Module 2

Sampling Theory
RRK-2024
 Population or Universe
• In sample language, a population or universe can be defined as any
collection of persons or objects or event in which one is interested.
• In other words a population consists of the people who are related
to the specific problem under investigation.
• Example 1., if we are studying the relationship between the class
achievements of the university students and the methods of
teaching, then the students of any place and of any time will come
under our population.
• Example 2., If we are studying the voting behaviour or political
participation of the citizens of India then all the adult citizens of
India, living in India or outside will come under population.

• By a population element we mean the units that make the

population. Such units may be an individual, an object, or even a
small group.
 Types of Universe/Population
• The universe, on the basis of characteristics,
could be divided in to three types.
❖ Univariate population
❖ Bi-variate population
❖ Multivariate population

Univariate population
• In which only one characteristic is considered, for
studying at a time. The characteristic may be age,
income, sex, T.V. listening habit, etc.
 Bi-Variate Population
• The population can be defined as a bivariate type
when we are measuring two characteristics
simultaneously of each member.
• For example, we want to know how crime going
habit varies from urbanites to realities
or how political participation is determined by
degree of political awareness etc.
 Multivariate Population
• A multivariate universe is the one in which we consider
observations on three or more characteristics simultaneously.
• Several social factors together determine the occurrence of
an event.
• e.g. a car accident on the road is often caused not only by the
mechanical factor of the car but also by the other factors like,
the drivers mental and physical condition, traffic volume,
improper signals at crossing, pedestrians behaviour etc.
• Similarly poverty is caused by several factors like big and fast
growing population lack of proper industrialization according
to the growing need of the population, discriminate
distribution of wealth, etc.
 Stratum
• When the population is divided into several groups on the
basis of one or several characteristics, we call each group as
a stratum.
• Stratum can also be called as a sub population.
• A stratum may be defined by one or more specifications
that divide a population into mutually exclusive segments.
• e.g. a given population may be divided into different
stratums on the basis of the cinema going habit of the
people viz.
(a) males who visit cinema frequently,
(b) males who rarely visit cinema;
(c) males who visit cinema occasionally;
(d) males who do not at all visit cinema.
 Sampling
• Sampling is the process of selecting a small
number of elements from a larger defined
target group of elements such that the
information gathered from the small group
will allow judgments to be made about the
larger groups
• In simple words sampling consists of obtaining
information from a larger group or a universe.
 Sample
• By sample we mean the aggregate of objects,
persons or elements, selected from the universe.
It is a portion or sub part of the total population.
• The following two methods are used to collect
information about the population
• ❖ Census and; ❖ Sampling
• Census: When each and every element or unit of
the population is studied
• Sampling: When a small part of the population
is selected for study.
 Characteristics of a Sample
• A proper sample must give a precise but correct
picture of the population from which it is drawn.
• The sample must be obtained by probability
process. This would permit the use of statistical
procedures to describe and analyze the sample
data.
• The sample should be as small as precision
considerations permit
• It should be as economical as possible and
gathered swiftly to be completed within the time
schedule.
Sampling unit/Element/ Unit of analysis

• Sampling unit is the unit about which

information is collected.
• Unit of analysis is the unit that provides the
basis of analysis.
• Each member of a population is an element.
(e.g. a child under 5)
• Sometimes it is household, e.g. any injury in
the household in the last three months.
 Sampling Frame
• The actual list of sampling units from which
the sample, or some stage of the sample, is
collected

• It is simply a list of the study population

 Sample Design
• A set of rules or procedures that specify how a
sample is to be selected

