⭐ UNIT 1: Fundamentals of Management & Evolutionary Theories

1. Meaning of Management

Management is the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling

Key characteristics

 Goal-oriented

 Continuous process

 Universal

 Group activity

 Dynamic (changes with environment)

2. Levels of Management

1. Top Level Management – CEO, Directors

o Policy making, long-term planning, strategic decisions

2. Middle Level Management – Department Heads

o Interprets policies, coordinates, motivates

3. Lower Level Management – Supervisors, Foremen

o Direct supervision, daily operations

3. Management: Art or Science or Profession?

✔ Management as an Art

 Requires creativity

 Personal skills and judgement

 Practice improves performance

✔ Management as a Science

 Based on principles (universal)

 Cause–effect relationships (e.g., motivation → performance)

✔ Management as a Profession

 Specialized knowledge

 Ethical code

 Formal training
(Though not fully professionalized like medicine or law)

4. Managerial Functions (by Henry Fayol)

1. Planning

2. Organizing

3. Staffing

4. Directing

5. Controlling

5. Managerial Roles (Mintzberg)

✔ Interpersonal Roles

 Figurehead

 Leader

 Liaison

✔ Informational Roles

 Monitor

 Disseminator

 Spokesperson

✔ Decisional Roles

 Entrepreneur

 Disturbance-handler

 Resource allocator

 Negotiator
6. Evolution of Management Theory

A. Classical Approach

🌟 1. Scientific Management – F.W. Taylor

Contribution:

 Scientific study of work

 Time & motion study

 Standardization

 Differential piece-rate system

 Functional foremanship

Focus: Efficiency, productivity, cost reduction.

🌟 2. Administrative Management – Henri Fayol

 14 principles (Division of work, Unity of command, Equity, Discipline, Centralization,

 Believed management is a universal process.

B. Neo-Classical Approach

🌟 Human Relations Approach – Elton Mayo

Hawthorne Experiments (Western Electric Company)

 Social and psychological factors affect productivity

 Informal groups play an important role

 Workers need recognition and belongingness

Focus shifted from work → worker.

C. Modern Approaches

🌟 1. Systems Approach
Organization = system of interrelated parts (inputs → process → output → feedback).

🌟 2. Contingency Approach

“There is no one best way of management.”

 Environment

 Technology

 People

 Situation

7. Managerial Skills (Katz)

1. Technical Skills – Knowledge of tools/process

2. Human Skills – Communication, motivation

3. Conceptual Skills – Vision, strategic thinking

⭐ UNIT 2: Planning, Decision-Making & Organizing

1. Planning

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do, when to do, and who will do it.

Steps in Planning

1. Setting objectives

2. Developing assumptions

3. Identifying alternatives

4. Evaluating alternatives

5. Choosing best alternative

6. Implementing plan

7. Reviewing

2. Forecasting

Predicting future events.

 Qualitative (expert opinion, Delphi)

 Quantitative (trend analysis, regression)

3. Characteristics of a Good Plan

 Clear

 Flexible

 Realistic

 Comprehensive

 Time-bound

4. MBO – Management by Objectives

A process where:

 Goals are set jointly

 Managers and employees review performance

 Focus on measurable results

5. Policies and Strategies

 Policies: Guidelines

 Strategies: Long-term direction to achieve goals

6. Decision-Making

Choosing the best alternative among many.

Types

 Programmed vs Non-programmed

 Strategic vs Tactical vs Operational

 Individual vs Group

Techniques
  Cost-benefit analysis

 Decision tree

 Brainstorming

 Delphi technique

⭐ UNIT 3: Organizing & Control

1. Organization Structure

Defines hierarchy and reporting relationships.

Types

 Functional

 Divisional

 Matrix

 Network

2. Authority & Responsibility

 Authority: Right to give orders

 Responsibility: Obligation to perform

 Accountability: Answerability

3. Delegation

Assigning authority to subordinates.

Decentralization:

Systematic delegation throughout the organization.

4. Mechanistic vs Organic Structures

Mechanistic Organic (Adaptive)

Rigid, bureaucratic Flexible

Centralized Decentralized

Formal communication Informal

Suitable for stable environment Suitable for dynamic environment

5. Formal & Informal Organization

 Formal: Official structure

 Informal: Social network formed naturally by employees

6. Control

Ensures actual performance matches planned performance.

Control Process

1. Set standards

2. Measure performance

3. Compare

4. Correct deviations

Types

 Feedforward

 Concurrent

 Feedback

⭐ UNIT 4: Organizational Behavior (OB)

1. Meaning

OB is the study of human behavior in organizations.

2. Contributing Disciplines

 Psychology
  Sociology

 Anthropology

 Political Science

 Economics

3. Perception

Process of selecting, organizing and interpreting information.

Barriers

 Stereotyping

 Halo effect

 Selective perception

 Projection

4. Learning Theories

 Classical conditioning

 Operant conditioning (Skinner)

 Social learning (Bandura)

5. Personality

Relatively stable traits of a person.

6. Motivation Theories

 Maslow (Hierarchy of needs)

 Herzberg (Two-factor theory)

 McGregor (Theory X & Y)

 Vroom (Expectancy theory)

7. Communication
Types

 Formal / Informal

 Oral / Written / Non-verbal

Barriers

 Language

 Emotions

 Cultural differences

 Poor listening

⭐ UNIT 5: Group Dynamics, Leadership & Culture

1. Groups

Two or more individuals interacting to achieve goals.

Teams vs Groups

Teams: High interdependence, shared goals

2. Stages of Group Development (Tuckman)

1. Forming

2. Storming

3. Norming

4. Performing

5. Adjourning

3. Leadership

Styles

 Autocratic

 Democratic

 Laissez-faire
Approaches

 Trait

 Behavioral

 Contingency (Fiedler)

 Transformational

4. Power & Politics

Sources of power:

 Reward

 Coercive

 Legitimate

 Expert

 Referent

5. Organizational Culture & Climate

Culture = Shared values & beliefs

6. Conflict

Types

 Intrapersonal

 Interpersonal

 Intergroup

Stages

1. Latent

2. Perceived

3. Felt

4. Manifest
 5. Aftermath

Management

 Avoidance

 Compromise

 Collaboration

 Competition

⭐ UNIT 6: Contemporary Organizational Behavior

1. Japanese Management Practices

 Lifetime employment

 Consensus decision-making

 Quality circles

 Team orientation

2. Innovation & Creativity in Organizations

 Idea generation

 Idea evaluation

 Implementation

 Culture that supports risk-taking

3. OB Across Cultures

Factors affecting cross-cultural operations:

 Language

 Social norms

 Work ethics

 Power distance

 Individualism vs collectivism
4. Managing International Workforce

 Expatriate training

 Cultural sensitivity

 Diversity management

5. Cross-Cultural Communication

Requires:

 Awareness

 Respect

 Adaptability

6. Management of Diversity

 Inclusion

 Equal opportunity

 Anti-discrimination policies