ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

COMPREHENSIVE SYLLABUS NOTES

Based on S.K. Garg — Volume 1 (Water Supply Engineering) & Volume 2 (Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution
Engineering)

VOLUME 1 TOPICS: Ch. 1, 2, 3.1, 3.2, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14 (theory), 3.15, 4.1, 4.2, Ch. 8
VOLUME 2 TOPICS: 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.8 | 8.1–8.3, 8.6, 8.8, 8.12 (theory) | Ch. 9 sections | Ch. 14 | Ch. 18.1–18.5
 VOLUME 1 — WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO WATER SUPPLY

1.1 Importance and Necessity for Planned Water Supplies

Water is essential for sustaining life and civilisation. Planned water supply systems are critical for:
• Providing potable (safe to drink) water free from pathogens and harmful chemicals
• Preventing water-borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis
• Supporting fire-fighting, industrial processes, street washing, and gardening
• Improving public health and reducing infant mortality
• Supporting economic growth — industries require reliable water supply
Potable water: Free from pathogenic organisms, objectionable turbidity, color, taste or odor, and toxic chemicals. India's
standard: Bureau of Indian Standards IS:10500.
★ Unplanned water supply leads to water-borne diseases that account for >80% of diseases in developing countries.

1.2 Financing of Water Supply Schemes and Their Development in India

Sources of finance for water supply schemes:
• Government grants and loans through state/central budgets
• User charges (tariffs from consumers)
• International financial institutions (World Bank, ADB)
• Municipal bonds and debentures
• Private sector participation (PPP model)
Minimum requirement: recovery of Operation & Maintenance (O&M) costs from user charges. Capital costs may be
subsidised.

1.3 Pricing of Municipal Water Supplies

Method Description Advantage / Disadvantage
Flat Rate Fixed charge regardless of consumption Simple to administer / encourages wastage

Metered Rate Charge per unit (litre/kL) consumed Fair and reduces waste / higher admin cost

Block Rate Different rates for different consumption slabs Promotes conservation / complex billing
(higher use = higher rate)

Two-Part Tariff Fixed charge + variable charge per unit Covers fixed costs / fairest method

1.4 Planning and Execution of Modern Water Supply Schemes

Steps in planning a water supply scheme:
• Survey and investigation of existing sources and demand
• Estimation of population and water demand for design period
• Selection of source (surface/groundwater)
• Design of treatment plant and distribution system
• Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
• Preparation of detailed project report (DPR)
• Financial appraisal and tendering
• Construction, commissioning, and O&M
★ Design period for water supply: Distribution system = 30 yrs; Treatment works = 15–20 yrs; Dams = 50–100 yrs
CHAPTER 2: WATER DEMANDS

2.1 Various Types of Water Demands

• Domestic demand: drinking (5 lpcd), cooking (5), bathing (55), flushing (30), laundry (20), gardening (10) — Total ~135
lpcd minimum
• Industrial demand: manufacturing, cooling, boiler feed water — highly variable
• Commercial demand: hotels, restaurants, offices, shopping centres
• Public/Municipal demand: street washing, parks, public buildings, fire fighting
• Fire demand: sudden peak demand; calculated separately
• Losses and wastes: pipe leakage, meter errors, unauthorised connections — typically 15–25%
★ Recommended per capita demand (India): 135 lpcd (minimum), 150–200 lpcd (design), 200+ lpcd (metropolitan
cities)

2.2 Total Water Requirement for a Town or City

Total Demand = Domestic + Industrial + Commercial + Public + Fire demand + Losses

2.3 The Per Capita Demand (q)

q = Total annual consumption (litres) / (Population × 365 days)

Units: litres per capita per day (lpcd). Average daily demand per person.

2.4 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand

• Size of the city — larger cities = higher demand
• Climate — hot and dry areas need more water
• Industries — industrial towns use 3–5× more water
• Living standards — higher income = higher demand
• Cost of water — higher tariffs reduce demand
• Pressure in supply system — higher pressure = more consumption and leakage
• Metering — metered connections reduce consumption by 10–25%

2.5 Factors Affecting Losses and Wastes

• Age and condition of mains — old, corroded pipes leak more
• System pressure — high pressure increases leakage
• Metering — unmetered connections encourage wastage
• Illegal connections and water theft
■ Non-Revenue Water (NRW) = water produced but not billed. Typical NRW in Indian cities = 30–50%. Target: <20%