• This can either be probability or non-

probability

• Sample size: The number of elements in the

obtained sample
 Advantages of sampling
❖ Helps to collect vital information more quickly. Even small samples,
when properly selected, help to make estimates of the
characteristics of the population in a shorter time.
❖ The modern world is highly dynamic, therefore, any study must be
completed in short time, otherwise, by the time the survey is
completed the situations, characteristics etc may have changed.
❖ It cuts costs; enumeration of total population is much more costly
than the sample studies.
❖ Sampling techniques often increases the accuracy of data. With
small sample, it becomes easier to check the accuracy of the data.
Some sampling techniques/ methods make it possible to measure
the reliability of the sample estimates from the sample itself.
❖ From the administrative point of view also sampling becomes
easier, because it involves less staff, equipments etc.
 Disadvantages of sampling
❖ Sampling is not feasible where knowledge about each
element or unit or a statistical universe is needed.
❖ The sampling procedures must be correctly designed
and followed otherwise, what we call as wild sample,
would crop up with mis-leading results.
❖ Each type of sampling has got its own limitations.
❖ There are numerous situations in which units, to be
measured, are highly variable. Here a very large sample
is required in order to yield enough cases for achieving
statistically reliable information.
❖ To know certain population characteristics like
population growth rate, population density etc. census
of population at regular intervals is more appropriate
than studying by sampling.
 Types of sampling
• There are two types of sampling techniques:

 Probability sampling (or Random)

 Non- Probability sampling (or non-Random)
 Types of Sampling Methods

Sampling

Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple
Random Stratified
Convenience Snow ball
Cluster
Quota Purposive Systematic
 Techniques of Sampling
❖ Probability Sampling Techniques
• Simple random sampling method, and
• Systematic Sampling Method
• Stratified random sampling method
• Cluster Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling

❖ Non Probability Sampling

• Convinience samples
• Quota samples and
• Purposive samples
• Snow Ball sampling
 Probability Sampling
• This is one in which each person in the population has a
chance/probability of being selected

Probability Sample

Simple
Systematic Stratified Cluster
Random
 Types of Probability Sampling
 Simple random
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified random
 Cluster sampling
 Multi-stage sampling
 Simple Random Samples
• Every individual or item from the frame has an equal chance
of being selected
• Selection may be with replacement or, without replacement
• Samples obtained from table of random numbers or computer
random number generators
• Random samples are unbiased and, on average,
representative of the population
 Methods of Drawing, Sample in Random
Method
• Lottery Method: The numbers of all the elements of the
universe are written on different tickets or pieces of paper of
equal size shape and color.
• Which are then shuffled thoroughly in a box, or a container.
• Then tickets are then drawn randomly their numbers are
noted and the corresponding individuals or objects are
studied.
• Tippets Numbers: It was first developed by Prof L. H. C.
Tippet and since then is known by his name.
• He developed a list of 10,400 sets of numbers randomly, each
set being of four digits .
• There numbers are written on several pages in unsystematic
order.
• Grid Method: This method is applied in selection of
the areas. Suppose we have to select any number of
areas from a town or any number of towns from a
province for survey.
• For selection, first a map of the whole area is prepared.
The area is often divided into different blocks.
• A transparent plate is made equivalent to the size of
the map that consists of several seared holes in it
which carries different numbers.
• By random sampling method it is decided as to which
numbers are to be included in the sample.
 Advantages of Random Sampling

• Most basic, simple and easy method

• Provides a representative sample.
 Disadvantages of Random Sampling
• In most cases it is difficult to find data list of all
units of the population to be sampled.
• The task of numbering every unit before the
sample is chosen is time consuming and
expensive.
• The units need not only to be numbered but also
arranged in a specified order.
• The possibility of obtaining a poor or misleading
sample is always present when random selection
is used.
 Systematic sample
• This method is referred to as a systematic
sample with a random start.
• This is done by picking every 5th or 10th unit at
regular intervals.
• For example to carry out a filarial survey in a
town, we take 10% sample. If the total
population of the town is about 5000. The
sample comes to 500.
 Systematic Samples
• Randomly select one individual from the 1st group
• Select every k-th individual thereafter
• We number the houses first. Then a number is taken at
random; say [Link] every 10th number is selected from that
point onward like 3, 13, 23, 33 etc.

