Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

MODULE - 2
Syllabus : [Link] : Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form
factor, peak factor. (only definitions) Voltage and current relationship with phasor
diagrams in R, L, and C circuits. Concept of Impedance. Analysis of R-L, R-C,
R-L-C Series circuits. Active power, reactive power and apparent power. Concept of
power factor. (Simple Numerical)

Three Phase Circuits : Generation of Three phase AC quantity, advantages and

limitations; star and delta connection, relationship between line and phase quantities
(excluding proof)

I. A.C. FUNDAMENTALS :
Generation of sinusoidal voltage : Generation of voltage is based on the principle of
dynamically induced emf ( relative motion between the flux and the conductor induces emf ).
The coil is placed on the loop ABCD which rotates in the magnetic field.

Interactio Emf generated

Position of coil n between Plot
coil & flux e = Em sin θ

[θ - Angle of
inclination
Coil side b/w flux
AB or CD lines & axis
of coil]
y.S
doesn't cut
the flux θ = 0o
ja

e=0
an
.S

Coil side
AB cuts
of

θ = 90o
maximum e = Em
Pr

flux
by
e d
ar

Coil side
ep

AB or CD
Pr

doesn't cut
θ = 180o
the flux e=0

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

Coil side
CD cuts
θ = 270o
maximum e = - Em
flux

θ = 360o
Coil side e=0
AB or CD
doesn't cut
the flux

Observation :
Consider fig.(b) , direction of emf generated is given by Flemings right hand rule - direction of
induced emf is ABMLCDA .( towards the observer )
y.S
Consider fig.(d) , direction of emf generated is given by Flemings right hand rule - direction of
induced emf is CDABLMC .( away from the observer )
ja
an

Thus the current obtained reverses its direction every half revolution of the coil . Such current
.S

undergoing periodic reversal is called alternating current .

of
Pr
by
e d
ar
ep
Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

Basic definitions :

(i) Cycle :-

“ One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is known as cycle.”
One cycle is said to be complete only when it is 3600 or 2π radians.

(ii) Time Period :-

“ The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its time Period
(T).”
1
Ex: 50Hz wave takes 50
= 20 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐.
y.S
(iii) Frequency :-
ja

“ The number of cycles per second of an alternating quantity is called frequency.”

an

It is the reciprocal of Time Period (T). Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).

.S
of

(iv) Amplitude :-
Pr

“ The maximum value, positive or negative of an alternating quantity is known as

by

amplitude. ”
e d

(v) Instantaneous value:-

ar
ep

“ The value of alternating quantity at any instant is known as instantaneous value.”

Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

(vi) Effective value or r.m.s. value :-

“ The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is equal to that steady current (d.c.), which
produces the same amount of heat as produced by a.c., when passed through the same
resistance for same time. ”

Root of mean of square of instantaneous value over one complete cycle is,

𝐼𝑚
Irms =
2

(vii) Average Value :-

The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating voltage and currents over one
complete cycle is called Average Value

2 𝐼𝑚
Iav = π
= 0.636 Im

(viii) Form Factor:-

Form factor is defined as, “the ratio of r.m.s. value to average value.”

𝑟.𝑚.𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.707 𝐼𝑚

Kf = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 0.636 𝐼𝑚
= 1.11

(ix) Peak Factor:-

y.S

Peak factor is defined as, “the ratio of maximum value to r.m.s value.”
ja
an

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑚
Ka = 𝑟.𝑚.𝑠. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 0.707 𝐼𝑚
= 1.414
.S

Phasor representation of alternating quantities :

of

Phase :
Pr

Fraction of time period (T) of an alternating current which has elapsed since the current last
by

passed through zero. Phase represented in terms of angle is called as phase angle.
e d
ar
ep
Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

In phase : Two waveforms reaching their maximum & zero values at same time are said to be
in-phase.

Phase difference :

y.S
ja
an
.S

Phasor Diagram :
of

It is the graphical representation of the phasors of sinusoidal quantities at the same frequency
with proper phase relationship. R.m.s values are used in phasors.
Pr

AC circuits :
by

1. Pure resistor circuit [ R ] : -

e d
ar
ep
Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

Let v = Vm sinωt
𝑣 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡
i= 𝑅
= 𝑅
= Im sinωt

P = vi = ( Vm sinωt ) ( Im sinωt ) = Vm Im sin2ωt = Vm Im (1-cos2ωt) / 2

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= 2
- 2
cos2ωt Average value of the 2nd part is zero.