2.6 Variations in Demand

Type of Variation Peak Factor Used for Designing
Seasonal (Summer vs Winter) 1.3–1.5× average Reservoir storage capacity

Maximum Daily Demand 1.8× Average Daily Demand Pumping stations, storage tanks

Maximum Hourly Demand 1.5× Max Daily = 2.7× Avg Distribution mains and pipes

Minimum Hourly Demand (night) 0.5× Avg Daily Minimum flow design

★ Max hourly demand = 2.7 × Average daily demand — governing design flow for distribution system.
2.7 Effects of Variations in Demand on Design Capacities
• Water treatment plant: Designed for Maximum Daily Demand (1.8× avg)
• Pumping stations: Designed for Maximum Daily Demand or Max Hourly
• Distribution mains: Designed for Maximum Hourly Demand (2.7× avg)
• Service reservoirs: Storage = 1/3 of maximum daily demand (minimum)

2.8 Design Periods

Component Design Period
Distribution system (pipes/mains) 30 years

Water treatment plant 15–20 years (expandable)

Large dams and reservoirs 50–100 years

Tubewells and bore wells 20–30 years

Pumping machinery 10–15 years

2.9–2.10 Population Forecasting Methods

1. Arithmetical Increase Method
Pn = P0 + n × ∆P_avg [∆P_avg = average decadal increase]

Assumes constant increment. Suitable for old, developed cities with slow growth.

2. Geometrical Increase Method

Pn = P0 × (1 + r/100)^n [r = % growth rate per decade]

Assumes constant percentage growth. Suitable for new, fast-growing cities.

3. Incremental Increase Method

Pn = P0 + n × ∆P_avg + n(n+1)/2 × ∆I_avg [∆I_avg = average of incremental increases]

Takes acceleration/deceleration into account. Most commonly used in Indian practice.

4. Logistic Curve Method (S-Curve / Pearl-Reed Method)

P = Psat / (1 + m × e^(-k×t)) [Psat = saturation population]

★ For exam: Arithmetical + Geometrical + Incremental increase methods are most commonly examined with
numerical problems.
CHAPTER 3: SOURCES OF WATER, HYDROLOGICAL CONCEPTS

3.1 General Introduction

Water occurs in nature in three forms: solid (ice/snow), liquid (surface/groundwater), and gas (water vapour). Sources for
public water supply:
• Surface water sources: Rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, storage reservoirs
• Sub-surface/groundwater sources: Springs, infiltration galleries, wells
• Rainwater harvesting: Roof-top collection (small scale)

3.2 Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

The continuous circulation of water on earth, driven by solar energy and gravity:
• Evaporation → Transpiration → Evapotranspiration (ET)
• Condensation: Water vapour cools → clouds
• Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet, or hail
• Surface runoff → Rivers and streams; Infiltration → groundwater recharge
P = ET + Runoff (R) + ∆Groundwater (∆G) + ∆Soil moisture (∆S)

★ India average rainfall: 1170 mm/year. Only ~16% becomes surface runoff. 40% goes to ET, 44% infiltrates.

Key Term Definition

Runoff coefficient (C) Fraction of precipitation appearing as surface runoff (0–1)

Infiltration capacity Maximum rate at which soil can absorb water (mm/hr)

Catchment area Area draining to a specific point (watershed)

Base flow Groundwater contribution to streamflow

Direct runoff Storm runoff = precipitation – losses

3.12 Ponds and Lakes as Surface Sources

• Still or slow-moving water bodies — subject to algal blooms, colour, odour
• Thermal stratification: Epilimnion (warm top) / Thermocline / Hypolimnion (cold, anaerobic bottom)
• Best intake: mid-depth to avoid surface algae and bottom anaerobic water
■ Intake should be placed to avoid algae (surface) and septic conditions (bottom). Mid-depth is optimal.

3.13 Streams and Rivers as Surface Sources

• Most important source for large cities — large quantity available
• Quality varies: clear in dry season, highly turbid in monsoon (silt)
• Subject to upstream pollution — requires treatment
• Self-purification ability due to flow, dilution, aeration, sedimentation, biological action

3.14 Storage Reservoirs — Theory

A storage reservoir stores monsoon flows for dry-season use by impounding a dam across a river. Rivers have highly
variable seasonal flow while demand is nearly uniform.

