the building withstand after their life period or design period.
8. It may be damaged in any time .
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9. The building will be demolished after completion of their design period.

10. The demolition are given below:
i. Explosion Method
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ii. Implosion Method

iii. Special attachment to hydraulic excavators
iv. Hydraulic Splitters
w.

v. Non explosive demolition method.

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[Link] the general principles to be adopted earthquake in the design of earthquake

resistance structures

Earthquake Resistance Building:

 Using dampers for Absorbing shocks

 Stiffness in all directions
 Infill wall
 Retrofitting
 Roller Foundation

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 Shear wall construction

g.i
 Adopting pile foundation
 Concrete members with light weight concrete
 Reducing self weight by using light weight roof

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 Limit the height of 30m for seismic design
Following principles are adopted for general design:



ee
Generally avoid construction of structures across fault zone.
The long axis of the building is best oriented parallel to the dominant direction of the
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wave movement
 The foundation is to be embedded on firm bed rock only, otherwise disastrous lateral
displacements may occur.
 The greater weight, hence the inertia of foundation and super structure, its capacity to
En

damp the jarring effect.(a heavy ship is less rolled by storm waves than a light boat).
 The super structures should be of as light materials as allowable.
 Deep trenches cut across the path of the way arrival have a damping effect by breaking
arn

continuity.

[Link] strong column and weak beam theory. (May/June 2013; May/June 2011).
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Strong column weak beam theory:

 In case of framed structure it has been mechanism of collapse ensure large energy
w.

dissipation capacities in comparison with source collapse mechanism capacity design

is the technique of ensuring a predetermined collapse mechanism by suitably adjusting
ww

the capacities of member .

 The basic concept of capacity design of structure is to distribute the inelastic
deformation throughout the structure in such a way that the formation of plastic
hinges at predetermined positions in the members.
 During earthquake ,the seismic inertia forces generated at the floor levels are
transferred through beams and columns to the foundation.
 In case of ductile frames ,this can be achieved by formation of plastic hinges
purposely at both end of all the beams in all floors of the building.
 While the column remains essentially elastic in all stories , excluding bottom storey .

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 It is desired to allow the formation of plastic hinges in the beams rather than columns
because,
 Plastic hinges in beam have higher rotation capacities than in columns which are used
to increase the ductile behavior of the frame.
 Failure of beam which can be repaired simply and strengthened easily, but the entire
structure may collapse due to column failure.
 Failure of beam normally results in a localized failure ,whereas failure of column can
affect the entire structure stability.
 Thus purposely are designing the beam as a weaker member that the column .

n
 This concept is called strong column weak beam design.


g.i
In capacity design ,the strength developed in weaker member is related to the capacity
of the stronger member while yielding.

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ee
gin
En
arn
Le
w.
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 Design of Cross-Sections Based on the Efficiency of
Materials Used

Cross-section design is an important aspect of structural engineering. The shape and arrangement of materials in
a structural member directly affect its strength, stability, durability, and economy. Efficient use of materials means
achieving maximum strength and stiffness with minimum material consumption and cost.

1. Meaning of Efficient Cross-Section

An efficient cross-section is one that provides maximum structural performance with minimum material usage. The
efficiency depends on:

• Distribution of material away from the neutral axis.

• Ability to resist bending, shear, torsion, and axial loads.
• Economy in construction and maintenance.
• Ease of fabrication and transportation.

2. Principles of Material Efficiency

The efficiency of materials in cross-sections is mainly governed by the following principles:

a) Material Away from Neutral Axis

In bending members, stresses are maximum at extreme fibers and zero at the neutral axis. Hence, placing more
material away from the neutral axis increases moment of inertia and bending resistance.

b) Uniform Stress Distribution

Efficient sections distribute stress uniformly to avoid concentration and wastage of material.

c) Minimum Self-Weight
Lighter sections reduce dead load and foundation cost.

3. Common Types of Efficient Cross-Sections

a) Rectangular Section
Simple and economical for concrete beams and columns, but not highly efficient for steel structures.

b) I-Section
Most efficient for bending. Flanges resist bending stresses while the web resists shear. Widely used in steel
beams and girders.

c) T-Section
Used in reinforced concrete slab-beam construction.

d) Box Section
Hollow sections provide high torsional resistance and good strength-to-weight ratio.

e) Circular Section
Suitable for columns, chimneys, and shafts because stresses are uniformly distributed.

4. Efficiency in Bending Members

For beams subjected to bending:

• Maximum bending stress occurs at outer fibers.

• Material near the center contributes less to bending resistance.
• Therefore, hollow or I-shaped sections are more efficient than solid sections.

The section modulus is used to measure bending efficiency:

Section Modulus = Moment of Inertia / Distance from Neutral Axis

5. Efficiency in Compression Members

Compression members such as columns must resist buckling. Efficient sections for columns should have:

• Large radius of gyration.

• Symmetrical geometry.
• Uniform load distribution.

Circular, box, and tubular sections are commonly used because they provide better buckling resistance.

6. Efficiency in Torsion

Hollow circular and box sections are highly efficient in torsion because shear stresses are distributed uniformly.
Solid rectangular sections are less efficient for torsional loading.

7. Comparison of Cross-Sections

The following table shows the relative efficiency of common sections:

Section Type Material Efficiency Main Use

Rectangular Moderate Concrete beams and columns

I-Section Very High Steel beams and girders
T-Section High RCC slab-beam systems
Box Section Very High Bridges and torsional members
Circular Section High Columns and shafts

Conclusion

Efficient cross-section design helps engineers achieve safe, economical, and durable structures. The choice of
section depends on the type of loading, material used, construction requirements, and cost considerations.
I-sections and box sections are generally the most efficient for bending and torsional resistance, while circular
sections perform well under compression and torsion.
 Ductile Joint in Precast Structures

A ductile joint is a structural connection designed to undergo large deformation without sudden failure. In precast
concrete structures, ductile joints are very important because they provide flexibility, energy dissipation, and
resistance against earthquake and dynamic loads.

