LECTURE 1 SEED AND SEED TECHNOLOGY - DEFINITION - IMPORTANCE-

CHARACTERS OF GOOD QUALITY SEED

A Seed is described as a propagative material, miniature plant, dormant plant, link

between two generations, carrier of genetic material etc. Seed quality plays an important role
in ensuring high productivity of agronomic and horticultural crops. Characteristics such as
trueness to variety, germination percentage, purity, vigour and appearance are important to
farmers planting crops and to homeowners establishing lawns and gardens. Achieving and
maintaining high seed quality is the goal of every professional seed producer.

Seed is described as
 A ripened ovule or a fertilized matured ovule containing embryo which has developed
after fertilisation.
 The dry dispersal unit or matured ovule developed after fertilization
 Any part (or) organ of plant which has the capability to regenerate into a new plant
 A propagule responsible for maintaining the intrinsic (or) genetic qualities of the
variety / hybrid.
 An ‘embryo’, a living organism embeded in the supporting (or) the food storage tissue
and a protective coat.
 Any propagative material.
 Miniature plant.
 Dormant plant
 Link between two generations
 Carrier of service material.
 Generative part of a plant that develop into a new plant.

However, the widely accepted definition for a seed is “fertilized mature ovule that
consisting of an embryonic plant together with a store of food, all surrounded by a
protective coat”.

As per Seed Act (1966)

Seed includes
Seed of food crops including edible oil seeds and seeds of fruits & vegetables
Cotton seeds
Seeds of cattle fodder
Jute seeds
Seedlings, tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, cuttings, all types of grafts and other
vegetatively propagated material
Seed and grain – Difference
SEED GRAIN
Seeds are used for the purpose of sowing Grains are used for the purpose of feeding
Seeds are expected to be viable Grains are not expected to be viable
Should satisfy minimum seed certification No such requirements
standards for physical purity, genetic
purity, seed germination percent and seed
moisture content
Seeds may be treated with pesticide or Should never be treated with any chemicals,
fungicide to protect seed against storage since they are used for consumption
pests and fungi
Seeds lots should be labeled and tagged as Grain lots need not be tagged
per The Seeds Act (1966)
Should be certified/ truthfully labelled Need not be

Significance of seed
Seed is a vital input in crop production
 Carrier of new technology
 Basic tool for a secure food supply
 Chief input in crop production and key to agriculture progress
 Crop status largely depends on the seed materials used
 Response of other inputs in crop production depends on seed material used

Seed Technology
Seed technology is an interdisciplinary science, encompassing a broad range of
subjects viz., breeding, agronomy, physiology, pathology, entomology, microbiology and
engineering.
It involves research aspects of seed growth and development, seed physiology, seed
dormancy, germination, techniques on seed enhancement, quality seed production, seed
certification, processing, seed treatment, storage, seed longevity, testing, seed pathology
and entomology, quality control, marketing and distribution.
In brief the goal of seed technology in Agriculture sector is timely supply of quality
seeds for reasonable price to farmers.

Definition of Seed Quality

 The capacity of the seeds is fully exerted only when it possess its own quality in terms
of physical, physiological, genetic and health aspects.
 Seed quality is a relative term and means the degree of excellence when
compared to an acceptable standard.
 The seeds having required standards of purity, germination and other attributes are
referred as quality seeds.
Characteristics of a seed quality
 Genetically pure (Breeder seed -100%, Foundation seed - 99.5%, Certified seed 99%).
 High pure seed percentage (Bhendi - 99 %, Carrot - 95 %, Sesame, Soybean & jute-97 %,
Ground nut-96 %, others-98 %).
 Free from other crop seeds,objectionable weeds & designated diseases
 Good shape, size, colour,etc
 High physical soundness and weight
 High physiological vigour and stamina
 High longevity and shelf life
 Optimum moisture content for storage (Long term – 8 % below, Short term 10-13 %)

Benefits of quality seeds

 They are genetically pure (true to type).
 The good quality seed has high return per unit area as the genetic potentiality of the
crop can be fully exploited.
 Less infestation of land with weed seed/other crop seeds.
 Minimization of seed/seedling rate i.e., fast and uniform emergence of seedling.
 They are vigorous, free from pests and disease.
 They can be adopted themselves for extreme climatic condition and cropping system
of the location.
 The quality seed respond well to the applied fertilizers and nutrients.
 Uniform in plant population and maturity.
 Good seed prolongs life of a variety.
 Yield prediction is very easy.
 Handling in post-harvest operation will be easy.
 Preparations of finished products are also better.
 High produce value and their marketability.
LECTURE 2 SEED DEVELOPMENT AND MATURATION

A true seed is defined as a fertilized mature ovule consisting of embryo, stored food material
and protective coats. The important events involved in seed development and maturation
include
1. Pollination
2. Fertilization
3. Development of the fertilized ovule by
a. cell division
b. accumulation of reserve food material and
c. dehydration.