3.15 Groundwater — Zones and Occurrence

Zone Description
Zone of Aeration (Vadose Zone) Above water table; pores partially filled with air and water
 Zone Description
Capillary Fringe Just above water table; pores fully saturated by capillary action

Zone of Saturation (Phreatic Zone) Below water table; all pores filled with water — main groundwater zone

Confined Zone Aquifer between two impermeable layers; water under pressure

★ Groundwater provides 85% of rural India's drinking water and 45% of irrigated agriculture.
CHAPTER 4: GROUNDWATER SOURCES

4.2 Geological Factors — Key Properties

Property Definition Significance
Porosity (n) Voids volume / Total volume × 100% Determines water storage; NOT same as
permeability

Permeability (k) Ease of water flow through porous media Determines extraction rate

Specific Yield (Sy) Water drained by gravity / Total volume Actual storage available for wells

Transmissivity (T) T = k × b (b = aquifer thickness) Determines well yield capacity

Storage Coefficient (S) Water released per unit area per unit Confined: 10■■; Unconfined: = Sy
head drop

Darcy's Law: Q = k × i × A [Q = flow, k = hydraulic conductivity, i = gradient, A = area]

Geological Formation Permeability Groundwater Potential

Alluvial deposits (sand, gravel) High Excellent — best aquifer material

Limestone (karst) High (solution channels) Good if karst/fractures present

Sandstone Moderate Good to moderate

Granite (crystalline) Very low Poor; only weathered zones/fractures useful

Clay Extremely low High porosity but NOT a useful aquifer

Types of Aquifers
• Unconfined (Water Table) Aquifer: Top of saturated zone free to rise and fall. Most common type.
• Confined (Artesian) Aquifer: Bounded by impermeable layers; water under pressure — may flow freely when
punctured.
• Semi-confined (Leaky) Aquifer: Bounded by semi-permeable layers allowing slow leakage
• Perched Aquifer: Small isolated aquifer above main water table
★ India's most important aquifer: Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains — vast unconfined + confined system.
CHAPTER 8: QUALITY CONTROL OF WATER SUPPLIES

8.2 Physical Characteristics (IS:10500)

Parameter Acceptable Limit Max Permissible Significance
Turbidity 1 NTU 5 NTU Aesthetics; may shelter pathogens

Colour 5 Hazen units 15 HU Aesthetics; organic matter

TDS 500 mg/L 2000 mg/L Affects taste; above 2000 = unpalatable

Temperature <25°C — Palatability

Chemical Characteristics (IS:10500)

Parameter Acceptable Max Permissible Health Effect if Exceeded
pH 6.5–8.5 No relaxation Corrosion (low) or scaling (high)

Hardness (as CaCO3) 200 mg/L 600 mg/L Scale in pipes, poor lathering

Fluoride (F■) 1.0 mg/L 1.5 mg/L Fluorosis (>1.5); dental caries (<0.5)

Nitrates (NO3■) 45 mg/L No relaxation Blue baby disease in infants

Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/L 1.0 mg/L Staining; taste problems

Arsenic (As) 0.01 mg/L 0.05 mg/L Carcinogenic; skin lesions

Lead (Pb) 0.01 mg/L 0.05 mg/L Neurotoxic especially in children

Residual Chlorine 0.2 mg/L (min) 1.0 mg/L (max) Disinfection protection

★ EXAM TIP: Fluoride — 0.5–1.5 mg/L ideal. Below 0.5 = dental caries; above 1.5 = dental fluorosis; above 4.0 =
skeletal fluorosis.

★ Nitrates >45 mg/L cause Blue Baby Syndrome (methemoglobinemia) in bottle-fed infants under 6 months.

Hardness of Water
Hardness = inability of water to lather with soap. Caused by Ca²■ and Mg²■ ions.
• Temporary hardness: Due to Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 — removed by BOILING
• Permanent hardness: Due to CaSO4, CaCl2 — NOT removed by boiling; removed by chemical treatment
Total Hardness = Temporary + Permanent Hardness (expressed as mg/L of CaCO3)

• Soft: <75 mg/L | Moderately hard: 75–150 | Hard: 150–300 | Very hard: >300 mg/L

8.3 Water-Borne Diseases and Their Control

Disease Causative Agent Mode of Spread Control
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Water/food contamination Chlorination; sanitation;
vaccination

Typhoid Fever Salmonella typhi Fecal-oral route via water Chlorination; treatment;
vaccination

Dysentery Shigella spp. Contaminated water/food Chlorination; personal hygiene

Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Cysts in water Filtration; boiling; not killed by

chlorine

Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Fecal-oral; contaminated water Vaccination; water treatment

Giardiasis Giardia lamblia Cysts in surface water Filtration; UV treatment

Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum Oocysts resistant to chlorine Filtration; UV treatment

 Disease Causative Agent Mode of Spread Control
Fluorosis Excess fluoride High-fluoride groundwater Defluoridation; alternative
source

★ Giardia and Cryptosporidium cysts/oocysts are CHLORINE-RESISTANT. Only filtration and UV effectively remove
them.