N = 500

n=3 First Group

k = 10
 Advantages of Systematic Sampling

• It is frequently used because it is simple,

direct and in- expensive.
• When a list of names or items is available,
systematic sampling is often an efficient
approach.
 Disadvantages
• One should not use systematic sampling in case
of exploring unfamiliar areas because listing of
elements is not possible
• When there is a periodic fluctuation in the
characteristic under examination in relation to
the order in which the items appear, the
methods is ineffective
 Stratified Random sample
• This involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups according
to some important characteristics, such as age, or socioeconomic status,
religion and selecting a random number from each subgroup. (e.g.
African voodoo healers)
• Especially important when one group is so small (say, 3% of the
population) that a random sample might miss them entirely.
• Population divided into two or more groups according to some common
characteristic
• Simple random sample selected from each group
• The two or more samples are combined into one
• Purpose: The primary purpose is to increase the representatives of
the sample without increasing the size of the sample on the basis of
having greater knowledge of the population characteristics.
 Stratified Samples
• Procedure: Divide the population into strata (mutually exclusive
classes), such as men and women. Then randomly sample within
strata.
• Suppose a population is 30% male and 70% female. To get a
sample of 100 people, we randomly choose males (from the
population of all males) and, separately, choose females. Our
sample is then guaranteed to have exactly the correct proportion of
sexes.
 Advantages of stratified sampling
– The population is first stratified into different groups and then the
elements of the sample are selected from each group. Therefore, the
different groups are sure to have representation in the sample.
– In case of random sample, there is possibility that bigger groups have
greater representation and the smaller groups are often eliminated
or under represented.
– With more homogenous population greater precision can be
achieved with fewer cases. This saves time in collecting and
processing of the data when detailed study about population
characteristics are wanted it is more effective.
– As compared to random samples, stratified samples are
geographically more concentrated and thus save time, money and
energy, in money from one address to another.
• .
Disadvantages of stratified sampling
– Unless there are extreme differences between the strata, the
expected proportional representation would be small. Here a
random sampling may give a nearly proportional representation.
– Even after stratification, the sample is selected from each stratum
either by simple random sampling method or by systematic
sampling method; as such the draw backs of both methods can be
present.
– For application of the stratified method, one must know the
characteristics of the specified population in which the study is to
be made.
– He must also known as to which characteristics are related to the
subject under investigation and therefore can be considered as
relevant for stratification.
– The process of stratification becomes more and more complicated
and difficult as the numbers of characteristics to be used for
stratification are increased
 Types of Stratified Sampling
• Stratified random sampling method can
further be sub divided into two groups
– Disproportionate stratified sampling
– Proportionate stratified sampling
 Disproportionate stratified sampling:
• Disproportionate stratified sampling is also known as equal size stratified
sampling. In this method, an "equal number" of cases are selected from
each stratum irrespective of the size of the stratum in the universe.
• The number of cases drawn from each one is restricted to the number of pre
designated in the plans.
• This also called "controlled sampling" because the number of cases to be
selected in various strata us limited.
• Advantages
– When equal numbers of cases are taken from each stratum, comparisons of
different strata are facilitated.
– Economy of procedure
– The controlled sample prevents the investigators from securing an un necessary
large number of schedules for most prevalent groups of population.
• Disadvantages
– It requires the weighing of results stratum by stratum, the relative frequency of
each stratum in the universe must be known or estimated in under tto
determine the weights.
 Proportionate stratified Sampling
• In this method cases are drawn from each stratum in same proportion
as they occur in the universe.
• To apply this method we first of all we need to have a list of all
striatum and also need to know their proportionate size in total
population.
• Since the size of the stratum vary, the number of persons coming from
each stratum in the sample on the basis of selection of a given
percentage of people will also vary.
• Advantage : The definiteness of proportional representation.
• Disadvantage : The researcher may have poor judgment or in
adequate information upon which to base the stratification. the
greater the number of characteristics on which we are to boor our
stratification, and the more are the strata the more complicated
becomes the problem of securing proportional representation of each
stratum.
 Cluster sample
• A sampling method in which each unit selected is a group of persons (all
persons in a city block, a family, etc.) rather than an individual.
• Used when (a) sampling frame not available or too expensive, and (b) cost of
reaching an individual element is too high
– E.g., there is no list of automobile mechanics in the Myanmar. Even if you
could construct it, it would cost too much money to reach randomly
selected mechanics across the entire Myanmar : would have to have
unbelievable travel budget
• In cluster sampling, first define large clusters of people. Fairly similar to other
clusters. For example, cities make good clusters.
• Once you've chosen the cities, might be able to get a reasonably accurate list of
all the mechanics in each of those cities. Is also much less expensive to fly to
just 10 cities instead of 200 cities.
• Cluster sampling is less expensive than other methods, but less accurate.
 Cluster Samples
Purpose: The purpose of a cluster sample is to reduce
cost and not essentially to increase percussion.
• Population divided into several “clusters,” each
representative of the population
• Simple random sample selected from each
• The samples are combined into one