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Pavg. = 2
= =VI
2 2

2. Pure Inductor Circuit [ L ] :-

𝑑𝑖
v=L 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
→ vm sinωt = L
y.S
𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝑚
→ sinωt dt = di
ja

𝐿
an

𝑉𝑚
→∫ sinωt dt = ∫ 𝑑𝑖
.S

𝐿
of

𝑉𝑚 −𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡
[ ] = i
Pr

𝐿 ω

𝑉𝑚
by

ω𝐿
[− 𝑐𝑜𝑠ω𝑡 ] = i
d

𝑉𝑚 π
i= sin [ω𝑡 − ]
e

ω𝐿 2
ar

π
Maximum current im is obtained when sin [ ω𝑡 − ]=1
ep

2
Pr

𝑉𝑚
Im = 𝑋𝐿

π
i = Im sin [ω𝑡 − 2
]

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
v = vm sinωt
The above two expressions show that current lags the voltage by 90°.

Power
π
P = vi = vm sinωt im sin [ω𝑡 − 2
]

π
P = vm im sinωt sin [ω𝑡 − 2
]

P = − vm Im sinωt cosωt
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P = − 2
sin2ωt

Power of whole cycle is ,

2π
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= − 2
∫ sin2ωt dt
0

1
P=− 2
Vm Im [ [- cos2ωt]/2 ] l 2π0

1
P= 4
Vm Im [cos4π - cos0]

P=0
y.S
3. Pure Capacitive Circuit [ C ]:-
ja
an
.S
of
Pr
by

q=cv
d

q = c vm sinωt
e
ar

𝑑𝑞
i=
ep

𝑑𝑡

i = C x [ d/dt (vm sinωt) ]

Pr

i = C ω vm cosωt

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
𝑉𝑚
i= 1 cosωt
ω𝐶

𝑉𝑚 π
i= 1 sin [ ω𝑡 + 2
]
ω𝐶

π
Maximum current im is obtained when sin [ ω𝑡 + 2 ] = 1

𝑉𝑚 π
Im = 𝑋𝑐
or i = Im sin [ ω𝑡 + 2
]

𝑉𝑚 π
i= 𝑋𝑐
sin [ ω𝑡 + 2
]

v = Vm sinωt

From above expressions , current leads applied voltage by 90°

Power
π
P = vi = Vm sinωt Im sin [ ω𝑡 + 2
]

P = Vm Im sinωt cosωt
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= 2
sin2ωt

Power over whole cycle is,

y.S

2π
ja

1
P= 2
V m Im ∫ sin2ωt dt
an

0
.S

1
P= 2
Vm Im [ [-cos2ωt]/2 ] l 2π0
of

−1
P= Vm Im [cos4π - cos0]
Pr

P=0
by
e d
ar
ep
Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C Series circuits :

1. Series R-L Circuit :-

Impedance Triangle

Triangle OAB of phasor diagram with each side divided by ‘I’ gives us the impedance triangle .

2 2
Z= 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 R + j XL

𝑉
I= 𝑍

𝑋𝐿
tan Ø = 𝑅

𝑋𝐿
Ø = tan-1 𝑅

Instantaneous power :
y.S
Let, v = vm sinωt
ja

current lags voltage

an

I = Im sin (ωt - Ø)
.S

P = vi = Vm sinωt Im sin(ωt - Ø)
of

P = Vm Im sinωt sin (ωt - Ø)

Pr

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (ω𝑡 – ω𝑡 + Ø)− 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2ω𝑡− Ø)

P= [ 2
]
by

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= 2
cosØ − 2
cos (2ωt - Ø)
e d

Average value of second term is zero

ar
ep

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= cosØ
2 2
Pr

P = V I cosØ

Power Triangle :

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
C

S(KVA) I2XL
Q (KVAr)
I Z or VI
2
Reactive Power

A Ø B
P (KW)
Real Power

* Multiply impedance ∆le ABC by I2 to obtain power triangle.

⮚ P = I2R = V I CosØ
⮚ Q = I2XL = V I SinØ

⮚ S=
2 2
𝑃 +𝑄

2 2 2 2
S= 𝑉 𝐼 (𝐶𝑜𝑠 Ø + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 Ø)

S=VI
𝑃 𝑅
cosØ = 𝑆
= 𝑍

2. Series R-C Circuit :-

y.S
ja
an
.S
of
Pr

Impedance Triangle
by

v = vm sinωt
‘I’ is taken as reference
e d
ar

2 2
Z= 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶 = R − j XC
ep

𝑉
Pr

I= 𝑍

𝑋𝐶
tan Ø = 𝑅

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
𝑋𝐶
Ø = tan-1 𝑅

Instantaneous Power:

Let, v = vm sinωt
P = vi = vm sinωt Im sin (ω𝑡 + Ø)

P = Vm Im sinωt sin (ω𝑡 + Ø)

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= 2
[ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (– Ø) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2ω𝑡 + Ø)]

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2ω𝑡+Ø)
P= 2
− 2

Average value of second term is zero

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= cosØ
2 2

P = V I cosØ

3. Series R – L – C circuit :-

y.S
ja

Impedance, Z = R + jXL – jXC

an

Z = R + j(XL – XC)
.S

2 2
|Z| = 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)
of
Pr

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
θ = tan-1 𝑅
by

Voltage, V = V R + VL + VC
V = IR + I jXL + I(– jXC)
d

V = I (R + jXL – jXC)
e
ar
ep

V=IZ
Pr

At resonance, XL = XC
Z=R

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

V=IR=IZ

Current ‘I’ lags or leads voltage ‘V’ cannot be predicted & depends on relative values of
XL & XC.