8.4 Quality Standards — Bacteriological

• Total Coliform bacteria: <1/100 mL
• E. coli (fecal coliform): Must be ABSENT in any 100 mL sample
■ WHO guideline: E. coli must be absent in any 100 mL sample for drinking water to be safe.
 VOLUME 2 — SEWAGE DISPOSAL AND AIR
POLLUTION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 7: QUALITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE

7.1 Importance of Study

Sewage composition: 99.9% water + 0.1% impurities. Sources: Domestic + Industrial + Infiltration/Inflow + Storm water.
• Designing appropriate treatment processes and plant size
• Regulatory compliance — meeting effluent discharge standards

7.2 Decomposition of Sewage

Aerobic Decomposition (in presence of O2)
Organic matter + O2 → CO2 + H2O + NO3■ + SO4²■ + Stable End Products

Clean, odourless end products. Fast process. Used in activated sludge process, trickling filters, aerobic ponds.

Anaerobic Decomposition (absence of O2)

Organic matter → CH4 + H2S + CO2 + NH3 + organic acids + Unstable products

• Foul-smelling gases: H2S (rotten eggs), NH3, mercaptans

• Occurs in septic tanks, anaerobic digesters, clogged sewers
• Fresh sewage becomes septic within 2–6 hours in warm weather

Stages of Anaerobic Digestion

• Stage 1 – Hydrolysis: Complex organics → simpler compounds
• Stage 2 – Acidogenesis: → volatile fatty acids + CO2 + H2
• Stage 3 – Acetogenesis: VFAs → acetic acid + H2 + CO2
• Stage 4 – Methanogenesis: Methane formed from acetic acid and CO2 + H2

7.3 Physical Characteristics of Sewage

Parameter Fresh Domestic Sewage Septic Sewage Significance
Colour Grey (turbid) Black Indicates
decomposition

Odour Musty, soapy Foul (H2S, NH3) Degree of

decomposition

Temperature 15–25°C Same or higher Affects biological

treatment

Turbidity 100–400 NTU High, dark Suspended solids

content

Solids in Sewage
Total Solids (TS) = Total Suspended Solids (TSS) + Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

• TSS: Retained on filter paper — typical 200–300 mg/L

• Volatile Solids: Organic fraction (burns at 600°C)
• Fixed Solids: Inorganic fraction
★ Ratio VSS/TSS for domestic sewage ≈ 0.75–0.85 (75–85% organic).
7.4 Chemical Characteristics — BOD and COD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
BOD = O2 (mg/L) required to biologically oxidize organic matter at 20°C over 5 days (BOD5)

• Standard BOD test: 5 days incubation at 20°C

• Typical domestic sewage BOD5: 200–300 mg/L
BOD at time t: y_t = L0(1 - e^(-k1*t)) [L0 = ultimate BOD, k1 = rate constant]

Temperature correction: k_T = k_20 × θ^(T-20) [θ = 1.047 for BOD]

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD = O2 required for CHEMICAL oxidation using strong oxidant (K2Cr2O7)

• COD > BOD (includes non-biodegradable organics)

• Ratio COD/BOD: 1.5–2.5 for domestic sewage
★ Sewage = ~99.9% water. Strength: Weak (<200 mg/L BOD), Medium (200–300), Strong (>350).

7.8 Bacteriological Characteristics

• Sewage contains: 10■ to 10■ bacteria per mL
• Indicator organisms: Coliform bacteria — indicate fecal pollution
• MPN Test: Presumptive → Confirmed → Completed test
• Giardia and Cryptosporidium oocysts: CHLORINE RESISTANT — need filtration + UV
★ Giardia and Cryptosporidium are NOT killed by chlorination. Filtration is essential.
CHAPTER 8: DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE EFFLUENTS

8.1 Conditions Favouring Disposal by Dilution

Dilution = discharging treated/untreated sewage into a water body relying on natural dilution and self-purification.
• Sufficient volume and velocity of receiving water
• Receiving water has adequate dissolved oxygen (>4 mg/L before mixing)
• Low sewage volume relative to river flow (dilution ratio >8:1)
■ Rule of thumb: Minimum dilution ratio of 8:1 (river:sewage) to prevent objectionable conditions.