Population
divided
into 4
clusters.
Advantages of Clustering Sampling
– In cluster sampling the cost per element is greatly
reduced.
– It becomes possible to take a larger sample and
regain the amount of precision
– It can be used in situations where it is impossible
to obtain sample by other methods.
Disadvantages of Cluster sampling
– It is a complicated sample design the researcher
has to be highly skilled in sampling.
– Its standard errors are almost inevitably larger
then those of sample random sampling.
 Multi Stage sampling
• The method is used in selecting a sample from a very large
area. As the name suggests m.s. sampling refers to a
sampling technique which is carried out in various stages.
• Normally a multi-stage sampling is the one that combines
cluster and random sampling methods.
• Eg., if we want to study the socio-economic background,
attitudes and motivations of slum dwellers, we can first
make a list of the cities which would thus make our
clusters.
• From these clusters we can select any number of cities.
Then each city or cluster would be stratified into different
slum areas.
• Thus our cities can be called as primary sampling units and
the slum areas as secondary sampling units.
Non- Probability Sampling /(Non-Random)

• This is where the probability of inclusion in

the sample is unknown.

 Convenience sampling
 Purposive sampling
 Quota sampling
 Snow ball sampling
 Convenience Sample
• Man-in-the-street surveys and a survey of
blood pressure among volunteers who drop in
at an examination booth in public places are in
the category.

• It is improper to generalize from the results of

a survey based upon such a sample for there
is no known way of knowing what sorts of
biases may have been operating.
 Convenience sample
• It is known as unsystematic, careless,
accidental or opportunistic sampling.
• Under this a sample is selected according to
the convenience of the investigator.
• May be use when
• Universe is not clearly defined
• Sampling units are not clear
• Complete source list is not available
 Quota Sampling
• In quota sampling the interviewers are interested to interview a
specified number of persons from each category.
• The required numbers of elements from each category are determined
in the office ahead of time according to the number of elements in
each category.
• Thus an interviewer would need to contact a specified number of men
and specified number of women, from different age categories from
different religious or social groups etc.
• The basis purpose of quota sampling is the selection of a sample that
no true replace of the population about which one wants to
generalize.
• Haphazard sampling within categories
• Is an improvement on convenience sampling, but still has problems.
• How do you know which categories are key?
• How many do you get of each category?
• Advantage
– If properly planned and executed, a quota sample is most likely
to give maximum representative sample of the population.
– In purposive sampling one picks up the cases that are
considered to be typical of the population in which to one is
interested.
– The cases are judged to be typical on the basis of the need of
the researcher.
– Since the selection of elements is based upon the judgment of
the researcher, the purposive sampling as called judgment
sample.
– The researcher trees in his sample to match the universe in
some of the important known characteristics.
• Disadvantage
– The defect with this method is that the researcher can easily
make esser in judging as to which cases are typical.
 Purposive/Judgment
• "Deliberate Sampling" or "Judgment Sampling".
• When the researcher deliberately selects certain units from the
universe, it is known as purposive sampling.
• However, it must be kept in mind that the units selected must be
representative of the universe.
• That, the names may be selected from a Telephone Diretory,
Automobile Registration Records (RTOs) etc.
• Selecting sample on the basis of knowledge of the research
problem to allow selection of appropriate persons for inclusion
in the sample
• Expert judgment picks useful cases for study
• Good for exploratory, qualitative work, and for pre-testing a
questionnaire.
 Advantages of purposive sampling
• Quote sampling is a stratified cum purposive sampling and
thus enjoys the benefits of both samplings.
• It proper controls or checks are imposed, it is likely to give
accurate results.
• It is only useful method when no sample frame is available.
 Snowball Friend
Friend Friend Friend Friend
Friend
Friend
• Recruiting people based
on recommendation of Friend