1. Definition of Ductile Joint

A ductile joint is a connection capable of sustaining significant plastic deformation while maintaining its strength
and stability. It prevents brittle failure and improves the overall safety of the structure during seismic or heavy
loading conditions.

2. Importance of Ductile Joints in Precast Structures

• Improves earthquake resistance.

• Absorbs and dissipates energy.
• Prevents sudden collapse of the structure.
• Provides continuity between precast members.
• Enhances durability and structural safety.

3. Characteristics of a Good Ductile Joint

• High deformation capacity.

• Proper reinforcement anchorage.
• Adequate confinement reinforcement.
• Strong bond between precast elements.
• Ability to resist cyclic loading.

4. Types of Ductile Joints in Precast Structures

A. Wet Joints
Connections filled with cast-in-place concrete or grout.

B. Dry Joints
Mechanical or welded connections without additional concrete.

C. Post-Tensioned Joints
Joints connected using prestressing tendons to improve flexibility and strength.
5. Recommendations for Designing Ductile Joints

• Ensure strong column–weak beam concept.

• Provide adequate development length for reinforcement.
• Use closely spaced stirrups near joint regions.
• Avoid reinforcement congestion.
• Ensure proper grouting and compaction.
• Design joints for seismic loads according to codes.
• Use high-quality welding and mechanical connectors.
• Provide confinement reinforcement to improve ductility.
• Ensure continuity of reinforcement across joints.
• Reduce stress concentration at connection zones.

6. Seismic Design Considerations

During earthquakes, joints experience repeated loading and unloading cycles. Therefore, ductile joints should:

• Maintain strength during cyclic loading.

• Allow controlled cracking without collapse.
• Dissipate seismic energy effectively.
• Prevent brittle shear failure.

7. Advantages of Ductile Joints

• Better earthquake performance.

• Increased structural safety.
• Improved energy absorption.
• Longer service life.
• Reduced maintenance and repair cost.

8. Common Failures in Poorly Designed Joints

• Brittle shear failure.

• Cracking at joint region.
• Reinforcement pull-out.
• Loss of stiffness and strength.
• Progressive collapse during earthquakes.

9. Conclusion
Ductile joints are essential in precast structures for ensuring safety, flexibility, and seismic resistance. Proper
reinforcement detailing, confinement, anchorage, and quality construction practices help achieve effective ductile
performance.

10. Comparison of Ductile Joint Types

Joint Type Main Feature Application

Wet Joint Concrete/Grout Filled Buildings & Frames
Dry Joint Mechanical/Welded Industrial Structures
Post-Tensioned Joint Prestressing Tendons Seismic Structures
 Column to Foundation Connection – Detailed
Notes

The connection between the column and foundation is one of the most important parts of a structure. It transfers
the load from the superstructure safely to the soil through the footing or foundation system. A properly designed
column-foundation connection ensures structural stability, durability, and resistance against settlement, shear,
bending, and seismic forces.

1. Purpose of Column to Foundation Connection

• Transfer axial load, bending moment, and shear forces safely to the foundation.
• Maintain structural stability and alignment.
• Prevent differential settlement and cracking.
• Ensure continuity between substructure and superstructure.
• Resist lateral loads due to wind and earthquakes.

2. Components of Column-Foundation Connection

The major components involved are:

• Reinforced Concrete Column

• Footing or Pedestal
• Starter Bars / Dowels
• Reinforcement Anchorage
• Base Plate (for steel columns)
• Anchor Bolts
• Grouting Material
• Shear Key (if required)

3. Types of Column to Foundation Connections

A. Reinforced Concrete Column Connection

The reinforcement bars from the footing are extended upward as dowel bars and connected with column bars.

B. Steel Column Connection

Steel columns are connected using base plates and anchor bolts fixed into the concrete pedestal or footing.

C. Precast Column Connection

Precast columns are connected using grouted sleeves, pockets, or welded connections.

4. Reinforcement Detailing

Proper reinforcement detailing is essential for safe load transfer.

• Dowel bars should match the area of column reinforcement.

• Adequate development length must be provided.
• Minimum concrete cover should be maintained.
• Stirrups should be closely spaced near the joint region.
• Lapping should not occur at critical stress zones.

5. Load Transfer Mechanism

The loads transferred from the column to the foundation include:

• Axial Compression Load

• Bending Moment
• Shear Force
• Uplift Force (in some structures)
• Seismic and Wind Loads

The footing distributes these loads uniformly to the soil.

6. Design Considerations

Important design considerations are:

• Safe Bearing Capacity (SBC) of soil

• Size and shape of footing
• Column load magnitude
• Reinforcement detailing
• Concrete grade and steel grade
• Earthquake resistance requirements
• Construction tolerances and workmanship

7. Common Failures
Improper connection may lead to:

• Shear failure near column base

• Cracking due to insufficient anchorage
• Settlement and tilting
• Reinforcement corrosion
• Punching shear failure in footing

8. Construction Procedure

Step-by-step procedure:

1. Excavation and PCC work.

2. Footing reinforcement placement.
3. Fixing dowel bars and column starter bars.
4. Concreting of footing and pedestal.
5. Alignment checking of column reinforcement.
6. Column shuttering and concreting.
7. Curing and quality inspection.