POLLINATION
Flower is a reproductive organ bearing pistil, stamen and usually sepals and petals.
Male part of a flower is androecium consisting of anther sac, anthers and pollen grains.
Female part is gynoecium consisting of ovary, style and stigma.
The flower is said to be perfect, when they contain both male and female parts. A
flower with both functional male and female is called as bisexual or hermaphrodite.
Sometimes male or female mature slightly at different times. This nature is called
dichogamy which favours cross pollination. If male matures first it is called as protandry, if
female – Protogyny

Structure of a complete flower

Imperfect flowers have either male (staminate flower) or female (pistillate flower)
part. Such flowers are called as unisexual flowers. When both type of flowers occur in
same plant - monoecious, if they occur in different plants - dioceious.
Seeds usually developed from the fertilized flower for which pollination (transfer of
pollen from anthers to stigma) is pre requisite. For successful fertilization viable pollen
and receptive stigma are two pre requisites. The mature anthers dehisce and release
pollen grains (haploid microspores). When pollen grains are transferred from an anther to
the stigma of the same flower the process is called self-pollination or autogamy. If they
are transferred to the stigma of another flower, cross-pollination or allogamy is said to
have occurred.
Self-pollination occurs in those plants where bisexual flowers achieve anther
dehiscence and stigma receptivity simultaneously. The majority of angiosperms bear
chasmogamous i.e., flowers do not open before pollination. In some plants, flowers do not
open at all such flowers is called cleistogamous, and this is the most efficient floral adaptation
for promoting self-pollination.
Cross-pollination is ensured in plants which bear unisexual flowers. In bisexual flowers
also self-pollination may be prevented by self-sterility, dichogamy (maturation of male and
female organs at different times), herkogamy (where the structure of male and female sex
organs proves a barrier to self pollination) and heterostyly (where flowers are of different
types depending on the length of the style and stigma and pollination occurs only between 2
dissimilar types).
The important self-pollinated crops are wheat, rice, barely, mungbean and cowpea
and cross pollinated are maize, rye, forage legumes and vegetables like carrot, cauliflower
and onion. There is yet another category of crops called often cross pollinated crops such
as cotton and pigeon pea where there may be 10-40% cross pollination.

FERTILIZATION
Ovules are developed in the female gametophyte and pollen in the male
gametophyte. Fertilization always takes place in female gametophyte, therefore pollen
must transferred from male to female by pollen vector which may be abiotic including
wind (anemophily) and water (hydrophily) or biotic including insects (entomophily) and
bats (cheiropterophily).

APOMIXIS
Development of seed without fertilization i.e. the seed formation occurs without
sexual fusion, the process is known as Apomixis. This occurs by several mechanism,
however, all apomitic seed have genetic material only from the female plant. Apomixis
may or may not require pollination and pollen tube germination to initiate seed formation,
however sexual union never occurs.

Parthenocarpy: Development of fruit without fertilization

SEED FORMATION: The seed formation takes place by the following steps:
1. Megasporogenesis
2. Megagametogenesis
3. Microsporogenesis
4. Microgametogenesis
5. Fertilization.

Male and female gametophyte development

FEMALE GAMETE: Seeds of Angiosperm originate from meristematic tissue of the

ovary wall called Ovule primordia. Within the nucellus, one cell known as Archesporial
cell (2n) develops a special characteristic that distinguishes it from the adjacent cells. It
develops larger than the surrounding cells, having a large nucleus and denser cytoplasm
called Megaspore mother cell (MMC). MMC undergoes a meiotic division, giving rise
to four megaspores, each containing a haploid chromosome set. Among the four cells one
megaspore survive to give rise to an embryo sac. Whereas other three
aborts. Development of functional megaspore from MMC is called megasporogenesis. The
nucleus within the functional magaspore undergoes three successive divisions to form eight
nuclei. Eight nuclei are arranged as three antipodal cells at the chalazal end, two central
polar nuclei, one egg cell with two synergids at the micropylar end. Development of eight
celled embryo sac from the functional magaspore is called as megagametogenesis.

MALE GAMETE: The microspore mother cell present in anther tissue undergoes a
meiotic division to form 4 haploid functional microspores. This is microsporogenesis. From
microspore the pollen grains are developed. The pollen grain contains two cells. One – tube
cell and generative cell. Generative cell undergoes a division to form two sperm nuclei.
This explains the process of microgametogenesis.

FERTILIZATION
After landing on the stigma, the pollen grain germinates and pollen tube grows
through the style. After traversing the style, the pollen tube enters embryosac of the ovule
through micropyle. The embryosac consists of 8 cells. The end near the micropyle has the
egg apparatus, which consists of egg cell and 2 synergids. There are 2 polar nuclei in the
centre and the chalazal end has 3 antipodal cells.
 In angiosperms, fertilization involves the participation of 2 male nuclei. One fuses
with the egg nucleus to form the diploid zygote and the other with 2 polar nuclei to
produce a triploid nucleus, which is the primary endosperm nucleus. This process is
called double fertilization or triple fusion.

SEED DEVELOPMENT

Embryogenesis
Following fertilization of the egg cell by a sperm cell, the zygote develops inside
the seed. The sequence of development proceeds through histodifferentiation, cell
expansion, maturation and drying.
The stage of histodifferentiation (referred to as embryogenesis) and is characterized
by differentiation of the endosperm and embryo. This process is similar but unique for
monocots, dicots and gymnosperms

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO
Depending upon the number of cotyledons, the angiosperms are classified into
monocots and dicots. There are exceptions that embryo is without cotyledon or more
than two cotyledons polycotyledons.

Monocot embryogenesis
Pro-embryo stage
Monocots have a more complex embryo structure in the mature seed compared to
dicots, but early embryo development is similar to dicots.
The stages of embryogenesis in monocots include the pro-embryo, globular,
scutellar and coleoptilar stages. Following fertilization, the first cell division is asymmetrical
and leads to an apical and basal cell. The apical cell divides more rapidly than the basal cell
and will eventually be the embryo.
LECTURE 4 CLASSES OF SEED- GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION
IN SEED SUPPLY CHAIN - SEED REPLACEMENT RATE AND VARIETAL
REPLACEMENT - SEED MULTIPLICATION RATIO - SEED RENEWAL PERIOD

Seed of only those varieties which are notified under Section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966
shall be eligible for certification.