8.2 Standards for Discharge (MINAS)

Parameter Inland Surface Water Coastal Waters
BOD5 (20°C) 30 mg/L 100 mg/L

Suspended Solids 100 mg/L —

pH 5.5–9.0 5.5–9.0

Oil and Grease 10 mg/L 20 mg/L

Temperature Rise ≤ 5°C over ambient Rise ≤ 5°C

8.3 DO Sag Curve (Streeter-Phelps Equation)

When sewage is discharged, DO drops (deoxygenation), then recovers (reaeration). This curve is called the 'oxygen sag
curve'.
Dt = (kd × L0)/(kr - kd) × (e^(-kd×t) - e^(-kr×t)) + D0 × e^(-kr×t)

Critical time: tc = [1/(kr-kd)] × ln[(kr/kd) × (1 - D0(kr-kd)/(kd×L0))]

Critical deficit: Dc = (kd/kr) × L0 × e^(-kd×tc)

Zones of Pollution in a River

• Zone I – Degradation: Turbid, high BOD, reducing DO, grey colour
• Zone II – Active Decomposition: Lowest DO (may reach 0); septic; H2S odour
• Zone III – Recovery: DO rising; BOD falling; algae reappear
• Zone IV – Clean Water: Normal river conditions restored; full biota returns

8.6 Disposal on Land / 8.8 Sewage Farming

• Flooding, ridge and furrow, or spray irrigation methods
• Sewage farming: Direct use of raw/settled sewage — common near Indian cities
• Benefits: Nutrient value (N, P, K replace fertilisers), water conservation
• WHO: E. coli <10■/100 mL (restricted irrigation); <1000/100 mL (unrestricted)

8.12 Dilution vs Land Disposal — Comparison

Factor Dilution Method Land Disposal Method
Land requirement Very low Very high

Capital cost Low (if water body available) High

Nutrient recovery None Significant (NPK value)

Climate dependence Low High (not suitable in monsoon)

 Factor Dilution Method Land Disposal Method
Pathogen risk Downstream users at risk Farm workers and crop consumers at
risk
CHAPTER 9: TREATMENT OF SEWAGE

9.1 Classification of Treatment Processes

Treatment Level Processes Removal Efficiency Effluent Quality
Preliminary Screening, grit removal, Floating solids only BOD unchanged
comminution

Primary (1°) Plain sedimentation, grease 50–60% TSS; 25–40% BOD ≈ 150 mg/L
removal BOD

Secondary (2°) Biological treatment (ASP, TF, 85–95% BOD; 85–95% BOD <30 mg/L
lagoons) TSS

Tertiary (3°) Nutrient removal, polishing, Nutrients, pathogens, Near-potable quality

disinfection colour

9.2 Types of Screens

Type Opening Size Cleaning Method Applications
Coarse/Bar Screen 25–75 mm Manual rake or mechanical First screen at inlet

Medium Screen 10–25 mm Mechanical Before fine screens

Fine Screen 3–10 mm Mechanical (continuous) Before secondary treatment

Micro-screen <1 mm Backwash Tertiary treatment

• Velocity through screen opening: 0.6–0.9 m/s

• Head loss through clean screen: 0.15–0.3 m

9.5 Grit Chambers

Grit = inorganic, dense particles (sand, grit, gravel). Abrasive — damage pumps. Design to remove particles >0.2 mm
diameter.
Overflow rate: Vs = Q / A_surface

Stokes settling: vs = g(rho_s - rho_w)d² / 18mu

• Design horizontal velocity: 0.25–0.30 m/s

• Detention time: 45–90 seconds

Types: Horizontal Flow / Aerated / Vortex Grit Chambers

• Aerated: Air injected to create spiral flow; better grit/organic separation; detention 2–5 min
• Vortex: Sewage enters tangentially; small footprint; good grit washing

9.14–9.15 Sedimentation Tanks

• Removes 50–70% of TSS; reduces BOD by 25–40%
Overflow Rate (SOR) = Q / A_surface [m³/m²/day]; Detention Time = V / Q

• SOR for primary: 20–40 m³/m²/day; HRT: 1.5–2.5 hours; Depth: 2.5–5 m
• Circular clarifiers: Sludge scrapers rotate, pushing sludge to central pit