9. Quality Checks

• Check column alignment and verticality.

• Verify reinforcement spacing and cover.
• Ensure proper compaction and curing.
• Check anchor bolt positions in steel columns.
• Inspect cracks and honeycombing.

10. Advantages of Proper Connection

• Improved structural strength

• Better seismic resistance
• Long service life
• Reduced maintenance cost
• Safe load transfer to soil

11. Comparison of Connection Types

Connection Type Main Components Application

RCC Column Dowels, Reinforcement Buildings
 Steel Column Base Plate, Anchor Bolts Industrial Structures
Precast Column Sleeves, Grouting Precast Construction

12. Conclusion

The column to foundation connection plays a critical role in ensuring structural safety and stability. Proper
detailing, reinforcement anchorage, alignment, and construction quality are necessary for effective load transfer
and long-term durability of the structure.
Download From: [Link] PART – B
1. What are the principles of prefabrication techniques and explain in detail and also mention its
advantages and disadvantages.(NOV/DEC 2017,Apr/may-2015,2016)

Principles of prefabrication techniques:

Design for prefabrication, preassembly and modular construction.
Simplify and standardize connection details.
Simplify and separate building systems.
Consider worker safety during deconstruction.
Minimize building components and materials.
Select fittings, fasteners, adhesive and sealants that allow for quicker assembly and facilitate
the removal of reusable materials.

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Reduce building complexity.

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Design for reusable materials.
Design for flexibility and adaptability.
Advantages:

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Self supporting readymade components are used, so the need for formwork, shuttering and

En
scaffolding is greatly reduced.

Less waste may occur. gi

On-site construction and condition is minimized.

nee
Construction time is reduced and buildings are completed sooner, allowing an earlier return
of the capital invested.

rin
Quality control can be easier in a factory assembly line setting than a construction site
setting.
g.n
labour, power materials, space and overheads are lower.
e
Prefabrication can be located where skilled labour is more readily available and costs of

t
Time spoil in bad weather or hazardous environments at the construction site is minimized.
Saving in cost, material, time & manpower.
Shuttering and scaffolding is not necessary.
Independent of weather condition.
Components produced at close supervision. So quality is good.
Possibility of alterations and reuse.
Correct shape and dimensions and sharp edges are maintained. Very thin sections can be
entirely precast with precision

Disadvantages:

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 Careful handling of prefabricated components such as concrete panels (or) steel and glass
Download From: [Link]
panels is reduced.
Similarly leaks can form at joints is prefabricated components.
Attention has to be paid to the strength and corrosion resistance of the joining of
prefabricated sections to avoid failure of the joint.
Transportation costs may be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections than for the
materials of which they are made, which can often be packed more efficiently.
Large prefabricated structures require heavy duty cranes and precision measurement and
handling to place in position.
Large group of buildings from the same type of prefabricated elements tend to look drab and
monotonous.
Local jobs are lost.

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w.E
asy
En
gi nee
rin
g.n
e t

Download From: [Link]

 6. From:
Download [Link]
are the classifications of prefabricated systems?(Nov/Dec -2019,Apr/may 2016,2015,2017)
Small prefabrication:
The first three types are mainly classified according to their degree of precast elements used in
the construction. For example brick is small unit of precasted material and used in buildings. This is
called as small prefabrication and the degree of precast element is very low.
Medium prefabrication:
Suppose the roofing systems and horizontal members are provided with precasted elements.
These constructions are known as medium prefabricated construction. Here the degree of precast
elements is moderate.
Large prefabrication:
In large prefabrication most of the members like wall panels, roofing / flooring systems, beams
and columns are prefabricated. Here the degree of precast elements is high. One of the main factors

wwwhich affect the factory prefabrication is transport. The width of the road, mode of transport vehicles are
the factors which determines the prefabrication which is to be done on-site or in factory. Suppose the

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factory is situated far away from the construction site and the vehicle needs to cross congested traffic
areas with heavy weighing elements the cast in-site prefabrication is preferred. Even though the same

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condition as the cast in site prefabrication is preferred only when numbers of houses are more for small

En
elements the conveyance is easier with normal type of lorry and tractors. We can adopt factory or off-
site prefabrication for this type of construction.
Open system of prefabrication:
gi nee
In the total prefabrication systems, the space frames are casted as a single unit and erected at
the site. The wall fitting and other fixing are done on site. This type of construction is known as open
system of prefabrication.
rin
Closed system of prefabrication:

g.n
In this system the whole things are casted with fixing and erected on their position.
Partial prefabrication:
e t
In this method of construction, the building elements required are precast and then erected.
Since the casting of horizontal elements (roof / floor) often take more time due to erction of frame work,
the completion of the building is delayed and hence this method is restored. In most of the building
sites, this method is popular, so in industrial buildings where the elements have longer spans. Use of
double tees, channel units, cored stabs, slabs, hyperboloid shells, etc, are some of the horizontal
elements used.
This method is efficient when the elements are readily available and the building has reached
the roof level. The delay caused due to erection of framework, delay due to removal of framework is
eliminated completely in this method of construction suitable for any type of building provided lifting and
erection equipments are available.
Total prefabrication:

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Download From: [Link]
Crane capacity.
Crane boom length for handling.
Crane rotation radius.
Equipments required for erection:
Machinery required for quarrying of coarse and fine aggregates.
Conveying equipment such as belt conveyor, chain conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket
elevator, hoists etc.
Concrete mixers.
Concrete vibrators.
Erection equipment such as cranes, derricks, hoists, chain pulley blocks etc.
Transport machinery such as tractor cum trailers, dumpers, lorries locomotive, motor boats and

ww rarely even helicopters.