CLASSES OF SEED
Nucleus Seed (NS)
The initial handful of seed obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety,
for the purpose of purifying and maintaining that variety, by the originating plant breeder and its
further multiplication under his own supervision, or the supervision of a qualified plant breeder
to provide breeder’s seed. It constitutes the basis for all further seed production.

Breeder Seed (BS)

Breeder seed is a seed or vegetative propagating material directly controlled by the
originating or sponsoring plant breeder of the breeding programme or institution and or seed
whose production is personally supervised by a qualified plant breeder and which provides the
source for the initial and recurring increase of foundation seed.

Breeder seed is exempted from certification. However, the breeder seed crop is being
inspected at appropriate stages by a Monitoring Team consisting of Breeder,
representative of NSC and representative of Seed Certification Agency. The breeder seed
lots are affixed with Golden Yellow tags (12 × 6 cm) and consist of the following information.
Crop Label No.
Variety
Class of seed Breeder seed
Lot No. %
Date of test %
*Pure seed %
*Inert matter %
*Germination
**Oil content
Producing Institution
(name and address)
* Based on actual.
** It shall be applicable for sunflower crop only.

Foundation Seed (FS)

It is the progeny of breeder seed, or be produced from foundation seed, which can be
clearly traced to breeder seed. The production is supervised and approved by Certification
Agency and so handled to maintain genetic purity and physical purity and required to conform to
certification standards. Thus, foundation seed (Stage II) can even be produced from foundation seed
(Stage I) Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards (IMSCS) are same for Stage I and II. The
foundation seed lots are affixed with white tags.
Certified Seed (CS)

Certified class seed shall be the progeny of foundation seed and its production shall be so
handled to maintain specific genetic identity and purity according to standards prescribed for the
crop being certified. Certified seed (Stage II) may also be the progeny of certified seed (Stage I).
Such multiplication should be done after getting permission from the Certification Agency. The
certification agency shall give such permission provided the genetic purity will not be significantly
altered. The certified seed lots are affixed with azure blue tags.

GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION

The Generation System of Seed Multiplication is followed to accomplish multiplication of
seeds upto required quantities without causing contamination in the different generations of seed
multiplication so as to prevent serious reduction in yield potential due to genetic deterioration. It
is also important to understand the types of contaminants and the basics of seed deterioration
due to different types of contaminants that may occur in the seed production plots.

GENERATION SYSTEM OF SEED MULTIPLICATION AND QUALITY CONTROL

(NOTIFIED VARIETIES & HYBRIDS)
AGENCY CLASS OF SEED QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEM

Concerned breeder
Or Sponsoring NUCLEUS SEED Maintenance breeding
institution Or Breeder himself (no specified tag)

Concerned breeder
Or Sponsoring BREEDER SEED Breeder seed monitoring team
institution Or (Golden yellow tag) - field inspection to check genetic
Seed Technologist purity & Grow Out Test

State Department of FOUNDATION SEED State Seed Certification Agency

Agriculture, NSC Stage I & II - Field inspection & Seed testing
Cooperative agencies (White tag) Genetic Purity
Central and State Seed Physical purity
Corporations, Private Sectors Seed germination
Moisture
CERTIFIED SEED
(Azure blue tag)

Truthful labelled seed

(Opal Green) FARMER

 At the time of release of a variety, small quantity of seed normally known as nucleus seed is
available with plant breeder. Commercial quantity of seed is produced from the nucleus seeds
after a series of multiplication steps. Starting from maintenance programme in which nucleus seed
is produced by the breeder or sponsored breeder, the seed is multiplied as breeder seed in
the1stgeneration, followed by foundation (2nd generation) and certified seeds (3rd generation). This
process of systematic multiplication of quality seed is called as Generation System of Seed
Multiplication

Difference between Certified and Truthfully labelled seed

S. No. Features Certified seed / Truthful labelled seed

Foundation seed
1. Seed certification Voluntary Compulsory
2. Labelling - Compulsory
3. Applicability Applicable to notified kinds Applicable to both notified
only and released varieties
4. Minimum standards It should satisfy minimum Tested for physical purity
field and seed standards and germination
5. Powers of SCOs and Seed certification officer, Seed inspectors alone can
seed inspectors seed inspectors can take take samples for checking
samples for inspection in selling points
6. Quality guarantee By Certification agency By producer

SEED MULTIPLICATION RATIO

The Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR) refers to “how much quantity of quality seed can be
produced from a unit quantity of seed sown”.

Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR) = Seed Yield (kg) / Seed Rate (kg)

According to expert group of seeds (1989)

Crop Seed Multiplication Crop Seed Multiplication

Ratio Ratio
Wheat 1:20 Lucerne 1:25
Paddy 1:80 (Varieties) Oats 1:15
1:100 (Hybrids) Bhendi 1:100
Maize 1:80 (Varieties) Tomato 1:400
1:100 (Hybrids) Brinjal 1:450
Sorghum 1:100 Chillies 1:240
Bajra 1:200 Watermelon 1:100
Ragi 1:80 Pumpkin 1:160
Gram 1:10 Bittergourd 1:41
Blackgram 1:40 Bottlegourd 1:99
Greengram 1:40 Ridgegourd 1:83
 Cowpea 1:40 Cucumber 1:200
Horsegram 1:40 French bean 1:9
Moth bean 1:40 Clusterbean 1:50
Red gram 1:100 Peas 1:19
Cole crops 1: 433 Onion 1:171
Potato 1:4 Radish 1:100
Groundnut 1:8 Carrot 1:83
Linseed 1:50 Mustard, rape 1:100
Cotton 1:50 Soybean 1:16
Jute 1:100 Sunflower 1:50
Mestha 1:40 Sesame 1:250
Sunhemp 1:30 Safflower, castor 1:60
Berseem 1:10 Lucerne 1:25

In view of these basic factors, the chain of seed multiplication could be selected from the
following three or four or five generation models of seed multiplication. The longer the sequence
of multiplication, greater is the possibility that one or all the type of contamination may occur to
erode the essential genetic qualities of a cultivar.