9.16 Coagulation
Coagulant Formula pH Range
Alum Al2(SO4)3·18H2O 6.5–7.5

Ferric Chloride FeCl3 4.0–9.0

 Coagulant Formula pH Range
Lime Ca(OH)2 9.0–11.0

Polyelectrolytes Synthetic polymers Wide range

9.18 Trickling Filters (Biological Filtration)

Passing sewage through a bed of media covered with biological film (biofilm). Microorganisms oxidise dissolved organic
matter.
Recirculation Ratio: R = Qr / Q

NRC formula: E = 100 / (1 + 0.4432 × sqrt(W / VF))

Recirculation factor: F = (1 + R) / (1 + 0.1R)²

9.32 Activated Sludge Process (ASP)

Aerobic biological process where microorganisms (activated sludge) are kept in suspension by aeration, oxidising organic
matter.
Flow: Raw sewage → Aeration Tank → Secondary Clarifier → Treated Effluent. Settled sludge → RAS → Aeration Tank.
Excess → WAS → Sludge treatment.

Parameter Symbol Typical Value Significance

Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids MLSS 1500–3000 mg/L Microorganism concentration

F/M Ratio F/M 0.2–0.6 kg BOD/kg Loading rate

MLVSS/day

Sludge Age / SRT θc 5–15 days Average sludge residence time

Hydraulic Retention Time HRT 4–8 hours (aeration tank) Sewage residence time

Return Sludge Ratio r = Qr/Q 0.25–0.50 Fraction returned as sludge

DO in aeration DO >2 mg/L Oxygen for aerobic treatment

V = Q × S0 × θc × Y / [X × (1 + kd × θc)]

9.43 ASP vs Trickling Filter Comparison

Parameter Activated Sludge Process Trickling Filter
BOD removal 85–95% 75–90% (single pass)

Land area Small Large

Operating cost High (aeration energy) Low

Shock loads Better Poorer

Sludge production Higher Lower (stable humus)

Operation Complex; skilled staff Simple

Climate effect Less affected Performance drops in winter

9.52.5 UASB Reactor

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactor — most widely used high-rate anaerobic treatment in India (100+ STPs).
Developed by Lettinga et al. (Netherlands), 1980.
• Wastewater flows upward through blanket of anaerobic granular sludge
• Biogas (60–70% CH4 + CO2) collected at top
• HRT: 4–8 hours; BOD removal: 70–80% (needs aerobic polishing)
• Low energy; biogas recovery; less sludge than aerobic
★ India adopted UASB widely for STPs. Generates biogas for electricity/heating, reducing operating costs.

9.53 Disinfection by Chlorine

Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl (HOCl ■ H■ + OCl■)

• Chlorine dose for secondary effluent: 5–15 mg/L; Contact time: 15–30 minutes
• Residual free chlorine: 0.5–1.0 mg/L after contact time

Method Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages

Chlorination HOCl oxidation Low cost; simple; provides residual DBPs (THMs); not vs Crypto

UV Radiation DNA damage No chemicals; effective vs No residual; lamp maintenance

Crypto/Giardia

Ozone (O3) Oxidation/OH Powerful; removes colour/odour High cost; no residual

radical

Chlorine Dioxide Oxidation Fewer DBPs; effective at higher pH Complex generation; handling hazards
CHAPTER 14: DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SOLID
WASTES

14.1 Definition and Necessity

Solid waste = any solid or semi-solid non-liquid waste from residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural activities.
• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Garbage, rubbish, ashes, street sweepings, construction debris
• India generates ~62 million tonnes/year MSW; expected ~165 million tonnes by 2030
Need for safe disposal: Prevention of vector breeding, groundwater pollution, air pollution, methane explosion risk.

14.2 Composition of MSW

Component Indian Cities (%) Developed Countries (%)
Organic/Food waste 40–60% 20–30%

Paper 3–6% 25–40%

Plastics 3–6% 10–15%

Glass 1–3% 5–10%

Metals 1–2% 5–10%

Inerts (ash, dust) 25–40% 5–10%

14.3 Collection and Transportation

• Door-to-door collection: Most hygienic; workers go to each house
• Separate bins for wet (organic) and dry (recyclable) waste — Swachh Bharat push
• Transfer stations: For large cities — waste aggregated, compacted, transported long-distance

14.5 Disposal Methods

14.5.1 Sanitary Landfilling
Most widely used final disposal method globally. Engineered disposal with environmental controls.
• Daily soil cover: 15–30 cm to prevent odour, fires, and vectors
• Liner system: Compacted clay + HDPE geomembrane to prevent leachate reaching groundwater
• Leachate collection: Drainage layer and pipes → treated before disposal
• LFG composition: 50–60% CH4 + 35–45% CO2 + trace gases
★ Landfill gas from 1000 tonne/day landfill can generate ~2 MW electricity.