Workshop machinery for fabricating and repairing steel and timber moulds.

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Bar straightening, bending and welding machines to make reinforcement cages.
Minor tools and takes such as wheel barrows, concrete buckets etc.

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Steam generation plant for accelerated curing.
13. Discuss in detail the concept of modular coordination .State its significance in prefabricated
structures. (Apr/may-2018,2017,2016)
En
Modular coordination means the interdependent arrangement of a dimension based on a

facilitated,
gi
primary value accepted as a module. The strict observance of rules of modular coordination

nee
1. Assembly of single components into large components.
2. Fewest possible different types of component.
rin
3. Minimum wastage of cutting needed.
g.n
Modular coordination is the basis for a standardization of a mass production of component. A set of

e
rules would be adequate for meeting the requirements of conventional and prefabricated construction.
These rules are adaptable for, t
a. The planning grid in both directions of the horizontal plan shall be
1. 3m for residential and institutional buildings,
2. For industrial buildings,
15m for spans up to 12m
30m for spans between 12m and 18m
60m for spans over 18m
The centre lines of load bearing walls shall coincide with the grid lines.
b. In case of external walls the grid lines shall coincide with the centre line of the wall or a
line on the wall 5 cm from the internal face of the wall.

Download From: [Link]

 c. The
Download From: planning module in the vertical direction shall be 1m up to and including a height of 2.8m.
[Link]
d. Preferred increments for the still heights, doors, windows and other fenestration shall be 1m.
e. In case of internal columns the grid lines shall coincide with the centre lines of columns. In
case of external columns, the grid lines shall coincide with the centre lines of the columns in
the storey or a line in the column from the internal face of the column in the topmost storey.
A basic module can be represented as module andfor larger project modules are represented a
Mp.
For eg: For a project module in horizontal coordination, the component can be of 30cm and for
vertical component size be of 10cm.
The storey height is fixed between finished floor levels as 2.8m and if the thickness of slab is
<15cm storey height is fixed as 2.7m. The centre distance between the load bearing walls can
be chose from a set of modules. The use of other dimensions is not allowed.

ww In the design of a building, modular grid can be used consisting of parallel line spaced at a
value of module M or Mp and a grid line chosen as a base for setting out a part of a building

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becomes a modular axis.
In the fig (a), a typical grid is chosen for load bearing walls without duct. The interior walls are

asy
placed so that their centerlines coincide with the modular axis. In the fig (b), a grid is shown for load
bearing walls with hollow ducts in between. The centre line of the grid is found by deducting the size
of duct.
En
Systems of prefabrication:
gi nee
rin
g.n
e t

System is referred to a particular method of construction of buildings using the prefabricated

components which are inter related in functions and are produced to a set of instructions. With certain
constraints, several plans are possible; using the same set of components, the degree of flexibility varies
from system to system. However in all the systems there is a certain order and discipline. The system of

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Download From: [Link] PART – B

1. Explain the behavior of large panel construction with suitable sketches. (Nov/Dec
2013,2017,2019,Apr/may-2019,2017,2016,2018)
Large panel structure
All the main part of a building, including exterior wall and interior wall, floor slab, roofs, and
staircase, may be made up from large panel structure are used in two main design schemes, frame-
panel and panel building. In frame-panel building, all the base loads are borne by the building’s frame,
and as enclosure element. Frameless buildings are assembled from panels that perform the load
bearing and enclosing functions simultaneously.
 Large panel structure for Exterior wall
 Large panel structure for Interior wall.

ww 

Large panel structure for floor slab
Large panel structure for Roof element.

 w.E
a) Large panel structure for Exterior wall;
Large panel structure for exterior walls consist of panel one or two stories in height and one or

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two rooms in width. The panel may be blind (without openings) or with window or door
openings.

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In terms of design, the wall panels may be single layer (solid) and multilayer(sand witch) Solid
panels are manufactured from materials that have insulating properties and at the same time

hollow ceramic stone.

gi
can perform supporting functions for example, light weight concrete, cellular concrete, and

nee


rin
Sandwich wall panels are made with two or three layers: their thickness depends on the climate
conditions of the regions and the physicotechnical properties of the materials used for the


insulating layer and for the exterior layer.
g.n
The surface of exterior wall panels is covered with decorative mortar or is faced with ceramic or


other finishing tiles.
e t
After assembly, the joints between panel are filled with mortar or with lightweight or ordinary
concrete and then sealed with packing and special mastics.
b) Large panel structure for Interior walls:
 The large panel structure of interior walls may be non load bearing or load bearing.
 In the first case, they are made from gypsum slag concrete or from other materials that act as
enclosures. In the case of load bearing structure, the wall panels, which combine enclosing and
load bearing function, are made from heavy or lightweight, silicate or cellular concrete, or
vibration set brick or ceramic work.
 The dimensions of the panels are determined by the dimensions of the rooms (in apartment
houses), their height is equal to the height of a story, the width is equal to the depth or width of

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Download From: [Link]
a room, and the thickness of the walls between rooms is usually 10-14 cm(between apartment
14-18 cm)
c) Large panel structure for floor slab:
 The large panel structure of floor slabs are usually made from reinforced concrete, the area of
the floor slabs in apartment buildings usually equals the area of one room and be as great as
30 sq.m.
 Flagging panels have an area of 5-8 sq m. The large panel floor slabs of housing public, and
administrative building are of both the solid and sandwich types in the latter, provision is made
for a sound insulation layer to reduce air and impact notice.
 Composite floor panels, consisting of a load bearing reinforced concrete panel combined with a
floor or ceiling panel and soundproofing, insulating, and other layer, are often used in housing
construction.