1. Three generation model: BS – FS –CS (Eg. Red gram, sunflower)

2. Four generation model: a) BS- FS -CS I – CS II ;
b) BS- FS I - FS II – CS
Eg. Maize, sorghum, pearl millet, Soybean
3. Five generation model: BS- FS I – FS II – CS I –CS II (Eg. Rice, wheat,Ground nut, Chick pea)

SEED REPLACEMENT RATE

Seed replacement rate is the quantity of quality seed that have replaced the actual seed
requirement of the location that are normally produced by the farmer using their own seed.

SRR = x / y x 100
Where x =Quantity of actual quality seed sown / used in an area / location
y = Quantity of quality seed (certified) required for the entire production area / location

This replacement rate can give an idea on how much certified (quality) seed is being
used. The seed replacement rate in India is around 15 – 20% which may vary with crop
varieties. However it will be 100% for hybrid seeds. This SRR give an idea on how much certified
seed is being used as a base seed for production of crops by farmers which will indirectly
stresses or expose the requirement of quality seed for further production.
Seed Replacement Rates for Agricultural crops in Tamil Nadu (2008)

[Link]. Crop State SRR

1. Paddy 67.00
2. Maize Variety & Hybrid 70.00
3. Sorghum Variety & Hybrid 11.00
4. Cumbu Variety & Hybrid 91.00
5. Bengalgram 5.00
6. Blackgram 42.00
7. Greengram 21.00
8. Redgram 6.00
9. Groundnut 6.07
10. Sunflower variety 13.00
11. Cotton 100.00

Factors influencing SRR

1. Limited choice of varieties

2. Availability of certified seeds
3. Lack of awareness among farmers about the use of quality certified seeds
4. Price of seed

How to improve SRR

1. More frequent release of needy varieties

2. Popularization of varieties
3. Adequate production and supply of quality seed
4. Availability of seeds in correct time / sowing season
5. Creating awareness among farmers about the benefits of using good quality seeds
through field demonstration and training
6. Affordable price
7. Net work of marketing
8. Good storage
9. Training farmers in seed production
10. Promoting seed village concept

SEED RENEWAL PERIOD (SRP)

Seeds undergo genetic deterioration on continuous usage for reproduction, due to the
developmental variation, mechanical mixture mutation, natural crossing, minor genetic variation,
selective influence of pest and disease and techniques of plant breeder. Hence seeds are to be
renewed after certain period known as seed renewal period. This help in maintenance of all
varieties with higher order of genetic purity. Normally seed renewal period depends on the nature
of pollination, recommend level of generation system, seed multiplication ratio and seed demand.
SRP for various are as follows

Pollination behaviour Seed renewal period In percentage

Self pollinated crops 3,4,5 times (max) in 3,4,5 33/25/20
season/ year
Cross pollinated crops 3 33
Often cross pollinated crops 3 33
Hybrid 1 100

Varietal replacement rate (VRR)

It is the replacement of old varieties with new varieties. New varieties are being released with
more new objectives, but farmers may stick onto the varieties fearing for the risk, at that stage the
extension officials are to promote supply of new varieties to enjoy the benefit of farmers from
using old varieties. This will also help to avoid the use of deteriorated varieties.

VRR = Quantity of new variety seed used/ demand of old varieties X 100

VRR depends on:

• Notification of variety
• Duration of notification
• Breakdown of variety
• Demand of farmers/market
• Government program
LECTURE 5 VARIETAL DETERIORATION OF CROPS - CAUSES AND MAINTENANCE

During seed production strict attention must be given to the maintenance of genetic
purity and other qualities of seeds in order to exploit the full complement to be obtained by
introduction of new superior crop plant varieties.

Deterioration of varieties
Genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can deteriorate due to several factors
during production cycles. The important factors for deterioration of varieties are as follows:
1. Developmental variations
2. Mechanical mixtures
3. Mutations
4. Natural crossing
5. Minor genetic variations
6. Selective influence of diseases
7. The technique of the plant breeder
Of these, mechanical mixtures, natural crossing and selective influence of
diseases are perhaps the most important reasons for genetic deterioration of varieties during
seed production, followed by raising the seed crops in areas outside their adaptation which
may cause developmental variations and genetic shifts in varieties.

1. Developmental variations
When the seed crops are grown in different environment, under different soil and fertility
conditions, or different climatic conditions, or under different photoperiods, or at different
elevations for several consecutive generations, the developmental variations may arise
sometimes as differential growth response.
To minimize the opportunity for such shifts to occur in varieties it is advisable to grow them
in their areas of adaptation and growing seasons.