14.5.2 Composting
Aerobic biological decomposition of organic fraction → stable humus used as soil conditioner/fertiliser.
• C:N ratio: Should be 25–35:1; Moisture: 40–65%; Temperature: 55–65°C (thermophilic phase kills pathogens)
• Windrow composting: Long rows turned mechanically — large area needed
• In-vessel: Enclosed reactor with controlled conditions — faster
• Vermicomposting: Earthworms digest organic matter → nutrient-rich vermicompost

14.5.3 Incineration
• Combustion at 850–1000°C; volume reduction: 85–90%; weight reduction: 65–75%
• Waste-to-Energy (WtE): Steam generates electricity — growing in India
• Air pollution concern: Dioxins, furans, NOx, SO2, HCl, particulates — requires flue gas cleaning
★ India's WtE plants: Delhi, Pune have operational plants.
14.7 Industrial Solid Wastes
• Hazardous wastes: Require special storage, handling, treatment (secured landfill or TSDF)
• Fly ash (coal power plants): 200 million tonnes/year in India; used in cement, bricks
• E-waste: Contains precious metals + toxic elements; formal recycling essential
• Biomedical waste: Incineration at 1200°C; autoclave; separate collection in colour-coded bags
CHAPTER 18: AIR POLLUTION ENGINEERING

18.1 Definition of Air Pollution

Air Pollution: Presence of contaminants in outdoor atmosphere in quantities and durations that may injure human health,
animal or plant life, or property.
• NAAQS: National Ambient Air Quality Standards — set by CPCB under EPA 1986 (revised 2009)
• AQI (0–500): Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, Severe

18.2 Sources of Air Pollution

Natural Sources
• Volcanic eruptions: SO2, H2S, ash particles, CO2
• Forest fires: CO, CO2, particulates, VOCs
• Biological decay: CH4, H2S, NH3 from marshes, wetlands, livestock

Man-Made (Anthropogenic) Sources

• Vehicular exhaust: CO, NOx, hydrocarbons, PM2.5, lead (older vehicles)
• Industrial processes: SO2, NOx, HF, HCl, particulates, VOCs, heavy metals
• Thermal power plants (coal combustion): SO2, NOx, fly ash, CO2
• Agricultural burning: Particulates, CO2, CO (stubble burning — Punjab, Haryana)

18.3 History of Air Pollution — Key Events

Event Year Pollutants Impact
London Great Smog 1952 SO2 + soot + fog 4000–12000 deaths in 5 days; led to UK Clean Air
Act 1956

Los Angeles Smog 1940s– NOx + HCs + sunlight → O3 Eye irritation; crop damage; photochemical smog
50s identified

Bhopal Gas Tragedy 1984 Methyl isocyanate (MIC) 3000+ immediate deaths; 500,000+ affected —
worst industrial disaster

India's Air Crisis Ongoin PM2.5, NOx, SO2, O3 Estimated 1.2 million deaths/year (GBD 2019) from
g outdoor air pollution

18.4 Major Air Pollutants

Particulate Matter (PM)
• PM10: ≤10 µm; enter respiratory tract; NAAQS: Annual 60 µg/m³, 24-hr 100 µg/m³
• PM2.5: ≤2.5 µm; penetrate deep into alveoli; most dangerous; NAAQS: Annual 40 µg/m³, 24-hr 60 µg/m³
• Sources: Combustion, construction dust, agricultural burning, road dust

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

• Primary pollutant from coal combustion, petroleum refining, metal smelting
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 → H2SO4 (acid rain, pH < 5.6)

• NAAQS: Annual 50 µg/m³, 24-hr 80 µg/m³

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

• Sources: High-temperature combustion (vehicles, power plants)
NOx + VOCs + Sunlight (UV) → O3 (Photochemical smog)

• NAAQS: Annual 40 µg/m³, 24-hr 80 µg/m³

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Colourless, odourless, tasteless — the 'silent killer' from incomplete combustion
CO + Haemoglobin → Carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) — reduces O2 carrying capacity