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d) Large panel structure for Roof Element:



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The large panel roof elements are used in housing and public buildings mainly in the form of
combined articles roofs, and in industrial buildings the roof panels have a span of up to 12 m.
The weight of large panel structure depends on the method of dividing the building into

asy
prefabricated element; it is usually 1.5-7.5 tons.


En
Large panel structure of a high rise apartment building consist of (1) foundation slab,(2) exterior
wall panel,(3) interior wall panel, (4) floor slab,(5) deck ,(6) exterior panel in the process of


installation
gi nee
At the joints, the panels have to which steel connecting pieces are welded, thus linking together
all the panels and providing general stability of the building.

rin
Large panel structures are used in the construction of high rise building.

g.n
2. Explain the behavior of roof and floor slabs construction with suitable sketches.
(Nov/Dec 2012 & 2013,2017,2018,2016)
Behavior of roof and floor slabs:


The roofing / flooring system consist of RC planks and joists.
e
The planks are casted to a standard size and they are connected with RCC joists which are
t
provided at a regular interval.
 The loads from planks are transmitted to RCC joists and then to main beams.
 The main beams are provided with channel sections 10cm projections on the necessary side
with the spacing of joist.
 The joists are seated in the channel and bolted together.
 The loads from slabs to the main beam will come as point loads.
 The roofing / flooring slabs system consists of planks which are supported over RCC joist.

Download From: [Link]

Download From:[Link]
The planks can be made in any one of the following form with or without prestressing. According
to the span and loads.
 The usual width of these of slabs is 0.5m and spanning to the requirement upto a maximum limit
of 5m without prestressing.
 The thicknesses of planks are casted in two steps with different mould to access monolithic
action with adjacent slab by putting necessary reinforcement and concreting.
3. Explain the methods of construction of roof and floor slab. Also explain the precautions taken
during the manufacturing process.(May/June 2015,2018,Nov/dec-2016)
In Floor and Roof:
 Structural floor / roof account for substantial cost of a building in normal situation. Therefore, any
saving achieved in floor/roof considerably reduce the cost of building.


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Use of standardized and optimized roofing components where shuttering is avoided prove to be
economical, fast and better in quality.


w.E
Some of the prefabricated roofing/flooring components found suitable in many low-cost housing
projects are
 Precast RC planks


asy
Prefabricated brick panels.


En
Precast RB curved panels.
Precast RC channel roofing.



L panel roofing.
Trapezon panel roofinggi
Unreinforced pyramidal brick roof. nee
 Precast concrete panels.
rin
Precast RC planks:
 g.n
This system consists of precast RC planks supporting over partially precast joist. RC planks are



made with thickness party varying between 3 cm and 6 cm.
There are haunches in the planks which are tapered. e t
When the plank is put in between the joists, the space above 3 cm thickness is filled with in-situ
concrete to get tee-beam effect of the joists.
 The planks are made in module width of 30 cm with maximum length of 150 cm and the
maximum weight of the dry panel is 50 kg.
 Precast joists are rectangular in shape, 15 cm wide and the precast portion is 15cm deep.
 The main reinforcement of the overhang provided at the top in the in-situ concrete attains
sufficient strength.
 The savings achieved in practical implementations compared with conventional RCC slab about
25%.

Download From: [Link]

DownloadPrefabricated
From: [Link]
brick panel:
 The prefabricated brick panel roofing system consist of is made of first class brick reinforced
with two MS bars of 6mm dia and joists filled with either 1:3 cement mortar or M15 concrete.
 A panel of 90cm length requires 16 bricks and a panel of 120cm requires 19 bricks.
 Partially precast joist it is a rectangular shaped joist 13cm wide and 10cm to 12.5cm deep.
 The overall depth of joist with in-situ concrete becomes 21cm to 23.5cm, it is designed as
composite tee-beam with 3.5cm thick flange.
 The partially precast RC joist, is designed as simply supporting tee-beam with 3,5cm thick
flange.
Precast curved brick arch panel:
 This roofing is same as RB panel roofing except that the panels do not have any reinforcement.


ww 
A panel while casting is given a rise in the centre and thus an arching action is created.
An overall economy of 30% has been achieved in single storeyed building and 20% in two or

w.E
three storeyed building.
Precast RC channel roofing:


asy
Precast panel channels are trough shaped with the outer side corrugated and grooved at the
ends to provide shear key action and to transfer moments between adjacent units.

 En
The lengths of the units are adjusted to suit the span.
The flange thickness is 30mm to 35mm.

gi
A savings of 14% has been achieved in actual implementation in various projects.
Precast hollow slabs roofing:
nee


rin
Precast hollow slabs are panels in which voids are created by earthen kulars, without
decreasing the stiffness or strength.

g.n
These hollow slabs are lighter than solid slabs and thus save the cost of concrete, steel and
the cost of walling and foundation too due to less weight.


e
The width of the panel is 300mm and depth may vary from 100mm to 150mm as per the span.
The outer sides are corrugated to provide transfer of shear between adjacent units. t
L - Panel roofing:
 The precast full span RC panel is of section L.
 The L panels are supporting on parallel gable walls and are used for shaped roof of a building.
 L panel roofing is quite lighter in weight, economic in construction.
 It is panel sound performance and durability.
Trapezon panel roofing:
 Typical precast RC trapezon panel has trapezium section in orthogonal directions.
 The components are sound and can be manually handled with ease.