2. Mechanical mixtures
This is the most important source of variety deterioration during seed production.
Mechanical mixtures may often take place
➢ At the time of sowing, if more than one variety is sown with same seed drill,
➢ Through volunteer plants of the same crop in the seed field; or through
different varieties grown in adjacent fields.
➢ During harvesting and threshing operation - Often the seed produce of all the
varieties are kept on the same, threshing floor, resulting in considerable
varietal mixtures.
 ➢ Threshing / seed extraction equipment is often contaminated with seeds of other
varieties.
➢ The gunny bags, seed bins, elevators, etc. are also quite often contaminated
with seeds of other varieties.

3. Mutations
This is not a serious factor of varietal deterioration. In the majority of the cases it is difficult
to identify or detect minor mutations.
The mutants such as rabbit ear in peas, fatuoids in oats, should be removed by roguing
from seed plots to purify the seeds.
In the case of vegetatively propagated crops, periodic increase of true to type stock would
eliminate the deteriorating effects of mutations.

4. Natural crossing
In sexually propagated crops, natural crossing is most important source of vertical
deterioration.
The deterioration in varieties due to natural crossing is of three reasons
1. Natural crossing with undesirable type
2. Natural crossing with diseases plants
3. Natural crossing with off- type of plants

According to Bateman (1947) genetic contamination is seed field due to natural crossing
depends upon the some factors and these are
a. The breading system of species
b. Isolation distance
c. Vertical mass
d. Pollinating agents.

As the isolation between varieties is increased the contamination decreases. Isolation of seed
crop is a primary factor in the seed production of crop plants of cross pollinated by wind or
insects and their activities, humidity and temp. at the time of anthesis etc.

5. Minor genetic variations

Minor genetic variations may still exist even in the varieties appearing phenotypically
uniform and homogeneous at the time of their release.
During later production cycle some of these variations may be lost because of
selective elimination by the environment.
Minor genetic variability may be constant feature in often cross-fertilized crop species.
Care during maintenance of nucleus and breeder’s seed is necessary in such cases.
6. Selective influence of diseases
New crop varieties often become susceptible to new races of diseases often caused by
parasite.
Some vegetative propagated stocks deteriorate fast it infected by viral, fungal and
bacterial diseases. It is very important to produce diseases free-seeds /stocks

7. Techniques of plant breeder

In certain instances, instabilities may occur in varieties due to cytogenetical irregularities
not properly assessed in the new varieties prior to their release. Premature release of
varieties, still segregating for resistance and susceptibility to disease or other factors may
also be important in the deterioration of varieties.
In addition to the factors discussed above, other factors, such as, break down in male
sterility, certain environmental conditions, and other heritable variations may considerably
lower the genetic purity.

Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production

1. Control of seed source: Four classes of seeds, namely breeder’s, foundation, registered
and certified are generally recognized in seed certification. The use of seeds of an
appropriate class and from an approved source is necessary for raising a seed crop.
2. Preceding crop requirements
The same kind of crop must not have been grown in the preceding one or two seasons
(depending on the crop) unless the crop that was grown was of same variety and was
certified for the varietal purity.
3. Isolation Distance
Isolation of seed crops from various sources of contamination listed below is very important
a) To avoid contamination due to natural crossing with other varieties grown alongside
and offtypes present in the seed field
b) To avoid contamination due to mechanical mixtures at the time of sowing, harvesting ,
threshing, processing and handling of seeds
c) To avoid contamination due to seed borne diseases from nearby fields
4. Roguing of seed fields
Off types: Plants differing in their characteristics from those of the seed variety
Main reasons for off types are i) plants may arise due to presence of some recessive
genes in heterozygous conditions at the time of release of varieties. ii) The volunteer
plants arising from accidentally planted seed or from seed produced by earlier crops.
Off types individual plants should be rogued out of the seed production fields before
pollination occurs. Off types are potent source of genetic contamination. Removal of such
plants is called ‘roguing’.
5. Seed Certification
The principle objective of seed certification is to maintain and make available crop seeds
which are of high seed quality.
To accomplish these purpose, qualified and well experienced personnel of seed certification
agencies carry out field inspections at appropriate stages of crop growth. In addition to
inspections, seed certification agencies also lay down the field and seed standards to
which the seed crop and seed lot respectively must conform to get approval as certified
seed.
6. Grow – out tests
Varieties being grown for seed production should periodically be tested for genetic
purity by grow-out tests, to make sure that they are being maintained in their true form.
 LECTURE 6 PRINCIPLES OF SEED PRODUCTION - FACTORS AFFECTING SEED
PRODUCTION - PHYSICAL AND GENETIC CONTAMINANTS

SEED PRODUCTION
Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production
adequate care is given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and
crop management techniques.
The benefits of seed production are
✓ Higher income
✓ Higher quality seed for next sowing

Difference between seed and crop production

Techniques Seed production Crop production

Source Authentic source Any seed material
Field Selected carefully for better Grown in any area
performance, as per Edaphic &
environmental requirement
ID Necessary Not necessary
Skills Needs technical skill for maintenance Not required
of quality
Genetic Purity Required Not required
Roguing Roguing is compulsorily practiced Not practiced
Harvesting Physiological maturity Harvestable maturity
Quality Resultant seed should be vigourous & Question of viability does
viable not arise
Importance is given to seed quality Importance is given more
rather than the yield to yield