Case – 1: When XL > XC Case – 2: When XL < XC

inductive circuit capacitive circuit

Case – 3: When XL = XC

Resonance condition, purely resistive circuit.

y.S
ja
an
.S
of

Active power :
Pr

The power averaged over a cycle of an ac waveform that results in net transfer of electrical
by

energy in one direction is called active power. It is expressed in Watts (W) . It is also called real
power. It is the power consumed by a resistive load (energy dissipating element).
e d
ar

Reactive power :
ep

The portion of instantaneous power that results in no net transfer of energy to the load but
Pr

instead oscillates between the source and load in each cycle due to stored energy, is known as
reactive power. Power consumed by inductive or capacitive load .It is expressed in Volt Ampere
Reactive (VAr). It is also called wattless power.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B

Apparent power :
It is the product of the r.m.s. voltage and current. The apparent power is a useful means of rating
certain equipment. It is expressed in Volt Amperes (VA).

Power Factor :
The ratio of active power to apparent power in a circuit is called the power factor. Ideal power
factor is 1.
pf = P/S = P / (P+Q)

Importance of power factor :

The system with the lower power factor will have higher circulating currents due to energy that
returns to the source from energy storage in the load. These higher currents produce higher losses
and reduce overall transmission [Link] the waveforms are purely sinusoidal, the
power factor is the cosine of the phase angle between the current and voltage [Link]
power can be transferred from a system with higher power factor.

y.S
ja
an
.S
of
Pr
by
e d
ar
ep
Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
II. THREE PHASE CIRCUITS :
Advantages of three-phase systems :

1. Three phase transmission lines require much less conductor material. The return conductor
is replaced by single neutral conductor of small size.
2. Three phase machine gives higher output than a single phase machine.
3. Three phase motor develops uniform torque whereas single phase motor develops pulsating
torque.
4. Three phase can generate rotating magnetic field & hence three phase induction motors are
self starting.
5. Three phase system can be used to supply domestic & industrial power.
6. Voltage regulation is better in three phase system compared to single phase supply.
7. Three phase system is more efficient & less expensive compared to single phase system.

Generation of three phase power :

Three phase power is generated using alternator. Alternator contains stator (stationary part) and
rotor (rotating part). The stator is cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner periphery as
shown in the figure below. The conductors are placed in the slots. They are connected either in
star or delta. Rotor is a magnet with two poles ‘N & S’.
y.S
ja
an
.S
of

Generation of three phase emf :

Pr
by
e d
ar
ep
Pr

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
Stator conductors aa' , bb' and cc' are mutually displaced by 120 . As the rotor rotates , the stator
0

conductor cuts the flux (comes in contact) and hence emf is induced in all 3 conductors.

(comes in contact) and hence emf is induced in all 3 conductors.

Interconnection of three windings :

Star connection :

If one of the ends of all windings are connected at a point and the other end is connected to load ,
it forms a star connection. The common point is called neutral N.

y.S
ja
an
.S

Delta connection :
of

When the 3 windings are connected end to end and tapping is taken at all junctions and
Pr

connected to the load.

by
e d
ar
ep
Pr

Voltage measured between two lines is called line voltage . Voltage measured between a line and
neutral is called the phase voltage

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22BESCK104B / 204B
Relation between line & phase quantities in star connection :

Relation between line & phase quantities in delta connection :

Important Questions :

1. Define the following by referring to a sine wave i) RMS value ii) average value iii) form
factor iv) peak factor v) phase vi) phase difference.

2. Show that the current through a purely capacitive circuit leads the applied voltage by 90º and
average power consumed is zero. Draw the wave shapes of current, voltage and power.

3. With the help of circuit diagram and phasor diagram, find the phase angle, impedance and
power in case of R-L series circuit.
y.S
4. Define power factor and mention its importance.
ja

5. Mention the advantages of three phase system over single phase system
an

6. In three phase star and delta connection , give the relationship between line and phase values
.S

of currents and voltages.

of

7. Explain the generation of three phase ac voltage.

Pr

8. Derive an expression for power in a pure capacitance circuit and draw voltage , current and
by

power waveforms.
e d
ar
ep
Pr

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