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Download From: [Link]

six storeys and is of relatively higher priority than for buildings of lower height.
It is necessary to ensure that any local damage to a structure does not spread to other parts of the
structure remote from the point of mishap and that the overall stability is not impaired, but it may not
be necessary to stiffen all parts of the structure against local damage or collapse in the immediate
vicinity of a mishap, unless the design briefs specifically requires this to be done.
Additional protection may be required in respect of damage from vehicles; further, it is necessary to
consider the effect of damage to or displacement of a load-bearing member by an uncontrolled
vehicle. It is strongly recommended that important structural members are adequately protected by
concrete kerbs or similar method.
In all aspects of erection that affect structural design, it is essential that the designer should maintain a

ww
close liaison with the builder/contractor regarding the erection procedures to be followed.
Failures that have occurred during construction appear to be of two types. The first of these is the

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pack of- cards type of collapse in which the absence of restraining elements, such as partitions,
cladding or shear walls, means that the structure is not stable during the construction period. The

asy
second is the situation in which one element falls during erection and lands on an element below. The
connections of the lower element then give way under the loading, both static and dynamic, and a
chain reaction of further collapse is set up.
En
gi
A precaution against the first form of failure is that the overall stability of a building shall be considered

nee
in all its erection stages as well as in its completed state. All joints that may be required to resist
moments and shears during the erection stage only, shall be designed with these in mind. Temporary

rin
works required to provide stability during construction shall be designed carefully.

g.n
[Link] the problem in design because of joint flexibility. Discuss with regard to various
location. (Nov/dec-2016,2019,2013,Apr/may-2016,2015)
FLEXIBILITY JOINT e t
Joint that holds two parts together so that one can swing relative to the other

In precast concrete construction the joint between the element are of very important.
o Dry joint
o Wet joint
The wet joints are by using mortar or in-situ concrete where as the dry joint is done by welding or
bolting. The following consideration shall be taken into account
Structural requirements: The connection must with all requirements regarding the transmission of
forces, moment and permissible deformation or rotation.
Tolerances: The measure to which deviates must be taken up in the joint. It is called joint flexibility.
Aesthetical requirements : The joints remains completely or in part exposed.
Download
Mode of Erection: With regard to available erection equipment fastest From: [Link]
possible erection, and avoidance
Download From: [Link]

or minimizing ob bracing, support, etc

Necessity of checking and adjusting : The joint must be checked whether it is proper dimensioned or
not . Therefore the adjustment may be possible.
Design of joint:
While designing of joints following points are considered:
It must be based on relevant standard specific codes of practice or recommendation must be relevant
 Loading under working condition
 Stability of structures
 Loading condition during construction

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 Effect of shrinkage, creep and temperature
 Unequal settlement

w.E
Loading under working condition
The entire structure as well as each unit own must be designed to resist all loads, forces and moments

asy
acting there on when the structure is in the use.

En
Stability of structures
The overall stability of the structure must be need during each phase of construction.

Loading condition during construction

gi nee
Loading condition during construction my causes higher stresses than those through normal usage.
Temperature loads are erected due to erection , material and temperature supports.

Effect of shrinkage, creep and temperature rin

g.n
The fixed end beam connection the stresses and moments due to shrinkage , creep and

whole. e
temperature drop of the beam must be considered or the connection proper and for the structure as a

t
Unequal settlement
In case of fixed end joint the possibility of settlement at the supports should be investigated.
Reinforcement anchorages:

In general the connection will require additional reinforcement bars and anchorage which must be so
designed that a sound fill and proper compaction of the concrete can be realized.

Threaded and non threaded reinforcement inside :

All insert whether Threaded and non threaded reinforcement including those for the securing of
piping and of erection aids must be calculated to meet the forces acting there on and must be
indicated on the drawing with the relevant measurement.

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Download From: [Link]

Chamfers:

Square edges of all precast elements are liable to sapling or chipping and also causes accident.

Bond:

The bond surface which should transmit vertical shear must either be roughed or ribbed.

Bolted connection:
When using bolted connection , tolerance can be increased by either providing one of the
plates of each pair with a slot or by drilling the bolt hole.

ww
6. Discuss the necessity of disuniting of prefabricated structures and the precaution
taken during disuniting of prefabricated structures?(Nov/dec-2017)

w.E
Necessity of disuniting of prefabricated structures
 Easy erection process

asy
 Heavy tones capacity cranes are not necessary hence standard cranes are
enough to hoisting of prefabricated element.

En
 Easy transportation because of long span girder is splitted into smaller members.

 Easy handling
gi
 Scaffolding work is not necessary.

nee
 The design process are very simple.
 Easy and very simple molding at the plants.
rin
 In the production process standard system only needed
 Simple hoisting machines only required
g.n
 Hoisting process is very simple.
 Rapid hoisting work
e t
 Simple technique are followed
Precaution taken during disuniting of prefabricated structures
All material stored in tires shall be stacked , racked, blocked, interlocked or otherwise
secured safely to prevent sliding , falling or collapse and in an orderly manner to avoid
obstruction of any passage way at the place of work.
Maximum safe load limits of floor within building and structures in kg/cm2 shall be
conspicuously posted in all storage areas except for floor or slab on gradient.
Ailes and passage ways shall be kept clear to provide for the free and safe movement of
material handling equipment or per-sons. such areas shall be kept in good repair.
When a difference in road or working levels exist means such a ramp blocking or
grading shall be used to ensure the safe movement of vehicles
Download From: (cranes) between two
[Link]
Download From: [Link]

former after the casting of the gaps and hardening of the mortar, the short inserted cables and
stressed and so rigid joint is established.