• Symptoms: Headache (COHb 10–20%), dizziness (20–40%), death (>60% COHb)

• NAAQS: 2 mg/m³ (8-hr), 4 mg/m³ (1-hr)

Ground-Level Ozone (O3)

• Secondary pollutant — formed from photochemical reactions; strong oxidant
• NAAQS: 100 µg/m³ (8-hr average)

NAAQS Summary Table (India, 2009)

Pollutant Annual Average 24-hr / 8-hr
PM10 60 µg/m³ 100 µg/m³ (24-hr)

PM2.5 40 µg/m³ 60 µg/m³ (24-hr)

SO2 50 µg/m³ 80 µg/m³ (24-hr)

NO2 40 µg/m³ 80 µg/m³ (24-hr)

CO — 2 mg/m³ (8-hr)

O3 — 100 µg/m³ (8-hr)

Pb 0.5 µg/m³ 1.0 µg/m³ (24-hr)

NH3 100 µg/m³ 400 µg/m³ (24-hr)

Benzene 5 µg/m³ —

18.5 Effects of Air Pollution

System Affected Pollutants Health Effects
Respiratory System PM2.5, O3, SO2, NO2 Asthma, bronchitis, COPD, lung cancer

Cardiovascular System PM2.5, CO Heart attacks, stroke, arrhythmia

Nervous System Pb, mercury, CO Reduced IQ in children (Pb), neurological damage

Cancer Benzene, PAHs, dioxins Leukaemia (benzene), lung cancer

Reproductive System PM2.5, heavy metals Reduced birth weight, premature birth

★ WHO (2022): Air pollution causes 7 million premature deaths per year worldwide.

• Acid corrosion: H2SO4 attacks limestone, marble, concrete, metals (e.g., Taj Mahal)
• Stratospheric ozone depletion: CFCs destroy O3 layer → UV reaches earth → skin cancer
• India's BS-VI fuel/vehicle standards implemented April 2020 — major step for vehicular pollution control.
QUICK REVISION — KEY NUMBERS TO REMEMBER

Water Supply (Volume 1)

Topic Key Values
Per Capita Demand (design) 150–200 lpcd (India); 135 lpcd min (WHO)

Max Daily Demand factor 1.8 × Average Daily Demand

Max Hourly Demand factor 2.7 × Average Daily Demand

Design period — Distribution 30 years

Design period — Treatment plant 15–20 years

Turbidity (drinking water) Acceptable: 1 NTU; Max: 5 NTU

Total Coliform (drinking water) Absent in 100 mL

Fluoride range 0.5–1.5 mg/L ideal (fluorosis >1.5, caries <0.5)

Nitrates (max) 45 mg/L (above = Blue Baby Disease)

TDS (acceptable) 500 mg/L; Max permissible: 2000 mg/L

Hardness (acceptable) 200 mg/L as CaCO3; Max: 600 mg/L

Pan evaporation correction Lake evaporation = 0.7 × Pan evaporation

Sewage & Treatment (Volume 2)

Topic Key Values
BOD5 (typical domestic sewage) 200–300 mg/L

Suspended Solids (raw sewage) 200–300 mg/L

BOD removal — Primary treatment 25–40%

BOD removal — Secondary (ASP) 85–95%

MLSS in ASP 1500–3000 mg/L

SRT in ASP 5–15 days

HRT in aeration tank 4–8 hours

DO in aeration tank >2 mg/L

Grit chamber velocity 0.25–0.30 m/s

Overflow rate (primary clarifier) 20–40 m³/m²/day

Detention time (primary clarifier) 1.5–2.5 hours

Biogas composition (UASB) 55–65% CH4, 35–45% CO2

Effluent BOD standard (discharge) 30 mg/L (MINAS)

Chlorine dose for sewage disinfection 10–15 mg/L

Air Pollution (Volume 2)

Pollutant NAAQS Annual NAAQS 24-hr / 8-hr
PM10 60 µg/m³ 100 µg/m³

PM2.5 40 µg/m³ 60 µg/m³

SO2 50 µg/m³ 80 µg/m³

NO2 40 µg/m³ 80 µg/m³

CO — 2 mg/m³ (8-hr)

Ozone (O3) — 100 µg/m³ (8-hr)

 Pollutant NAAQS Annual NAAQS 24-hr / 8-hr
Lead (Pb) 0.5 µg/m³ 1.0 µg/m³

END OF NOTES — Good Luck!