There are two types (major) of seed production ie. Varietal and Hybrid Seed production
based on the type of seed used for multiplication .The difference between varietal and hybrid
seed production are as follows
Techniques Varietal Seed Production Hybrid Seed Production
Single parent multiplication Two to many parents
Source Authenticated source Parental lines
Field Free from volunteer plants Free from volunteer plants
ID Required Required
Planting Normal Planting ratio 3:1, 4:1 or 12:1
Border rows; Marker plants
Roguing Done for Volunteer Plants, Done for Volunteer Plants, Weed Plants,
Weed Plants, Other Crop Plants, Other Crop Plants, Diseased Plants and
Diseased Plants partials, pollen shedders, shedding tassels
Special - Detasseling, emasculation & dusting, Male
techniques Sterility, etc.,
Harvesting Single R – line first; Seed parent - next
Problems Related to agronomic, 1. Synchronized flowering
environmental – easy to solve 2. Pollen load
3. Seed set

PRINCIPLES OF SEED PRODUCTION

1. Genetic principles
2. Agronomic principles

1. GENETIC PRINCIPLES
Pollination behavior of plants
The pollination behavior aids in seed setting and deciding the extent of genetic purity
of the seed. The pollination behavior of crops is broadly classified into three as follows.
Pollination behaviour of crop plants.
Self Pollinated Often cross pollinated Cross pollinated
1 - 5% cross Pollination 5 - 50% cross > 50% cross pollination
pollination
Paddy Cotton Maize
Wheat Red gram Johnson grass
Barley Sesame Bajra
Oats Sorghum Sun hemp
Green gram Lucerne Castor
Black gram Brinjal Coconut
Lab-lab Bhendi Sunflower
Soyabean Lima bean Rape, Mustard
Cluster beans Sweet pepper Mesta
Pea Chillies
Groundnut Amaranthus, Cabbage
Tomato Cauliflower
Jute Cucurbits, Beet root
Bengal gram Radish, onion
Potato Turnip, sugarbeet
A. Mechanisms favouring self pollination
Genetically the following situation occurs to aid in self-pollination
• Flowers do not open (Cleistogamy eg. Bengal gram)
• Flowers open but only after the pollination (Chasmogamy) eg Wheat, Paddy, Oats,
Barley.
• Stigma is surrounded by anther eg. Tomato, Brinjal.
• Other floral organs hide stamens and stigma. eg. Pea, Mung, Soyabean, Greengram,
(Enclosed in keel petal)
Genetic consequences of self pollination
Self-pollination leads to a rapid increase in homozygosity, leading to high homozygous
population. Self pollinated species do not show inbreeding depression but will exhibit
considerable heterosis.

B. Mechanisms favouring cross pollination

Natural / Genetic occurrence of following situation favors cross-pollination in crop plants.

- The flowers are either staminate or pistillate (Dicliny) (eg) castor. In this in some
species the staminate and pistillate flowers are in the same plant but at different position
as separate inflorescence (eg. Maize) or in the same inflorescence at different position
(eg. Castor, Mango and Coconut) This situation is termed as Monoecy.
- In some crops the male and female flowers occur in different plants eg. Papaya. This
situation is termed as Dioecy.
- In a single flower of hermaphrodite nature, the stamens and pistils mature at different
times (Dichogamy).
- In some flowers pistils mature before stamen called as Protogyny eg. Bajra
- In some flowers anthers mature before pistil called as Protandry. eg. Maize &
Sugarbeet
- The stigmas are covered with waxy layer. The stigma becomes receptive only after
the waxy film is broken. The visits of honeybees break this waxy layer and cross-
pollination is achieved (eg. Lucerne).
- In some crops, combination of 2 or more of the above mechanisms may occur in same
species (eg) In Maize both monecy and protandry exist.
- In some crops Self-incompatability exists. It refers to the failure of pollen from same
flower to fertilize the same flower or other flowers on the same plant.
(eg) Mustard, Cauliflower, radish, sunflower etc.
- The absence of functional pollen grains in a hermaphordite flowers- Male sterility.
- Agents like wind (Anemophily), water (Hydrophily) and insects (Entomophily)
help in cross-pollination.
Genetic consequence of cross pollination
Cross-pollinated species are highly heterozygous and show inbreeding depressions
with considerable amount of heterosis.

METHODS OF SEED PRODUCTION

a. Seed production in varieties

Raise the crop under isolation and allow the seed to set either by self-pollination in
self-pollinated crops through bagging (selfing) or by open pollination in cross pollinated and
often cross pollinated crops or by sib-mating in inbreds.

b. Seed production in hybrids

A hybrid is the first generation progeny of a cross between two genetically

different identical inbred lines. The individual lines are known as inbreds. Ineffective cross-
pollination is a major constraint in commercial production of hybrid seeds in many crop
species. In such crops manual pollination is the way to produce hybrid seeds. [Link]. In
the case of rice, it is highly self-pollinated crop and cross-pollination is a big problem. The
increased vigour, uniformity and yield of F1 hybrid have been exploited in most crops where
the pollination system allows for convenient and economic cross hybridization. This system is
called breeding tool in exploiting the hybrid vigour.

The term heterosis in Greek means – hetero – different, osis- condition was coined by
Skull (1914). Heterosis or hybrid vigour refers to the increase or decrease in vigour of off-
spring (hybrid) over parents, usually, these two terms are used synonymous. However,
hybrid vigour refers to increased vigour, while, heterosis refers to both increased and
decreased vigour. Superiority of the hybrid as ‘hybrid vigour’ and the mechanism by
which this superiority is developed is heterosis (Rangaswamy, 1998).