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w.E
JOINING OF PRECAST TO MONOLITHIC REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES:

asy
It frequently occurs that a monolithic beam has to be joined to a precast column. In this
case

En
the function can be established in the same way as already been described in the
previous paragraph an joining namely by placing the end of the beam either on to a cantilever

gi
protruding from the column or into an opening formed into the columns shaft.

nee
When making the joint, first of all a 2.5 cm deep cavity is chiselled out of the siole of the

rin
precast column. The bottom of this cavity should be roughened so as to attain a belter band
between the concrete of the monolithic beam and the precast column.
6. EXPLAIN ABOUT EXPANSION JOINT.(Apr/may-2015,2016, Nov/dec-2017)
g.n
e
An Expansion joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb the heat -induced
expansion and contraction of various construction material to absorb vibration or to allow
movement due to ground settlement or earthquakes they are commonly found between sections
t
of sidewalks, bridges, railway tracks, piping systems, and other structures.

EXPANSION JOINT DESIGN

A design specification shall be prepared for each expansion joint application. Prior to writing the
expansion joint design specification it is imperative that the system designer complicity review the
structural system layout and other items which may affect the performance of a expansion joint
particular attention shall be given to the following items the system should be reviewed to
determined the local and type of expansion joint which is most suitable for the application. The
availability of supporting structures of anchoring and guiding of the system and the direction and

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Download From: [Link]

magnitude of thermal moments to be absorbed must be consider when selecting the type and
location of the expansion joint.

CONVENTIONAL RUBBER EXPANSION JOINT

Expansion joints are designed to provide stress relief in piping system that are loaded by thermal
movements and mechanical vibration. To deal with the various forces on the joint they require
fiber reinforcement which guarantees both flexibility and strength. conventional expansion joints
are reinforced using prefabricated fiber pipes, the use of these fiber pipes makes it impossible to
control the orientation of the fiber on complex shape such as the below of the expansion joint. In
both case the inability to use the fiber in the optimal way leads to the following disadvantages.

ww
High material cost

w.E
More fiber needed then necessary
• More rubber needed then necessary

asy
(b) Additional parts such as material reinforcement rings necessary with multiple bellows
Lower Performance High rubber wall thickness and fiber pack make product less

En
flexible Undesired radial and axial expansion under pressure.

gi
Expansion joint must be sized to accommodate the movements of several primary

nee
phenomena imposed upon the bridge following installation of its expansion joint devices.
Concrete shrinkage , thermal variation , and long term creep are the three most common primary
sources of movement.
rin
g.n
Calculation of movements associated with each of these phenomena must include the effects

and pear flexibilities.

a) Shrinkage effects
e
to super structure type, tributary length , fixity condition between super structure, sub structure

t
Accurate calculation of shrinkage as a function of time requires that average ambient
humidity, volume to surface ratios and curing methods to be taken in consideration as
summarized, because expansion joint devices are generally installed in their respective block at
least 30 to 60 days following concrete deck placement, they must accommodate only the
shrinkage that occurs from that time onwards. For most situations, that shrinkage strain can be
assumed to be [Link] normal weight concrete is an unrestrained condition .This value must
be corrected for restrained condition imposed by various super structure types
∆shrink = β .µ .Lt
Where

Download From: [Link]

Download From: [Link]

Lt =Tributary length of the structure subjected to shrinkage

β = ultimate shrinkage strain after expansion joint installation estimated as 0.0002 of
more refined calculations
µ = restrained factor accounting for the restraining effect imposed by superstructure
element installed before the concrete slab is cast =0.1 for steel girders ,0.5 for precast
prestressed concrete girders ,0.8 for concrete box girders and T beam ,1.0 for flat slabs.

b) Thermal effects:
Bridges are subjected to all modes of heat transfer, radiation, convection and conduction.
Each mode affects the thermal gradients generated in a bridge superstructure differentially.

ww
Climate influences vary geographically resulting in different seasonal and average properties.
Example:

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A massive concrete box girder bridge will be much slower to respond to an imposed
thermal situation, particularly diurnal variation than steel plate Girder Bridge composed of many

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relatively thin steel elements.
Variation in superstructure average temperature produces elongation and shortening

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.Therefore thermal movement ranges calculated using a maximum and minimum anticipated

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bridge. Super structure average temperature anticipated during the structures life time. The

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consideration in the proceeding have led to the following temperature guide lines

Concrete bridges
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00 F to 1000 F
300 F to 1200 F Total thermal

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Steel bridges

movement range is calculated as

∆temp = α. Lt. . ∂ T
Where
Lt =Tributary length of the structure subjected to thermal variation
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α= Co-efficient of thermal expansion 0.000006 in /0 F for concrete and 0.0000065 in /0 F
∂ T= Bridge superstructure average temperature ranges as a function on bridge type and location
Generally these settings are specified for temperature of 400 F , 640 F and 800 F

[Link] the types of structural joints and also the requirements of joints?

(Apr/may-2019,2017,Nov/dec2013)

Types of Joints in Concrete Constructions

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Download From: [Link]
PART-B

1. Define abnormal loads. Explain the causes of progressive collapse? (April/May

2011, 2015, Nov/dec-2017)
ABNORMAL LOADS:

Loads other than conventional design loads (dead, live, Wind, seismic, etc.) for
structures such as air blast pressures generated by an explosion or impact by vehicles, etc.

1. Accidental impact

2. Faulty construction

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3. Foundation Failure

4.
[Link] changes in Air pressure.