people you have just Friend Friend

interviewed

Friend Friend
• Useful for studying
Main person

invisible/illegal
populations, such as drug Friend Friend

addicts Friend

Friend Friend Friend Friend

 Essentials of Sampling
• If the sample results are to have any worthwhile meaning, it should
possess the following essentials.
• Representativeness: A sample should be so selected that it truly
represents the universe, otherwise the results obtained may be
misleading.
• Adequacy: The size of sample should be adequate otherwise it may
not represent the characteristics of the universe.
• Independence: All the items of the sample should be selected
independently of one another and all the items of the universe
should have the same chance of being selected in the sample.
• Homogeneity: The term homogeneity means that there is no basic
difference in the nature of the universe and that of the sample. It
two sample from the same universe are taken, they should give
more or less the same unit.
 Types of Survey Errors

Excluded from
• Coverage error
frame.

• Non response error Follow up on

non responses.
• Sampling error
Chance
differences from
• Measurement error
sample to sample.

Bad Question!
 Improving Response Rates
Methods of Improving
Response Rates

Reducing Reducing
Refusals Not-at-Homes

Prior Motivating Incentives Questionnaire Follow-Up Other

Notification Respondents Design Facilitators
and
Administratio
n

Callbacks
 Evaluating Survey Worthiness
• What is the purpose of the survey?
• Is the survey based on a probability sample?
• Coverage error – appropriate frame
• Non-response error – follow up
• Measurement error – good questions elicit
good responses
• Sampling error – always exists
 Poulation & Sample compared

Parameters Population Sample

Size N n
Mean μ x
[Link] σ ѕ
Proportion P p
 Size of Sample
n = size of sample
• k = sampling interval
• An important decision that has to be taken in adopting a sampling technique
is about the size of the sample. Size of the sample means the number of
sampling units selected from the population to be investigated.
• Different opinions have been expressed by experts on this point.
• Some suggest that the sample size should be 5 percent of the size of
population while others are of the opinion that the sample size should be at
least 10 percent.
• However, these views are of little use in practice because no hard and fast
rule can be laid down that sample size should be 5 percent, 10 percent or 25
percent of the universe size.
• It may be provided out that mere size alone does not ensure
representativeness.
 Determination of Sample Size
• Type of analysis to be employed
• The level of precision needed
• Population homogeneity /heterogeneity
• Available resources
• Sampling technique used
 Sample Size Calculation

• n: the desired sample size

• z: the standard normal deviate usually set at 1.96 (which
corresponds to the 95% confidence level)
• p: the proportion in the target population to have a specific
characteristic. If no estimate available set at 50% (or 0.50)
• q:1-p
• d: absolute precision or accuracy, normally set at 0.05.
Sample Size Calculation

n = (1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)

(0.05) 2

n =384
Thank you