Breeding tools utilized for hybrid seed production

Commercial hybrid seed production demands crossing technique which is easy and
also economic to maintain parental lines. Availability of suitable pollination control system is
one of the key factors determining the successful commercial exploitation of heterosis in any
crop species. These techniques are specific to crop floral biology and flowering behaviour.
These techniques have their own advantages and disadvantages. Based on the crop behaviour
and crossing technique have been adapted for production of hybrid seeds commercially. Only
few crossing mechanisms have been adopted for commercial hybrid seed production they are;

Crossing mechanisms
1. Manual modification
2. Self-incompatibility
3. Male sterility
I. MANUAL MODIFICATION

Hybrid seeds are also produced manually by modifying the plant structure by removal
of male organ from female plant before anthesis. This system is possible only when the male
and female parts of a single flower or plants are separate. The available techniques are,

a. Emasculation and Dusting (cotton, tomato, bhendi)

This is being adopted in bisexual perfect flowers where the removal of male parts
from a female plant is known as “Emasculation”. By removing the anther column / or
male part from female line, the sterility of female line is created and dusting of pollen from
desirable male plant is called as hand pollination or dusting.

b. Detasseling in maize

This is possible as maize is monoeceious and removal of male organ (tassel) is

possible before flowering. Here the male sterility is created by manual removal of the tassel
and crossed with desired male parent.

II. SELF INCOMPATIBILITY:

Self-incompatibility is a mechanism which avoids self-fertilization through recognition

of self pollen in or on stigma on the female pistil. But when pollen from other plant carried by
wind or insects are accepted and sets seeds. Self-incompatibility will prevent self-pollination
(inbreeding) and promotes crosspollination (out breeding) and creates genetic variability.
Self-incompatibility is seen in hermaphrodite and homomorphic flowers. Self-incompatibility
is a widespread mechanism in flowering plants that prevents inbreeding and promotes
outcrossing.

III. MALE STERILITY

In early days occurrence of male sterility was considered as undesirable and had no
breeding utility. Later, it became as asset for hybrid seed production. Male sterility was first
utilized for hybrid seed production of sorghum and onion. Depending on the origin and
nature of control, different types of male sterility was reported.

a. Genetic male sterility (GMS): Also known as nuclear male sterility as it is controlled by
nuclear genes. Genetic male sterility is governed by a single recessive gene “msms”. Male
sterile lines may be maintained by crossing it with heterozygous (Msms) male fertile plants.
Such mating produces 1: 1 male sterile and male fertile plants.
 For hybrid seed production, progeny
from msms x Msms crosses are used as female
and are interplanted with a homozygous male
fertile (MsMs) pollinator.
The female line would contain both
male sterile and male fertile plants, and later
male fertile plants must be removed before
shedding pollen. Removal of fertile plants is
the limiting factor and laborious process.
Even though it occurs in rice, barley, cotton
and sunflower because of this problem it could
not be utilized. It is practiced in redgram
hybrid seed production.

b. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)

This type of male sterility is determined by the
cytoplasm and progeny of such male sterile
lines would always be male sterile. CMS may
be utilized for producing hybrid seeds in
certain ornamental sps or in sps where
vegetative part is of economic values. But, in
those crop plants where seed is the economic
part, it is of no use because the hybrid progeny
would be male sterile.

c. Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CGMS)

It is a result of interactions between male sterility
inducing cytoplasm and nuclear fertility restorer
gene (s). System consists of A, B and R lines.
A- line - homozygous recessive cytoplasm
B-line- normal cytoplasm
R-line -homozygous dominant nuclear gene
(restorer)
The plant would be male sterile in the presence of
male sterile cytoplasm if the nuclear genotype
were rr. But would be male fertile, if the nucleus
were Rr or RR. The fertility restorer gene R is
dominant and this gene restores male fertility in
male sterile lines hence, known as restorer gene.
d. Chemical Hybridising Agents (CHA)
These are the chemicals having gametocidal properties upon spraying on plants at
appropriate dosage and crop growth stages, male sterility is created in targeted lines.

Commonly used CHA

Chemicals Crops
Arsenical (Zinc and sodium methyl arsenates) Rice, rape
Dalapon (Sodium 2, 2 –dichloro propionate) Cotton, pearlmillet, Wheat, linseed
Ethepon (2-chloromethyl phosphonic acid) Maize,wheat, barley, oats
Sodium alpha–beta dichloroiso butyrate Sunflower
GA3- Gibberelic acid Maize
1-0-methyl threonine Cotton
Maleic Hydroxide(1,2- dichloropyridasine 3, 6-dione) Sorghum

Commercial hybrids produced in some of the crop species

Inter specific hybrids: Involving parents from entirely different species of a crop.
Cotton - Varalaxmi Laxmi x SB 289 E
([Link]) ([Link])

Cotton – DCH 32 or Jayalaxmi DS 28 x SB (YF) 425

([Link]) ([Link])

Intraspecific hybrids: Involving parents belong to the same species but between two
varieties. Eg., Sorghum – CSH 5, CSH 9, K Tall
Cotton – JKHY 1, Suguna

Types of hybrids

a) Single crosshybrid- (AxB) in case of Bajra, Brinjal, Carrot, Castor, Chillies, Cotton,

Cucurbits, Onion, Sorghum, Tobacco, tomato, Water melon, Wheat

b) Double crosshybrid- (AxB) x (CxD) in case of Maize, Sugarbeet

c) Three way crosshybrid- (AxB) x C in case of sweet maize

d) Double Top cross hybrid - (AxB) x OPV in case of maize

Triple crosshybrid - (AxB)xCx(DxE) x F in case of cabbage

2. AGRONOMIC PRINCIPLES

Land Selection
• The seed plot should have soil texture (light, well drained) and fertility characteristics
as required by the crop.
 • The plot should be free from volunteer plants, seeds of weeds , other crop plants and
soil borne diseases and pests
• The same crop or variety thereof should not have been cultivated during the
previous season on the plot selected for seed production.
• The plot must be leveled and feasible for isolation as per the requirement of
Certification standards.