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(1) ACCIDENTAL IMPACT:

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Several cases of progressive collapse have been caused by accidental impact. An

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example of this form of abnormal loading is an automobile striking a key member in a structure
(i.e. buildings, bridge etc)
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(ii) FAULTY CONSTRUCTION:
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There have been several instances throughout history where poor construction practices have
lead to progressive collapse.
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A notable example of this was the skyline plaza apartment in Fairfax County,Virginia. t
This failure was attributed to premature removal of supporting forms.

This lead to localized failure, followed by a progressive collapse of the northwest corner of the
building.

(iii) FOUNDATION FAILURE:

Failure of a small portion of a structures foundation can result in a loss of primary support.

This failure could be the result of problems with erosion, geology, catering due to explosion
etc.,

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If the remainder of the structure is unable to redistribute this change in load caused by the loss
in support, extensive damage to the structure could be much greater.

(iv) VIOLENT CHANGES IN AIR PRESSURE:

An extreme change in air pressure can stem from any sources such as explosions caused
by gas, high explosives etc.,

Progressive collapse avoidance has several advantages:

Provides a solid exterior surface to meet blast resiliency requirements

Delivers the inherent strength of concrete tilt-up panels for overall durability

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Minimizes cost to fix a damaged area compared to a steel framed building

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Eliminates perimeter stell leading to greater interior space planning flexibility. 2.

[Link] the codal provisions for Progressive collapse. (Nov/Dec

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2013,2016,2019) (May/June 2012,2015,2018)

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The following are the coda! provisions for progressive collapse

1. ASCE 7-02
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2. AC[ 318-02
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3. GSA PBS facilities standards 2000
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4.. GSA PBS facilities standards 2003
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5. GSA PBS progressive collapse guidelines 2003.

1. ASCE 7 -02:

The American society of civil engineers, minimum design loads for buildings and
other structure (ASCE,2002) has a section on "general structure integrity" that reads
thus: Building and other structures Shall be designed to sustain local damage with
the structural system as a whole remaining stable and not being
damaged to an extent disproportionate to the original local damage. This shall be achieved
through an arrangement of the structural elements that provides stability to the entire
2
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6. Explain the procedure for calculating equivalent design loads when the structure is
subjected to earthquake loading. (May/June2013,2017,2018,2019,Nov/dec-
2016,2017)

The seismic loads on the structure during an earthquake result from inertia forces which
were created by ground accelerations. The magnitude of these loads is a function of the
following factors: mass of the building, the dynamic properties of the building, the intensity,
duration, and frequency content of the ground motion, and soil-structure interaction.

In recent years, a lot of achievements have been made to incorporate these influential

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factors into building codes accurately as well as practically. The basis for IBC 2000 seismic
provisions is the 1997 NEHRP "Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic

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Regulations for New Buildings and Other Structures" (FEMA 302).

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The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) is managed by the Federal
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Emergency Management Agency (FEMA),In IBC 2000, the seismic loads are on a strength level

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limit state rather than on a service load level, which was used in UBC 94 and prior versions. The

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seismic limit state is based upon system performance, not member performance, and
considerable energy dissipation through repeated cycles of inelastic straining is assumed.

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Criteria Selection
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In IBC 2000, the following basic information is required to determine the seismic
loads:
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I. Seismic Use Group According to the nature of Building Occupancy, each structure is
assigned a Seismic Use Group (I, II, or III) and a corresponding Occupancy Importance (1)
factor (1 E 1.0, 1.25, or 1.5).Seismic Use Group I structures are those not assigned to either
Seismic Use Group H or III. Seismic Use Group 11 are structures whose- failure would
result- in a substantial public hazard due to occupancy or use. Seismic Use Group III is assigned
to structures for which failure would result in loss of essential facilities required liar post-
earthquake recovery and those containing substantial quantities of hazardous substances.

2. Site Class eased on the soil properties, the site of building is classified as A, B, C, D, E
and F to reflect the soil-structure interaction. Refer to 113C 2000. for Site Class
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definition.
3. Spectral Response Accelerations SS and S1 The spectral response seismic design
maps reflect seismic hazards on the basis of contours. They provide the maximum considered
earthquake spectral response acceleration at short period SS and at 1-second period Sl. They
are for Site Class B, with 5% of critical damping. Refer to the maps in IBC 2000.

4. Basic Seismic-Force-Resisting System Different types of structural system have different

energy-absorbing characteristics. The response modification coefficient R in Table 5.9 is
used to account for these characteristics. Systems with higher ductility have higher R
values.

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With the above basic parameters available, the following design and analysis criteria can be
determined. Seismic Design Category. The Seismic Design Category is based on the
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seismic group and the design spectral response acceleration coefficients, SDS and SDI, which

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will be explained later.
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The Seismic Design Category for a structure can be determined in accordance} Seismic
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Design Categories are used to determine the permissible structural systems, the limitations on

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height and irregularity of the structural components that must be designed for seismic resistance
and the types of lateral force analysis that must be performed.
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Seismic Use Groups I and II structures located on sites with mapped maximum considered

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earthquake spectral response acceleration at 3.-second period SI, equal to or greater than
0.75g, shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category E. Seismic Use Group IIl structures t
located on such sites shall be assigned to Seismic Design Category F. A structure assigned
to Seismic Design Category E or F shall not be sited where there is the potential for an active
Fault to cause rupture of the ground surface at the structure. Building Irregularity. Building
with irregular shapes, changes in mass from floor to floor, variable stiffness with
height, and unusual setbacks do not perform well during earthquakes.

Thus, for each type of these irregularities, additional design requirements shall be
followed to maintain seismic-resisting capacity. IIIC 2000 requires that all buildings be
classified as regular or irregular based on the plan and vertical configuration.

Structures assigned to Seismic Design Category A need only comply with the following:
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