Isolation
• The seed crop must be sufficiently isolated from nearby fields of the same or other
contaminating crops as per the requirements of certification standards.
• In the case of hybrid rice seed production, time isolation can be followed if distance
isolation is not feasible.
• Even after the seed crop is harvested, effective isolation of seed from different
varieties is essential to avoid mechanical contamination.
• Bags and other equipment must be thoroughly cleaned to maintain seed purity.

Variety
• The variety selected should suit the prevailing agro-climatic conditions, high
yielding and possess desirable attributes like disease resistance, earliness and grain
quality. Similarly the seed should be known of purity, appropriate class, and obtained
from an authorized official agency.
• The seed may require treatment before sowing, if not treated already. Seed
treatment may be given with appropriate fungicides or involve bacterial inoculation
for legumes or breaking dormancy.
• The seed must be planted at its normal planting time in soil having adequate moisture
content for germination.

Sowing
• The seed crop is generally sown in rows by mechanical drillers, which allow the
desired quantity of seeds to be planted at uniform depth. Sowing in rows facilitates
effective plant protection measures, rouging operations, and field inspection. Adequate
spacing within rows and distance between rows are given as per the plant bases.
• The sowing equipment must be thoroughly cleaned to avoid any contamination.
• For hybrids, female and male parent lines are planted in 4:2 or 6:2 proportions to
ensure that the seeds of the male and female parent lines are not mixed while planting.
• Small seed is generally sown shallow & large seed a little deeper to secure good
planting.
• Seed emergence is better from greater depths in sandy soils than in clayey soils
and as well as from warmer soil.
Roguing
• Adequate and timely roguing constitutes the single most important operation in seed
production. Rogues differing from normal are pulled out and discarded at the earliest
possible phases before flowering, especially in cross-pollinated crops to avoid
genetic contamination.
• Plants obviously differing in height, colour of vegetation, leaf size, shape, and orientation,
or any other morphological characteristic as well as malformed and diseased plants
should be removed completely.
• Undesirable plants not distinguishable earlier should be removed soon after
emergence of the ear head / tassel.
• Rouging at maturity is also necessary to remove off types not distinguishable earlier
and contaminants which are affecting the physical purity of seed.
• In hybrids, where male sterility is employed, special care is required to remove pollen
shedders.
• In some crops rouging at the early vegetative stage may be necessary to remove
virus-affected plants
• While removing the plants with ear heads infested by seed borne diseases / loose smut,
precautions must be taken to ensure that spores are not spread to healthy plants.
• Roguing and sorting of harvested ear heads may be necessary in some crops to
remove off-coloured, diseased/malformed earheads. In root & vegetable crops, roguing
at harvest time may be needed to confirm the fruit, tuber or root quality of the crop.

Pollination and Weeding

• Supplementary pollination provided by honey bees in hives in close proximity to
seed crops that are cross pollinated by insects that may be necessary to ensure good
seed set and thereby increase seed yield.
• Production of high quality seed requires thorough control of weeds on the seed
plot. In addition to reduction in seed yield, weeds are often a source of contamination
by way of mixing at the time of harvest.
• Weeds in the seed plot or nearby areas may also harbor a number of pests and diseases

Irrigation
• Because drier climates are more suitable for producing high quality disease free
seeds, irrigation is essential to obtain good seed yields.
• Irrigation may be required before planting and at suitable intervals up to flowering.
• The frequency of irrigation and amount of water supplied depends upon the physical
texture of the soil and crop requirements.
 • Maximum benefits from irrigation's can be derived only with adequate crop
nutrition in the form of organic manure and fertilization, especially readily available
sources of nitrogen and phosphorus.
• Seed crop is rather sensitive to moisture stress at the vegetative, flowering and
maturity stages.
• Both excessive moisture conditions and prolonged drought will adversely affect
germination, growth and development of the seed crop.

Plant Nutrition

▪ Adequate amounts of N, P, K and other essential minerals are crucial for the
proper growth and development of the seed crop. It is, therefore necessary to know
the nutritional requirements of any individual seed crop and to ensure proper nutrition
at all the stages of crop growth.
▪ Split applications of nitrogen are generally advocated to avoid lodging of a crop
due to excessive vegetative growth.
▪ Application of N at the time of flowering leads to an increase in yield and quality
of the seed of most crops.
▪ P and K favour root growth, increased strength of straw, fruiting and seed development.
They also hasten plant maturity and increase disease resistance.
▪ Potassium improves the photosynthetic efficiency of plants and favours both
protein and lipid metabolism in oil seeds.
▪ Deficiencies of other essential secondary and micronutrients also need to be
monitored carefully using soil test measures.

Plant Protection
• Effective control of all pests, including diseases and insects, is essential to
produce a healthy seed crop. In addition to heavy reductions in seed yields, diseases
and pests damage the quality of the produce.
• Planting seed chemically treated with the appropriate fungicides effectively
checks the seedling and many of seed borne diseases.
• Adoption of appropriate schedules of plant protection and roguing of diseased plants
and ear heads from time to time will further check the spread of disease and insects.

Harvesting
• After completion of essential cultural operations and approval of seed fields for
certification, the crop is ready for harvest. The appropriate time of harvest to ensure
maximum seed yield and quality is of great significance.
• Fully matured seed is easily harvested and cleaned with minimal harvest losses.
While early harvests may make combining difficult, with increased losses in threshing